MECH4411 Heat Transfer

Part 2 – Convective heat transfer

Alan C. H. Tsang
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
Office: HW738

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References/Textbooks

1. Holman J.P. Heat Transfer, 10th edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010

(Chapter 5-7).
2. Cengel Y. A. Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach, 3th
edition, McGrawHill, 2007.
3. Incropera F.P. & Introduction to Heat transfer, 5th edition, John-Wiley
DeWitt D.P. and Sons, 2007.
4. Eckert E.R.G. Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill,
1972.

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Course Assessment

• 10% Practical work

• 10% Mid-term (Open book, 5% for my part, Nov 11)

• 80% examination (Closed book, answer 5 questions out of 6

questions, and 2 questions will come from my part)

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 MECH4411 Heat Transfer
Part 2 – Convective heat transfer

Lecture Note 1
Review of fluid dynamics

4
Objectives
1. Introduction of convective heat transfer

2. Review of fluid dynamics (Reynolds number, viscosity)

3. The concept of hydrodynamic boundary layer, laminar flow and turbulent flow

4. The boundary layer equations for laminar flow

5. Derive the boundary layer thickness for laminar flow

5
Introduction to heat transfer
Heat transfer is the study of the transport of thermal energy within a medium or among
neighboring media by molecular interaction (conduction), fluid motion (convection), and
electromagnetic waves (radiation), resulting from a spatial variation in temperature.

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Introduction to heat convection
Convection is commonly classified into three sub-modes:
- Forced convection
- Natural (or free) convection
- Change of phase

Convective heat transfer involves both fluid flow and heat transfer associated with the fluid flow at
a solid surface.

Methods for solving heat convection problems:

- analytically (obtaining analytical solutions of the governing equations)
- numerically (using numerical methods to solve the governing equations)
- experimentally (obtaining empirical relations from experiments).

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Forced vs Natural convection

If velocity induced is
too small, heat in air
transferred by
conduction only

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Applications of heat convection

water boiler heat exchanger in air conditioner Computer chassis

heat sink heat exchanger in car heater 9

Newton’s law of cooling
The rate of heat transfer q of a body is proportional to
the difference between its own temperature and its
surroundings:
Surface Area A

q = hA Tw − T∞

The key of solving convective heat transfer problem is to determine h (i.e., the heat transfer coefficient).

At the wall, fluid velocity = 0 by the no-slip boundary condition, heat must be transferred only by conduction

−k∂T!
q ∂T ∂y w
qw = ! = − k " → h =
Aw ∂y w Tw − T∞

The temperature gradient at the wall depends on the flow field

-> determine the hydrodynamic (flow velocity) and the thermal (temperature) boundary layer.
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Review of fluid dynamics
Consider the flow over a flat plat, where the flows apply a shear force along the plate. The shear stress τ
between the fluid layers is defined as
du
τ=μ
dy
The constant μ is called the dynamic viscosity (in unit of N"s/m2 or kg/(m"s))

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 Hydrodynamic boundary layer
Free stream, u¥

A hydrodynamic (velocity) boundary layer is a thin layer close to a solid surface (e.g., flat plate) in which the
velocity changes from zero at the surface to the free stream velocity (or 99% of the value).
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when
u∞x ρu∞x 5
Rex = = > 5×10
υ μ
where u¥ is the free stream velocity (m/s), x is the distance from the leading edge (m),
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ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3), and υ = μ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity (m2/s).
Development of turbulent flows on a flat plate

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1TbkLIDWys 13
Flow in a pipe

laminar flow in a tube turbulent tube flow

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when

u∞D
ReD = > 2000 − 4000
υ
The continuity relation for one-dimensional flow in a tube is
ṁ = ρumA
where D is the pipe diameter, ṁ is the mass flow rate (m3/s), um is the mean velocity (m/s),
A is the cross-sectional area (m2) (kg/(m2 "s)). 14
Development of turbulent flows in a pipe
Reynolds experiment (1883)

u∞ D
ReD =
υ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y0WRJtXvpSo 15
Some useful equations
The equation of state for an ideal gas:
p = ρRT
where p is the pressure of the gas (Pa), ρ is the gas density (kg/m3), R is the gas constant (J/kg"K),
T is the temperature in the absolute scale (K). For air, R = 287 J/kg"K

The Bernoulli equation for flow along a streamline:

If the flow will behave as inviscid if it is at a sufficiently large distance from the wall. The reason is because
the velocity gradients normal to the flow direction and hence the viscous shear forces are very small.

Balance of forces and the change in momentum on an incompressible fluid element along a streamline yield:
p 1
+ gu∞2 = const
ρ 2
or in differential form,
dp
+ gu∞du∞= 0
ρ
where the gravity g = 9.8 m/s2.
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2D Navier-Stokes equations
How can we find the boundary layer thickness and the velocity profile?

The boundary layer equations can be derived from the 2D Navier-Stokes equations (by Prandtl in 1904)

continuity equation: ∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2u ∂2u
x-momentum equation: ρ +u +v =− +μ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂2v ∂2v
y-momentum equation: ρ +u +v =− +μ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2

We will do a scaling (order-of-magnitude) analysis to simplify the equations and drop the terms with smaller
contributions.

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Scaling analysis
∂u ∂v
We consider a steady fluid flow ( = 0 , = 0) with a boundary layer thickness δ, where δ is very small
∂t ∂t
compared to the length of the flat plate (δ/x ≪ 1 except near the leading edge). Also,

∂u u∞
The x-component velocity u is of the order of u∞ , therefore ~ . From the continuity equation,
∂x x
∂u ∂v ∂u u∞ ∂v u∞
+ =0 ~ → ~
∂x ∂y ∂x x ∂y x
This results in the following order of magnitude:
δ ∂ 1 ∂ 1
u ~ u∞ v ~ u∞ ~ ~
x ∂x x ∂y δ
The order of magnitudes of the momentum equations become
negligible
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2u ∂2u u∞2 u∞2 ∂p u∞ u∞
ρ +u +v =− +μ + → ρ 0 + + ~ − + μ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2 x x ∂x x 2 δ2

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂2v ∂2v δu∞2 δu∞2 ∂p δu∞ u∞

ρ +u +v =− +μ + →ρ 0+ 2 + 2 ~− +μ 3 +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2 x x ∂y x xδ
small compared to small compared to 18
x-component x-component
The boundary layer equations for laminar flows
Dropping the negligible terms from the 2D Navier-Stokes equations, we obtain the boundary layer equations:
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dp ∂2u
ρ u +v =− +μ 2
∂x ∂y dx ∂y
with the following boundary conditions:
u x, y = 0 = 0
v x, y = 0 = 0
u x, y → ∞ → u∞

The boundary layer equations can be solved exactly (Blasius solution, Appendix B in the reference book). Here
we will follow an approximation method by von Karman.

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von Karman method for boundary layer
We want to find u(x,y) for y < d (x) (i.e., inside boundary layer)
We assume the x-component velocity u takes the form
u y = C0 + C1 y + C2 y2 + C3 y3
where C0, C1, C2 and C3 depend on d (noted that d depends on x).

The boundary conditions are given by

u y=0 =0 u x, y =d = u∞
∂u ∂2u
=0 at y=d = 0 at y=0
∂y ∂y2
Applying the four conditions to u y will obtain
u 3 y 1 y !
= −
u∞ 2 d 2 d
Yet we still need to determine the boundary layer thickness d .

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Force and momentum balance
Here we derive an integral boundary layer equation to determine the boundary layer thickness d :
Plane A-A: # By Taylor expansion, we have
𝑑
mass flow: * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑥 " 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯
𝑑 # 𝑑𝑥
momentum flow: u∞ * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 "

Plane 2:
Plane 1:
mass flow:
mass flow:
# #
# 𝑑
* 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
* 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 " 𝑑𝑥 "
"
momentum flow:
momentum flow:
# #
# 𝑑
* 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + * 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
* 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 " 𝑑𝑥 "
"
pressure force:
pressure force:
𝑑𝑝
𝑝𝐻 𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥 𝐻
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑢
shear force at the flat plate: −𝜏𝑤𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜇𝑑𝑥 ! 21
𝜕𝑦 $%"
Integral boundary layer equation
The net momentum flow out of the control volume is therefore
# #
𝑑 𝑑
* 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − u∞ * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥 "
# # #
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑u ∞
= * 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − * 𝜌𝑢u∞ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥 "

The pressure and shear forces equal to the net increase in momentum:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑 # 𝑑u∞ #
−𝜏𝑤 − 𝐻 = −𝜌 * u∞ − 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + * 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥 "

If the pressure is constant throughout the flow,

𝑑𝑝 𝑑u∞
=0 −𝜌u∞ =0 (by Bernoulli equation)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The integral boundary layer equation becomes:
𝑑 & 𝜕𝑢
𝜌 * u∞ − 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 !
𝑑𝑥 " 𝜕𝑦 $%"

The upper limit on the integral has been changed to δ because the integrand is zero for y > δ
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since u = u∞ for y > δ.
Finding boundary layer thickness d (x)
Insert the expression of velocity into the integral boundary layer equation:
u 3 y 1 y ! 𝑑 & 𝜕𝑢
= − 𝜌 * u∞ − 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 !
u∞ 2 d 2 d 𝑑𝑥 " 𝜕𝑦 $%"
&
𝑑 3 y 1 y ! 3 y 1 y ! 𝜕𝑢 3 𝜇u∞
𝜌u∞ 2 * − 1− + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 ! =
𝑑𝑥 " 2 d 2 d 2d 2 d 𝜕𝑦 $%" 2 d

𝑑 39 3 𝜇u∞
→ 𝜌u d =
2
𝑑𝑥 280 ∞ 2 d
140 𝜇 140 𝜐 d2 140 𝜐𝑥
→ d𝑑d = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 → = + const
13 𝜌u∞ 13 u∞ 2 13 u∞

At x = 0, d = 0, so that
𝜐𝑥 d 4.64 u x
d = 4.64 = where Rex = υ∞
u∞ 𝑥 RexA/C
Compare with the exact solution (Blasius solution) for the boundary integral equations:
d 5
=
𝑥 RexA/C 23
Example : Mass flow and boundary layer thickness
Air at 27 °C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s.
(a) Calculate the boundary-layer thickness at distances of 20 cm and 40 cm from the leading edge of the plate.
(b) Calculate the mass flow that enters the boundary layer between x = 20 cm and x = 40 cm.
The dynamic viscosity of air at 27°C is 1.85x10−5 kg/m·s. Assume unit depth in the z direction.
x = 20cm x = 40cm
Solution
(a) The density of air is calculated from
p 1.0132 × 105
ρ= = = 1.177 kg/m3 y d
RT (287)(300)
The Reynolds number and boundary layer thickness are calculated as x
z
ρu∞x (1.177)(2)(0.2) 4.64x (4.64)(0.2)
At x = 20 cm, Re20 = = = 25448 , d20 = = = 0.00582 m
μ (1.85 × 10−5) Rex '/) (25548) '/)

ρu∞x (1.177)(2)(0.4) 4.64x (4.64)(0.4)

At x = 40 cm, Re40 = = = 50897 , d40 = '/) = = 0.00823 m
μ (1.85 × 10−5) Rex (50897)'/)
(b) The mass flow in the boundary layer is given by:
& &
3 y 1 y ! 5
mx = * ρu dy = * 𝜌u∞ − 𝑑𝑦 = ρu∞δ
" " 2d 2 d 8
The mass flow that enters the boundary layer between x = 20 cm and x = 40 cm:
5 5
∆m = m40 − m20 = ρu∞ d40 − d20 = (1.177)(2) 0.00823 − 0.00582 =3.531 × 103 kg/s 24
8 8