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The document discusses several theories of motivation including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, expectancy theory, and McClelland's learned needs theory. It also discusses job design practices that motivate such as job characteristics model, job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, empowerment, and flexible working arrangements. Performance appraisal types and aspects are also covered.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
11 views6 pages

Elective

The document discusses several theories of motivation including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, expectancy theory, and McClelland's learned needs theory. It also discusses job design practices that motivate such as job characteristics model, job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, empowerment, and flexible working arrangements. Performance appraisal types and aspects are also covered.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MOTIVATION – means inspiring the personnel/ Equity Theory – suggests that if the individual

workers/ employees with an enthusiasm to work for perceives that the rewards received are equitable,
the accomplishment of objectives of the that is, fair or just in comparison with those received
organizations. Thus, a manager has to motivate his by others in similar positions in or outside the
workers to perform in order to get the things done. organization, then the individual feels satisfied.
6 types of possible behavior as consequences of
CONTENT APPROACHES – center on the factors inequity:
within the individual which rejuvenate, direct, 1. Changes to input
sustain and stop behavior. 2. Changes to outcome
THOERIES: 3. Cognitive distortion of inputs and outcomes
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham 4. Leaving the field
Maslow defined need as a physiological or 5. Acting on others
psychological deficiency that a person feels 6. Changing the object of comparison
the compulsion to satisfy.
2 principles: Goal-setting Theory – motivation and performance
1. Deficit Principle will be high if individuals are set specific goals which
2. Progression Principle are challenging, but accepted, and where feedback
5 Levels of Needs: is given on performance.
1. Psychological needs Attributes:
2. Safety needs 1. Goal specificity
3. Belonging needs 2. Goal difficulty
4. Self-esteem needs 3. Goal intensity
5. Self-actualization needs 4. Goal commitment
2 Most important findings:
2. Aldefer’s ERG Theory – built upon Maslow’s 1. Setting specific goals
hierarchy of needs theory. 2. The goals that are hard to achieve
3 Categories:
1. Existence needs JOB DESIGN PRACTICES THAT MOTIVATE – many
2. Relatedness needs people assume the most important motivator at
3. Growth needs work is pay. However, experts point to a different
3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – identifies factor as the major influence over worker motivation
two set of factors that impact motivation in which is job design. Job design has a major impact
the workplace: on employee motivation, job satisfaction,
1. Hygiene factors commitment to an organization, absenteeism, and
2. Satisfiers or motivators turnover.
4. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory –
acquired needs theory recognizes that Job Characteristics Model – is one of the most
everyone prioritizes needs differently. He influential attempts to design jobs with increased
also believes that individuals are not born motivational properties. The model describes five
with these needs, but that they are actually core job dimensions leading to three critical
learned through life experiences. psychological states, resulting in work-related
3 Specific needs: outcomes.
1. Need for achievement 1. Skill variety
2. Need for power 2. Task identity
3. Need for affiliation 3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
PROCESS APPROACHES – concerned with "how" 5. Feedback
motivation happens. They provide a description and
analysis of how behavior is energized, directed, Job Rotation – involves moving employees from job
sustained stopped. to job at regular intervals. When employees
periodically move to different jobs, the monotonous
Expectancy Theory – argues that humans act aspects of job specialization can be relieved. Using
according to their conscious expectations that a this technique, among others, the company is able
particular behavior will lead to specific desirable to reduce its turnover level.
goals. Advantages to organizations:
Motivation = Expectancy X Instrumentality X 1. Burnout Reduction
Valence 2. Increased employee satisfaction
3. Increased employee motivation
4. Three benefits above cumulatively influence Periodic appraisal of performance – a key
a business’s turnover rate and workplace component of employee development. The
injuries. performance evaluation is intended to be a fair and
balanced assessment of as employee’s performance.
Job Enlargement – refers to expanding the tasks
performed by employees to add more variety. By Evaluation system – is to identify the performance
giving employees several different tasks to be gap (if any).
performed, as opposed to limiting their activities to Gap – is the shortfall that occurs when performance
a small number of tasks, organizations hope to does not meet the standard set by the organization
reduce boredom and monotony as well as utilize as acceptable.
human resources more effectively. Feedback system – is to inform the employee about
the quality of his performance.
Job Enrichment – a job redesign technique that
allows workers more control over how they perform PURPOSES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
their own tasks. This approach allows employees to 1. Judgmental orientation – focus on past
take on more responsibility. As an alternative to job performances and provide a basis for
specialization, companies using job enrichment may making judgments on which employee
experience positive outcomes, such as reduced should be rewarded and how effective
turnover, increased productivity, and reduced organizational programs like selection and
absences. training have been.
2. Developmental orientation – concern with
Empowerment – one of the contemporary improving future performance by ensuring
approaches to motivating employees through job expectations are clear and by identifying
design is empowerment. The concept of ways to facilitate employee performance
empowerment extends the idea of autonomy. through training.
Empowerment is the removal of conditions that
make a person powerless. 3 ASPECTS OF RELEVANCE IN THE CONTEXT OF
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL WHICH MUST BE
Flexible Working Arrangements – refer to AVOIDED:
alternative arrangements or schedules other than 1. Deficiency – it happens when the
the traditional or standard work hours, workdays, evaluation does not focus on all aspects of
and workweek. The effectivity and implementation the job. It certain job responsibilities are not
of any of the flexible work arrangements shall be considered, the evaluation is deficient.
based on voluntary agreements between the 2. Contamination – it happens when activities
employer and the employees. not part of the job responsibilities are
Flexible work arrangements forms: included in the evaluation. This is the exact
1. Flextime opposite of deficiency.
2. Compressed Work Week 3. Distortion – this takes place when an
3. Flexplace improper emphasis is given to various job
4. Job Sharing elements.
5. Work sharing
6. Expanded leave TYPES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
7. Phased Retirement 1. Self-Evaluation Method – is when the
8. Partial Retirement employee is asked to judge their own
9. Work and Family Programs performance against predetermined
criteria. The advantage of this kind of an
appraisal is that the employee is allowed to
Performance Appraisal – deals with how give his input into his performance
organizations evaluate and measures its employees appraisal, and the company can use this self-
achievements and behaviors. It is an employee appraisal along with the standard appraisal
review by his manager where his work performance to give a more rounded employee review.
is evaluated, and strengths and weaknesses are 2. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
identified so that the employee knows his – has a list of criteria that an employee
improvement areas. Performance appraisal is the should workup to be a diligent worker. The
right time to set new goals and objectives for the behaviors differ according to the type of job
employees. been assessed. This method is considered
favorable as the evaluation is done on the
basis of individual employee performance 2. Timeliness – employees should receive
without comparisons. information about how they're doing as
3. Improving performance Appraisals – not timely as possible. If improvement needs to
every manager has the opportunity to be made in their performance, the sooner
impact or improve the overall performance they find out about it the sooner they can
appraisal system within which they must correct the problem.
work. But every manager has the 3. Manner – feedback should be given in a
opportunity to take the system they have manner that will best help improve
been dealt and turn the performance performance.
appraisal process into a positive, rewarding,
beneficial process for both themselves and REINFORCEMENT THEORY – of motivation was
the employees who report to them. proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states
More meaningful and effective ways of that individual's behavior is a function of its
improving performance appraisal: consequences. It is based on "law of effect".
a. Make sure managers and Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an
subordinates understand the individual learns behavior.
appraisal system. Methods for controlling the behavior of
b. Assess the effectiveness of the employees:
organization’s current system. 1. Positive Reinforcement – This implies giving
c. Appraisal skills training for managers a positive response when an individual
is a must. shows positive and required behavior. For
d. Increase mangers’ willingness to instance, immediately praising an employee
conduct effective appraisals. for coming early for job.
e. Start with effective performance 2. Negative Reinforcement – This implies
planning. rewarding an employee by removing
f. Make informal appraisals ongoing negative/undesirable consequences. Both
activity. positive and negative reinforcement can be
g. Provide resources necessary to link used for increasing desirable/required
pay to performance. behavior.
h. Use anniversary dates to stagger 3. Punishment – It implies removing positive
appraisals. consequences so as to lower the probability
of repeating undesirable behavior in future.
In other words, punishment means applying
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL FEEDBACK – the most undesirable consequence for showing
challenging part of the performance appraisal undesirable behavior.
meeting is giving feedback to employees on their 4. Extinction – It implies absence of
performance. But, of course, feedback must be reinforcements. In other words, extinction
given if managers want the performance appraisal implies lowering the probability of undesired
meeting to be motivational for an employee and to behavior by removing reward for that kind of
result in improved performance. behavior.

EFFECTIVENESS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES – A reinforcement of


FEEDBACK – a critical component of a successful schedule is basically a rule stating which instances of
performance management program and should be a behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a
used in union with setting performance goals If behavior might be reinforced every time it occur
effective feedback is given to employees on their Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at
progress towards their goals, employee all.
performance will improve. People need to know in a
timely manner how they are doing, what is working, 2 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES:
and what is not. 1. Continuous Reinforcement – the desired
Elements of Effective Performance Appraisal behavior is reinforced every single time it
Feedback: occurs. This schedule is best used during the
1. Specificity – feedback works best when it initial stages of learning in order to create a
relates to a specific goal. Establishing strong association between the behavior and
employee performance expectations and the response.
goals before work begins is the key to 2. In partial Reinforcement – the response is
providing tangible, objective, and powerful reinforced only part of the time Learned
feedback. behaviors are acquired more slowly with
partial reinforcement, but the response is motivation exists within the individual, achieving it
more resistant to extinction. There are four does not depend on others.
schedules of partial reinforcement:
a. Fixed-ratio schedules INTRINSIC REWARDS – include things such as
b. Variable-ratio schedules personal achievement, personal growth, sense of
c. Fixed-interval schedules pleasure and accomplishment.
d. Variable-interval schedules Descriptions of Intrinsic rewards:
1. Sense of meaningfulness
EMPLOYEE REWARDS PROGRAM – seeking to 2. Sense of choice
increase employee motivation using rewards can 3. Sense of competence
sometimes be a daunting task for managers. But it 4. Sense of progress
should not be. When armed with the right
information and the proper techniques, managers EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION – is based on tangible
can be experts at enhancing motivation using rewards. Unlike intrinsic motivation that is self-
rewards in no time. administered, extrinsic motivation is external to the
Tips for managers who are currently individual and is typically offered by a supervisor or
implementing an employee rewards program: manager who holds all the power in relation to when
1. Involve all employees in the development, extrinsic rewards are offered and in what amount.
implementation, and revision of rewards
programs. EXTRINSIC REWARDS – are usually financial in
2. Ensure that employees view the rewards as nature, such as a raise in salary, a bonus for reaching
worth the effort. some quota or paid time off. However, extrinsic
3. Make sure that employees understand how rewards can also be as simple as getting the better
to earn the rewards. office, verbal praise, public recognition or awards,
4. Set reasonable and transparent performance promotions, and additional responsibility.
standards for rewards.
5. Base reward determinations on objective INNOVATIVE REWARD SYSTEM
performance data There are 7 different approaches to rewards that are
6. Make sure employees view the reward not yet widely tested but are being considered by
system as fair. managers:
7. Always link rewards to performance 1. Skill-based pay
8. Recognize small and large accomplishments. 2. Broadbanding
9. Reward teamwork and cooperation 3. Concierge services
10. Never take a good performance for granted. 4. Team-based rewards
11. Provide rewards immediately after the a. Profit Sharing
employee achieves the desired behavior. b. Goal-Based incentives
12. Match the reward to the employee. c. Merit-Based Incentive
13. Offer financial rewards, non-monetary 5. Part-time benefits
rewards, and recognition. 6. Gain-sharing
14. When employees learn an unfamiliar task, 7. Employee stock ownership
distribute rewards based on a continuous
reinforcement schedule.
15. Once the behavior becomes a habit, STRESS – is a feeling of tension that happens when a
distribute rewards based on a variable ratio person perceives that a condition is about to go
or variable interval schedule. beyond his ability to deal with and as a result could
16. Do not disclose the cash value of non- cause danger to his well-being.
monetary tangible rewards.
17. Use long-term rewards programs. Acute Stress – is a short-term reaction to immediate
18. Balance competitive reward programs with threat. Here are some conditions that can result to
non-competitive programs. acute stress:
19. Make rewards an integral part of the a. Alertness and excitement
company's strategy. b. Increase in energy
20. Change the rewards frequently. c. Feeling of uneasiness and worry
d. Feelings of sadness
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION – is internal to the person e. Loss of appetite
in that it is something that has to be offered to f. Short-term suspension of the immune
oneself and is driven by personal interest or system
enjoyment in the work itself Because intrinsic g. Increased metabolism of body fat
Chronic Stress – results from ongoing situations. • Worrying about events that have not
Here are some conditions that can result to chronic happened yet
stress: • Physical Health/Relationships
a. Anxiety and panic attacks
b. Depression CONSEQUENCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS
c. Long-term disturbances in eating
d. Irritability Individual consequences
e. Lowered resistance to infection and disease 1. Model disorders – even with established
f. Diabetes criteria, there is nevertheless a grey zone in
g. High blood pressure which it is hard to distinguish between
h. Loss of sex drive normal mood swings and serious mood
disorders. There are two types of mood
WORKPLACE STRESS – is the response people may disorders: unipolar and bipolar. A unipolar
have when presented with wok demands and disorder is characterized by depressive
pressures that are not coordinated to their symptoms (sadness, loss of interest or
knowledge and abilities and which challenge their pleasure). The symptoms of a bipolar
ability to handle. disorder are both depressive and manic
Early warning of workplace stress: (feelings of excitement and euphoria).
1. Headache 2. Anxiety disorder – is a response to a threat
2. Sleep disturbances or danger that really exists, anxiety is an
3. Difficulty in concentrating unpleasant inner state that appears when a
4. Short temper danger is anticipated, but often without the
5. Upset stomach individual being able to clearly specify the
6. Job dissatisfaction object of that fear.
7. Low morale a. Panic disorder
b. Generalized anxiety disorder
TWO MODELS OF WORKPLACE STRESS 3. Burn-out – results when individuals have an
unhealthy relationship with their work. They
Demand-control Model by Karasek – This model put more and more energy into their work to
was developed by Karasek in 1979 and states that the detriment of their personal life, while
those who experience high demands at work with deriving less and less satisfaction from it.
little control are more likely than other employees to 4. Survivor syndrome – Following a work
feel stressed. In this model, workplace stress is a reorganization, the employees who have not
function of how demanding a person's job is and been laid off can often be more distressed,
how much control the person has over their own depressed, tired and demotivated. They can
responsibilities. also be mistrustful and angry with their
2 Important factors: organization.
1. The workplace demand
2. The control that a person in meeting those Organizational consequences – the consequences
demands and symptoms of workplace stress first become
observable at the individual level. However, it is not
Effect-Reward Imbalance Model by Siegrist – only the individual who suffers the consequences of
another important model of workplace stress is workplace stress. Where the stress is not identified
Johannes Siegrist's effort-reward model. The model and dealt with on time, it quickly impacts on the
elucidates that high effort, but low rewards are likely organization and society.
to cause recurrent negative emotions and sustained 1. High staff turnover and recruitment costs
stress responses. 2. High absenteeism and presenteeism levels
3. Reduced productivity levels
WORKPLACE STRESSORS 4. Increased health and safety issues
• Lack of time or perceived lack of time 5. Litigation
• Career ambiguity 6. Reputational damage
• Random interruptions 7. Increased training costs
• Unclear policies and no sense of direction
• No appreciation MANAGING WORKPLACE STRESS
• Too many open folders 1. Put it in perspective
• Lack of knowledge 2. Modify ones job situation
• Change 3. Get time away
4. Fight through the clutter
5. Talk it out
6. Cultivate allies at work
7. Find humor in the situation
8. Have realistic expectations
9. Nobody is perfect
10. Maintain a positive attitude

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