LIST OF COMMONLY KNOWN MATERIALS FOR REFERENCE

TYPES OF WOODS

The more one knows about the unique characteristics of wood and its
source, the better one can understand the degree of warmth and beauty
that it brings to our everyday décor. Furniture made of wood is one of the
few things in the world that all people can own and know that they are
the only person in the world who owns that particular grain pattern and
its inherent beauty. Each grain pattern is a unique masterpiece of design,
texture and splendor. Even what some may view as a defect, like a knot
or other natural blemishes, can add more beauty and character to any
given piece of furniture.

The classification of wood has historically always been either hard wood;
any leaf bearing tree, and soft wood; any cone bearing tree. These terms
can be confusing since some leaf bearing trees can have very soft wood
and some coniferous trees can have very hard woods. To make this easier,
below you will find a list of different tree types, classification and then
individual wood characteristics.

There are two basic wood grades. Select lumber is excellent quality for
use when appearance and finishing are important and common lumber
that has defects used for construction and general-purpose projects. The
grades of the select lumber are: B and Better grade, which has minute or
no blemishes; C Select grade which has some minor defects such as small
knots; D select grade that has larger imperfections, which can be
concealed by paint. The grades of common lumber are No. 1 grade
containing tight knots and few blemishes. No. 2 grade that has more and HARDWOODS
larger knots and blemishes. No. 3 grade that has loose knots, knotholes,
and other flaws. No. 4 grade that is low quality and No. 5 grade where the
appearance is not important.
OAK: MAPLE:

Oak is the most widely used hardwood. There are more than 60 species of There are 115 species of maple but only 5 commercially important. Two of
oak grown in the U.S., which can be separated into two basic varieties; the five are hard rock maple and sugar maple. Also grown in the US.
white and red. The red variety is also known as black oak (a reference to its
bark). Properties: Maple is so hard and resistant to shocks that it is often used
for bowling alley floors. Its diffuse evenly sized pores give the wood a fine
Properties: Oak is a heavy, strong, light colored hardwood. It is ring texture and even grain. Maple that has a curly grain is often used for violin
porous, due to the fact that more and larger conductive vessels are laid backs (the pattern formed is known as fiddleback figure). Burls, leaf figure,
down early in the summer, rather than later. Prominent rings and large pores and birds-eye figures found in maple are used extensively for veneers. The
give oak a course texture and prominent grain. Oak also has conspicuous Birds eye figure in maple is said to be the result of stunted growth and is
medullary rays which can be seen as "flakes" in quarter sawed oak lumber. quite rare.

Uses: Oak is the most popular wood used to craft American and English Uses: Maple is used extensively for American colonial furniture, especially
country designs. It is also used for Gothic and William & Mary reproductions, in medium and lower priced categories. It can also be stained to simulate
as well as many transitional and contemporary pieces. As it is not found so cherry wood, which it resembles. Burma Teak replaces this wood in India in
commonly in India, the wood to replace it is Teak and Rose Wood. making a lot of furniture.
MAHOGANY: CHERRY:

Mahogany, also known as Honduras mahogany is a tropical hardwood indig- Cherry is grown in the Eastern half of the U.S.. It is sometimes called
enous to South America, Central America and Africa and some parts of India. fruitwood. The term fruitwood is also used to describe a light brown finish on
other woods.
Properties: Mahogany is strong, with a uniform pore structure and poorly
defined annual rings. It has a reddish - brown color and may display stripe, Properties: A moderately hard, strong, closed grain, light to red-brown
ribbon, broken stripe, rope, ripple, mottle, fiddleback or blister figures. wood, cherry resists warping and checking. It is easy to carve and polish.
Crotch mahogany figures are widely used and greatly valued. Mahogany is an
excellent carving wood and finishes well. Uses: Cherry veneers and solids are used in a variety of styles. Cherry has
been called New England mahogany and is often used to craft 18th century,
Uses: Mahogany is used extensively in the crafting of Georgian, Empire Colonial and French Provincial designs.
and Federal reproduction furniture. Mahogany is also used in styles ranging
from Victorian furniture reproductions to Contemporary.
WALNUT: ROSEWOOD:

Walnut is one of the most versatile and popular cabinet making woods. It Very hard and has a dark reddish brown color. It is fragrant and close
grows in Europe, America and Asia. There are many different varieties. grained. It is hard to work and takes high polish. Used in musical
instruments, piano cases, tool handles, art projects, veneers and furniture.
Properties: Walnut is strong, hard and durable, without being excessively
heavy. It has excellent woodworking qualities, and takes finishes well. The
wood is light to dark chocolate brown in color with a straight grain in the
trunk. Wavy grain is present toward the roots, and walnut stumps are
often dug out and used as a source of highly figured veneer. Large burls are
common. Walnut solids and veneers show a wide range of figures, including
strips, burls, mottles, crotches, curls and butts. European walnut is lighter in
color and slightly finer in texture than American black walnut, but otherwise
comparable.

Uses: Walnut is used in all types of fine cabinet work

TEAK:

True teak is indigenous to Southeast Asia, but similar wood species also grow
in Africa.

Properties & Uses: Teak is a yellow to dark brown hardwood which is

extremely heavy, strong and durable. Often strongly figured, teak may show
straight grain, mottled or fiddleback figures. It carves well, but because of
its high value, is often used as a veneer. Scandinavian modern, and oriental
furniture styles are often crafted of teak.
SOFTWOODS
PINE: ASH:

Pine is a softwood which grows in most areas of the Northern Hemisphere. There are 16 species of ash which grow in the eastern United States. Of
There are more than 100 species worldwide. these, the white ash is the largest and most commercially important.

Properties: Pine is a soft, white or pale yellow wood which is light weight, Properties: Ash is a hard, heavy, ring porous hardwood. It has a prominent
straight grained and lacks figure. It resists shrinking and swelling. Knotty pine grain that resembles oak, and a white to light brown color. Ash can be
is often used for decorative effect. differentiated from hickory (pecan) which it also resembles, by white dots
in the darker summerwood which can be seen with the naked eye. Ash burls
Uses: Pine is often used for country or provincial furniture. Pickled, whit- have a twisted, interwoven figure.
ened, painted and oil finishes are often used on this wood.
Uses: Ash is widely used for structural frames and steam bent furniture
pieces. It is often less expensive than comparable hardwoods.
BIRCH: CEDAR:

There are many species of birch. The yellow birch is the most commercially Several species of cedar grow in the southern United States, Central and
important. European birch is fine grained, rare and expensive. South America.

Properties & Uses: Birch is a hard, heavy, close grained hardwood with a Properties & Uses: Cedar is a knotty softwood which has a red-brown color
light brown or reddish colored heartwood and cream or light sapwood. Birch with light streaks. Its aromatic and moth repellent qualities have made it a
is often rotary or flat sliced, yielding straight, curly or wavy grain patterns. It popular wood for lining drawers, chests and boxes. Simple cases and storage
can be stained to resemble mahogany or walnut. closets are also constructed from this light, brittle wood.
BABUL: BAMBOO:

Scientific Name: Acacia nilotica Family Poaceae, tribe Bambuseae

Colour: Whitish red Found throughout India, especially Assam and Bengal
Found in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Bengal, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh Properties: Not actually a tree, but a woody grass, it is flexible, very strong
and durable.
Properties: It is strong, hard and tough and it takes up a good polish.
Usage: It is used for scaffoldings, thatched roofs, rafters, temporary bridges,
Usage: It is used for such products as bodies and wheels of bullock cart, and so forth.
agricultural instruments, tool handles, and well curbs.
COCONUT: DEODAR:

Scientific Name: Cocos nucifera Scientific Name: Cedrus deodara

Colour: Reddish brown Colour: Yellowish brown
Found throughout coastal India. Found in the Himalayas, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.

Properties: Takes polish. Requires preservative treatment. Properties: Deodar is the most important timber tree providing soft wood. It
can be easily worked and it is moderately strong. It possesses distinct annual
Usage: Used as poles, piles, furniture and as formwork in concrete rings.
construction.
Usage: It is used for making cheap furniture, railway carriages, railway
sleepers, packing boxes, structural work and so forth.
KATHAL, KELEDANG, JACKFRUIT: MANGO:

Scientific Name: Artocarpus heterophyllus Colour: Yellow with gray

Colour: Yellow to deep brown Found throughout India.
Found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Properties: The mango tree is well known for its fruits. It is easy to work with
Properties: It is heavy and hard. It is durable under water and in damp and it maintains its shape well. It is moderately strong.
conditions, however, it cracks if exposed to direct sun. White ants do not
attack it. Usage: It is most often used for cheap furniture, toys, packing boxes, cabinet
work, panels for doors and for windows.
Usage: It is used for piles, platforms of wooden bridges, door and window
panels, boat construction, door panels, cabinet making and musical
instruments.
PALM: SAAL:

Arecaceae Shorea robusta

Colour: Dark brown Colour: Brown
Found throughout India. Found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
Properties: It contains ripe wood in the outer crust. The colour of this
ripened wood is dark brown. It is strong, durable and fibrous. Properties: It is hard, fibrous and close-grained. It does not take up a good
polish. It requires slow and careful seasoning. It is durable under ground and
Usage: Palm is used for furniture, roof covering, rafters and joists. water.

Usage: It is used for railway sleepers, shipbuilding, and bridges.

SHISHAM BALSA

Dalbergia sissoo Ochroma pyramidale

Colour: Dark brown Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, open grain. Unlike dry
Found in Mysore, Maharashtra, Assam, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. rotted wood, the surface is made of the usual strong cellulose mix.

Properties: Also known as tali, this wood is strong and tough. It is durable Usage: As it is low in density but high in strength, balsa is a very popular
and handsome and it maintains its shape well. It can be easily seasoned. It is material to use when making light, stiff structures in model bridge tests,
difficult to work but it takes a fine polish. model tree houses, and for the construction of model aircraft, as well as
full-sized light wooden aeroplanes.
Usage: It is used for high quality furniture, plywoods, bridge piles, sport
goods, railway sleepers and so forth. It is a very good material for decorative
works and carvings.
 PLYWOOD:

Is a manufactured wood panel made from thin sheets of wood veneer. It is

one of the most widely used wood products. It is flexible, inexpensive,
workable, re-usable, and can usually be locally manufactured. Plywood is
used instead of plain wood because of its resistance to cracking, shrinkage,
splitting, and twisting/warping, and its general high degree of strength.

Vineers are thin plies of wood sheets. And are also available as vineers in the
market. These sheets often have one smooth side and one rough side (with
FIBER BOARDS adhesive), and can be used to give a particular texture or finish to a given
material. For example, If an individual cannot afford rose wood, they make
order a mango made table but with a rosewood vineer finish.
PARTICLE BOARD: MDF:

Many types of fiber boards are available today. Particleboard is cheaper, It is similar to particle board and medium-density fiberboard, but is denser
denser and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is and much stronger and harder because it is made out of exploded wood
substituted for them when appearance and strength are less important than fibers that have been highly compressed.
cost. However, particleboard can be made more attractive by painting or the
use of wood veneers that are glued onto surfaces that will be visible. Though
it is denser than conventional wood, it is the lightest and weakest type of
fiberboard, except for insulation board.

Medium-density fibreboard (MDF) and hardboard, also called high-density

fiberboard, are stronger and denser than particleboard. Different grades of
particleboard have different densities, with higher density connoting greater
strength and greater resistance to failure of screw fasteners.

The same Particle board also comes in a laminated option, making it still
cheaper than most other fiber board options available in the market, and
also water resistant to some extent. If cut from a point other than the
default sizes in which it is provided a water proof tape is provided to make it
resistant again.
METALS

A metal is an element, compound, or alloy that is a good

conductor of both electricity and heat. Metals are usually malleable,
ductile and shiny. The meaning of the term metal differs for various com-
munities. Many compounds that are not normally classified as metals,
become metallic under high pressures.

There are 2 basic types of metals; Ferrous and Non Ferrous Metals.

Ferrous metal ‘contain iron’. This can include pure iron, such as wrought ALUMINIUM:
iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but not
exclusively. Aluminium is a very light metal with a specific weight of 2.7 g/cm3, about
a third that of steel. It naturally generates a protective oxide coating and
Non Ferrous (Noble) metal are metals that are resistant to corrosion or is highly corrosion resistant. Different types of surface treatment such as
oxidation, unlike most base metals. They tend to be precious metals, anodising, painting or lacquering can further improve this property. It is
often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold, platinum, silver and an excellent heat and electricity conductor and in relation to its weight is
rhodium. almost twice as good a conductor as copper. This has made aluminium the
most commonly used material in major power transmission lines.

Aluminium is a good reflector of visible light as well as heat, and that

together with its low weight, makes it an ideal material for reflectors in, for
example, light fittings or rescue blankets.

Aluminium is 100 percent recyclable with no downgrading of its qualities.

TITANIUM: IRON:

Titanium is a light metal but very strong, e.g. it is as strong as steel but 45% Like all metals, iron is a very good conductor of both heat and electricity. It
lighter. For these properties it is used to make lightweight alloys for aircraft, is also strong, ductile and malleable. A common problem with iron is that in
bikes and laptop computers. moist air it rusts.

The compound Titanium dioxide (TiO2) absorbs UV light and is used in Iron also has the most stable nucleus of any element. It’s electron
sunscreen. It is the largest use of the element because it is used extensively arrangement also makes it highly attractive to magnetic fields
in paints.
Uses: Iron is virtually used in everything : building ( bridge , highway , rail
Titanium is resistant to corrosion by sea water and therefore is used on parts roads, transportation (car , train , boats , plane) and tools
of ships. The non-reactive properties of titanium make it ideal for use in the
body as hip replacements and pacemakers, which won’t be attacked by body
fluids. The strength of titanium also means that it can be used in hip joints,
which get a lot of wear and tear.
STAINLESS STEEL: MILD STEEL:

Stainless steel is a type of metal that resists corrosion and has an attractive Mild Steel is one of the most common of all metals and one of the least
appearance. Stainless steel contains chromium which provides the unique expensive steels used. It is weldable, very durable (although it rusts), it is
stainless and corrosion resisting properties. Stainless steel has a unique relatively hard and is easily annealed. As it has a poor resistance to corrosion
self-healing property, a thin transparent layer of Nickel formforms the it must be protected by painting or otherwise sealed to prevent it from
surface of Stainless Steel. In case the surface is scratched or damaged rusting. At worst a coat of oil or grease will help seal it from exposure, and
otherwise, this thin layer, immediately rebuilds with the assistance of oxygen help prevent rusting.
from air or water. This is the reason why stainless steel does not require any
coating or other corrosion protection to remain bright and shiny even after Being a softer metal it is easily welded. Its inherent properties allow
decades of use. electrical current to flow easily through it without upsetting its structural
integrity. This is in contrast to other high carbon steels like stainless steel
Non Corrosive which require specialized welding techniques.
Very Durable
Hygienic due to the smooth and minimally porous surface (useful for This mild variant of harder steel is thus far less brittle and can therefore give
hospitals and food processing plants) and flex in its application where a harder more brittle material would simply
High resistance to shock at low and high temperatures crack and break.
COPPER: BRONZE:

Copper is an excellent electrical conductor. Most of its uses are based on this Traditional bronze is a copper alloy with up to 10% tin. The tin in bronze
property or the fact that it is also a good thermal conductor. makes it more resistant to wear than unalloyed copper. Bronzes today are
usually stronger and more resistant to corrosion than brass.
Copper is low in the reactivity series. This means that it doesn’t tend to
corrode. Again, this is important for its use for pipes, electrical cables, Aluminium Bronze:
saucepans and radiators. These are alloys of copper with 5 - 12% aluminium, some having additions
of iron, nickel, manganese and silicon, available in cast and wrought form.
However, it also means that as it is very malleable it is well suited for Some examples of its use are: Fasteners, Pumps and valve components, Pipe
decorative use. Jewellery, statues and parts of buildings can be made from fittings, Heat exchangers and Bearings.
copper, brass or bronze and remain attractive for thousands of years.
Silicon Bronze:
Copper is non magnetic and non sparking. Because of this, it is used in Silicon bronzes have a good combination of strength and ductility, good
special tools and military applications. corrosion resistance and easy weldability. They are used in architectural
applications such as: Door fittings, Railings, Church doors, Window frames,
Hinges and Fastener material for marine applications
TIN: GOLD:

Tin has nearly the whiteness of silver. It is very malleable and flexible, but Gold in its pure state is considered the most beautiful and hence most
not elastic. Its tensile strength is too low for it to be drawn into wire. Air will valuable of the pure metals. It is metallic, having a yellow colour when in
not tarnish it readily, but some acids and strong alkaline solutions attack it mass, though when finely divided it may be black, ruby or purple.
noticeably, particularly when hot.
Gold is soft, ductile and the most malleable of metals, and because of this is
It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. usually alloyed to give improved strength and durability. Gold’s reflectivity
of ultraviolet and visual light rays is low, however it has high reflectivity of
infrared and red wavelengths.

Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is unaffected by air,

nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid and most other reagents.

Uses: Coinage, Ornaments, Jewellery, Gold flake is used for a radiation

control coating for spacecraft and in electronic tubes, as gold-plated grid
wire, to give high conductivity and suppressing secondary emissions.
 Plastics

There are two main types of plastics:

Thermoplastics which are softened by heat and can be moulded. (Injection

moulded, blow moulded or vacuum formed). Good examples are acrylic,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polythene and PVC.

Thermosets which are formed by ha heat process but are then set (like
concrete) and cannot change shape by reheating. Good examples are
melamine (kitchen worktops), Bakelite (black saucepan handles), polyester
SILVER: and epoxy resins.

Silver metal in its pure state has a brilliant white metallic lustre. It is a little Composites are made by mixing materials together to get enhanced
harder than gold and is very ductile and malleable. Like gold, it is classified properties. Polyester resin is mixed with glass fibre to make GRP used for
with the precious metals. Silver is stable in pure air and water, but tarnishes boatbuilding and fishing rods. Epoxy resin plus carbon fibre is stronger than
when exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulphide, or air containing sulphur because steel but lighter.
of the formation of a silver sulphide. It has the highest electrical and heat
conductivity of all metals and the lowest contact resistance. Cold working
will reduce this conductivity.

Uses: Silver as sterling silver is used for jewellery, silverware, electrical

contacts and the like, Dental alloys, Coinage, Silver is used in the making of
solder and brazing alloys and electrical contacts, High capacity silver-zinc
and silver-cadmium batteries and as paint it is used for making printed
circuits and other electronic applications
ACRYLIC: NYLON:

Comes in a range of thicknesses, colours and can be opaque or transparent. Very strong, nylon can be machined and will take a fine thread. It is also
There are two type of acrylic extruded which is cheaper and very "plastic" slippery and can be used to make washers, spacers and bushes.
and cast which machines better but is harder and less flexible.
Nylon was originally developed as a textile but is available in many forms
Acrylics are available in a range of colours and can be opaque, translucent or with vastly different properties. Engineering nylon grades are easy to
transparent. They are available in sheet, rod, and tube for use in machine with good resistance to biological attack. Unfortunately nylons can
injection moulding, extrusion and vacuum forming. Acrylics withstand absorb moisture from the atmosphere and can degrade in strong sunlight
weather and are stable in sunlight. Almost any colour can be produced. (they are unstable in ultraviolet light) unless a stabilising chemical is added
Transparent acrylic can be as clear as the finest optical glass, this led them at the initial manufacture of the plastic. Nylons are easy to mould. Nylons
to be used in optical equipment such as cameras. It is possible to also have a natural 'oily' surface that can act as a natural lubricant. Nylons
significantly strengthen the acrylic when it is being made, these high grade are used for everything from clothes through to gears and bearings.
acrylics are used use for aircraft windows.

Example of an Acrylic Polymer is Corian.

POLYCARBONATE: BAKELITE:

Used for making eye protection, machine guards and riot shields. It is not as A thermosetting plastic. Dark brown. Used as a composite reinforced with
hard as acrylic and can be cut easily but it will absorb impacts. paper or cloth. Used to make circuit boards and heat proof insulated parts in
the electronics industry, transportation and the weapons industry.
PVC and uPVC: POLYETHYLENE:

Stiff, hard,tough lightweight plastic. uPVC products are meant to withstand This plastic has a range of uses from food packaging to gas pipes.
a lot of external forces both natural as well as other. Some of the products The plastics can be injection moulded or extruded and is available in two
made using uPVC are for paneling windows and making plastic pipes. forms.
Plasticised PVC is used for flexible applications such as insulating - cables. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a hard rigid plastic: Moulding Playground
Furniture is made using this plastic.
A low-density grade ( LDPE) is tough and flexible: Packaging containers and
specially polythene bags are made out of this form of plastic.
POLYPROPYLENE SILICON:

Polypropylene is a tough, cheap plastic, it has a slightly waxy feel. It can Is made from the reaction of silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and carbon
be bent repeatedly without breaking. Used for Medical equipment such as materials like coke, coal and wood chips. Some of its useful properties are:
syringes, stacking chairs (chairshell is polypropylene) and suitcases with Low thermal conductivity, Low chemical reactivity, Low toxicity, Good
integral hinges, Thermal stability and it has a Great ability to repel water and form
watertight seals. Silicon does not stick to many substrates, but adheres
very well to others, for example glass and does not support microbiological
growth.
Silicones have excellent resistance to oxygen, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV)
light. This property has led to widespread use of silicones in the construction
industry (e.g. coatings, fire protection, glazing seals) and the automotive
industry (external gaskets, external trim).
Good electrical insulation. Because silicone can be formulated to be
electrically insulative or conductive, it is suitable for a wide range of
electrical applications.

Some of its uses are: Cooking ware, Many Electronics have a coating of
Silicon to resist electrical shock and vibrations and Silicon Foam is used as a
fire hydrant
EPOXY RESIN: CARBON FIBER:

A two part mix which can be used as a glue (ARALDITE) or be reinforced with Extremely Strong, yet light weight compared to any other material.
carbon fibre to produce a very strong and light composite materials which is Good amount of Rigidity, Corrosion resistant, Electrically Conductive
used in aerospace and Formula 1 (Kevlar and Carbon Fiber) Fatigue Resistant, Good tensile strength but Brittle, Fire Resistance/Not
flammable, High Thermal Conductivity, Low coefficient of thermal expansion,
Non poisonous, Biologically inert, X-Ray Permeable, Self Lubricating,
Excellent Electromagnetic Interference, Shielding Property,

Relatively Expensive which is why its usage also is not seen in a lot of
products today. It also requires specialized experience and equipment to use.

Available as a monotone.
STONES and ROCKS

Are generally classified by mineral and chemical composition, by the tex-

ture of the constituent particles and by the processes that formed them.
These indicators separate rocks into three types: igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools and are divided into
two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive
rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth’s
crust (example granite), while volcanic or extrusive rocks result from
magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta (exam-
ples pumice and basalt).

Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of either clastic sediments,

organic matter, or chemical precipitates (evaporites), followed by com- GRANITE:
paction of the particulate matter and cementation during diagenesis. Sed-
imentary rocks form at or near the Earth’s surface. Mud rocks comprise Granite is nearly always massive (lacking internal structures), hard and
65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use as a construction stone.
rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone).
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles
Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type to different in public and commercial buildings and monuments. With increasing amounts
temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock of acid rain in parts of the world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a
was formed. These temperatures and pressures are always higher than monument material, since it is much more durable. Polished granite is also a
those at the Earth’s surface and must be sufficiently high so as to change popular choice for kitchen countertops due to its high durability and
the original minerals into other mineral aesthetic qualities.
PUMICE STONE: SANDSTONE:

Pumice is composed of highly microvesicular glass pyroclastic with very thin, Sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the
translucent bubble walls of extrusive igneous rock. It is commonly, but not most common minerals in the Earth’s crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any
exclusively of silicic or felsic to intermediate in composition. Pumice has an colour, but the most common colours are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray, pink,
average porosity of 90%, and initially floats on water. white and black.

Pumice is widely used to make lightweight concrete or insulative low-density It is usually formed in deserts or dry places like the Sahara Desert in Africa,
breeze blocks. When used as an additive for cement, a fine-grained version the Arabian desert in the Middle East and the Australian desert (including
of pumice called pozzolan is mixed with lime to form a light-weight, smooth, Sydney). In the western United States and in central Australia, most
plaster-like concrete. This form of concrete was used as far back as Roman sandstone is red.
times. Roman engineers used it to build the huge dome of the Pantheon and
as construction material for many aqueducts. Sandstone has been used for domestic construction and housewares since
prehistoric times, and continues to be used. Sandstone was a popular
It is also used for foot massaging. building material from ancient times. It is relatively soft, making it easy to
carve. It has been widely used around the world in constructing temples,
cathedrals, homes, and other buildings. It has also been used for artistic
purposes to create ornamental fountains and statues.
LIMESTONE: COAL:

Limestone is calcareous sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom of lakes and Coal is made largely of carbon but also features other elements such as
seas with the accumulation of shells, bones and other calcium rich goods. It hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen. It starts off as plant matter at the
is composed of calcite (CaCO3). The organic matter upon which it settles in bottom of water. It is eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments
lakes or seas, are preserved as fossils and over where over time metamorphosis (a change in form) takes place
thousands and millions of years limestone is created.
Coal is the world’s largest source of energy for the production of electricity.
Physically, Limestones are Quite impervious, Hard, Compact, fine to very fine It is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide,
grained calcareous rocks of sedimentary nature. as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon
dioxide releases
Chemically, they are calcareous rocks principally of calcic minerals with
minor amounts of alumina, ferric & alkaline oxides. Used to generate power to run steam engines and is still used in many parts
of the world to create electricity.
Used in; Flooring, Wall cladding, Vanity tops, Furniture, Cement
Production, RefiningMetals and creating the Blackboard chalk.
MARBLE: SLATE:

Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate Slates are part of a metamorphic sequence that begins with shale and
rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes progresses through slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains.
Slate rock is used in the construction industry to make roofing shingles and
Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure coverings. Slate is preferred over artificial covering materials for its unique
(silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and physical and chemical properties, moisture resistance, wind resistance, good
veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral insulating capability and cold/chill resistance. Slate roofs can last hundreds
impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally of years.
present as grains or layers in the limestone.
Slate is used for external flooring, internal flooring and cladding. Slate floors
Uses: White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical are commonly laid in outdoor porches, basements, bathrooms and kitchens.
times. Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite
or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. Marble dust is combined The smooth playing surface of a billiard table is made from quarried slate.
with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble.
The appearance of marble can be simulated with faux marbling, a painting
technique that imitates the stone’s color patterns.
SOAP STONE: QUARTZ:

It is largely composed of the mineral talc and is thus rich in magnesium. Throughout the world, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly
Soapstone is used for inlaid designs, sculpture, coasters, and kitchen used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings. Quartz is the
countertops and sinks. The Inuit often use soapstone for traditional carvings. source of many silicon compounds such as silicones (e.g. high performance
Some Native American tribes and bands make bowls and cooking slabs. polymers).

Welders and fabricators use soapstone as a marker due to its resistance to Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal (sometimes called clear quartz),
heat; it remains visible when heat is applied. It has also been used for many is colorless and transparent or translucent. Common colored varieties include
years by seamstresses, carpenters, and other craftsmen as a marking tool citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz and milky quartz. These slowly
because its marks are visible and not permanent. enter the category of precious and semi precious stones.

Soapstone can be used to create molds for casting objects from soft metals,
such as pewter or silver. The soft stone is easily carved and is not degraded
by heating. The slick surface of soapstone allows the finished object to be
easily removed.

Soapstones can be put in freezer and later used in place of ice cubes to chill
alcoholic beverages without diluting. They are also known as whiskey stones.
GRAPHITE: LEATHER:

Natural graphite is mostly consumed for refractories, batteries, Leather is a durable, water resistant, weather resistant and flexible material
steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings and lubri- created by the tanning of animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can
cants. Graphene, which occurs naturally in graphite, has unique physical be produced through manufacturing processes ranging from cottage industry
properties and is one of the strongest substances known. to heavy industry.

Graphite today is also being used widely in the sports catergory. Its Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel. Deer
flexible features allow manufacturers to build products which may take a lot and elkskin are widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes. Pigskin is used
of tension and also provide flexibility. in apparel and on seats of saddles. Buffalo, goats, alligators, dogs, snakes,
ostriches, kangaroos, oxen, and yaks may also be used for leather.

Many pseudo-leather materials have been developed, allowing those who

wish to wear leather-like garments to do so without actually wearing leather.
Vinyl materials, pleather, Naugahyde, Durabuck, NuSuede, Hydrolite, and
other alternatives exist, providing some features similar to leather.

Leather is used for a very large variety of everyday objects and is also used
extensively in engineering where machnery belts etc. are made from leather.
Leather is used for furniture, clothing, accesories, shoes and wall panels.
YARNS: PLASTER of PARIS:

Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceilings. Plaster
production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery starts as a dry powder similar to mortar or cement and like those materials it
and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or is mixed with water to form a paste which liberates heat and then hardens.
machine. Modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or Unlike mortar and cement, plaster remains quite soft after setting, and can
other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing. Embroidery be easily manipulated with metal tools or even sandpaper. These
threads are yarns specifically designed for hand or machine embroidery. characteristics make plaster suitable for a finishing, rather than a load
bearing material.
Natural Yarns - The most common plant fiber is cotton, which is typically
spun into fine yarn for mechanical weaving or knitting into cloth. The most Plaster may also be used to create complex detailing for use in room
commonly used animal fiber is wool harvested from sheep. For hand knitting interiors. These may be geometric (simulating wood or stone) or naturalistic
and hobby knitting, thick wool yarns are preferred. (simulating leaves, vines, and flowers). Plaster is widely used as a support
for broken bones; a bandage impregnated with plaster is moistened and then
Synthetic Yarn - A number of synthetic materials are also commonly made wrapped around the damaged limb, setting into a close-fitting yet easily
into yarn, chiefly acrylic. All-acrylic yarns are available, as are wool-acrylic remove-able tube, known as an orthopedic cast. Plasters also has been in use
blends in various proportions. Some other synthetics are available as well; in passive fire protection, as fireproofing a products.
yarn designed for use in socks frequently contains a small percentage of
nylon.