LEVEL SENSORS

Level sensors, employed in diverse industrial and domestic settings, serve the essential
function of detecting and measuring the levels of liquids and certain solids. They achieve this by
transforming the physical data into electrical signals, enabling monitoring, maintenance, and
measurement tasks.

Level Sensor Classification

1. Point level measurement
• Capacitance Level Sensors

Working Principle
These sensors use probes to detect liquid levels (including slurries and
aqueous liquids) by converting level changes into analog signals. While PTFE-
insulated conducting wire probes are common, stainless-steel probes are better for
non-conductive materials due to their responsiveness. The simplicity and lack of
moving parts make these sensors easy to use and clean.

Applications
- Level Monitoring in Chemical
- Water Treatment
- Food
- Battery Industries
- High Pressure and Temperature.

Specification

General specifications
Switching function Normally closed (NC)
Output type NAMUR
Rated operating sn 4 mm
distance
Installation non-flush
Assured operating sa 0 ... 3.24 mm
distance
Actual operating sr 3.6 ... 4.4 mm typ
distance
Reduction factor rAl 0.37
Reduction factor rCu 0.36
Reduction factor r304 0.74
 Output type 2-wire
Nominal ratings
Nominal voltage Uo 8.2 V (Ri approx. 1 kΩ)
Switching frequency f 0 ... 800 Hz
Hysteresis H 1 ... 10 typ. 5 %
Reverse polarity reverse polarity
protection protected
Short-circuit protection yes
• Optical Level Sensors

Working Principle

Optical level sensors are employed to detect liquids, including powdery

materials, and identify interfaces between immiscible liquids, as well as the presence
of sediments. They operate by measuring changes in the transmission of infrared light
emitted from an IR LED. To minimize interference, high-energy IR diodes and pulse
modulation methods are utilized. Continuous optical level sensors employ intense
laser light, making them suitable for dusty environments, allowing for the reliable
detection of liquid substances.
Applications
- Leak detection
- Tank level measurement

Specification

• Conductivity Level Sensors

 Working Principle

Conductivity or resistance sensors use a probe with two electrodes that apply
alternating current. When the probe is covered by liquid, it forms a circuit, allowing
current to flow. The resulting flow of current indicates whether the liquid level is high
or low.
Advantages
- There are no moving parts
- They are low cost
- Fairly easy to use

Disadvantages

- They are invasive (meaning they must touch the product being sensed)
- They only sense conductive liquids
- The probe will erode over time

Specification

• Vibrating (Tuning fork) Level Sensors

Working Principle

Vibrating or tuning fork sensors have a fork-shaped element with two parts. This
fork vibrates naturally at a specific frequency. When the liquid level changes, it causes
the fork's frequency to change, allowing the sensor to detect and measure the level.
Specification

• Float Switch Level Sensors

Working Principle

Float switches are point level sensors that utilize a float device. This float moves
up or down with changes in the liquid level, either opening or closing a circuit. As the
float moves, it signals the level changes, providing a simple and effective way to detect
liquid levels.
Advantages
- They are non powered device
- They provide a direct indication
- They are inexpensive
Disadvantages
- They are invasive to the product
- They have moving parts
- They can be large in size
 Specification

2. Continuous level measurement

• Ultrasonic

Working Principle

Ultrasonic level sensors are used to detect the levels of sticky liquid substances
and bulkiness materials as well. They are worked by producing audio waves at the
range of frequency from 20 to 200 kHz. These waves are then replicated back to a
transducer. The ultrasonic sensor’s response is influenced by turbulence, pressure,
moisture, and temperature. In addition, the transducer is necessary to be increased
appropriately to obtain a better response.
Advantage
- These sensors have no moving parts
- They are compact
- They are reliable
- Non-invasive (Non-contact)
- Unaffected by the properties of the material they are sensing
- Self-cleaning because of the vibrations they give off
Disadvantage
- They can be expensive
- In some situations, the environment can have a negative effect on them

Applications
- The ultrasonic level sensors are used to control the liquid level, fine-grained
solids within mining and powders, food and beverage industries and chemical
processing.
Specification

• Microwave Optical Sensors

Working Principle

Microwave optical sensors are ideal for applications with changing temperature,
pressure, and in dirty or moist environments. They work well in these conditions
because microwaves can pass through without relying on air molecules for energy
transmission. These sensors can detect conductive water and metallic substances.
Measurements are obtained using techniques like time domain or pulse reflectometry.
Advantages

- They are not affected by temperature, pressure or dust

- They can also measure liquids, pastes, powders, and solids
- They are very accurate and require no calibration
- They are non-invasive because they do not have to touch the product that it
is sensing
Disadvantages
- They are expensive
- They have a limited detection range

Specification
 SPEED SENSOR

Speed sensors measure how fast a vehicle's wheels are turning. They replaced old
mechanical connections in speedometers, making things simpler. These sensors also provide data
for automatic driving. Speed is the measure of how much position changes, and it's measured in
units like meters per second or kilometers per hour.
1. Hall Effect Sensor

Working principle

• Imagine a flowing river of electrons (electric current) and a nearby magnet.

• When the magnetic field influences the current's flow, it creates a voltage
difference across the sensor's width.
• This voltage is proportional to the magnetic field strength, allowing detection
of magnets, measuring current, and monitoring motor speeds.
Specification

2. Inductive Sensor

Working principle

• Think of a metal detector searching for buried treasure.

• The sensor generates an oscillating magnetic field, inducing eddy currents in
nearby conductive objects.
 • The strength and frequency of these currents depend on the object's
presence, size, and conductivity, enabling object detection, counting, and
even liquid level measurement.

Specification

3. Optical Sensor

Working principle

• Light plays the starring role in these sensors.

• They emit light (visible, infrared, or laser) and measure the reflected or
scattered light to gather information.
• Different types exist, from simple photodetectors that sense light presence to
complex scanners that capture 3D images.
• Applications range from object recognition and barcode scanning to self-
driving car obstacle detection.

Specification
4. Reed Switch

Working principle

• Picture two magnetized reeds facing each other, like a handshake waiting to
happen.
• When a magnet comes close, the reeds are drawn together, completing an
electrical circuit.
• These simple switches are used in proximity detection, door and window
alarms, and even musical instrument sensing.

Specification

5. Potentiometers

Working principle
• Imagine a sliding knob controlling the volume on your stereo.
• It's a variable resistor whose resistance changes depending on the knob's
position.
• This allows conversion of physical movement (rotating the knob) into electrical
signals.
• They are perfect for volume control, joystick position sensing, and even light
dimming.
 Specification

GAS SENSOR

A gas sensor is a device that detects and measures the presence of gases in the air. It helps
monitor air quality and safety by identifying specific gases such as carbon monoxide, methane, or
various pollutants. Gas sensors are commonly used in homes, industries, and environmental
monitoring to provide early warnings or control systems in response to changes in gas
concentrations.
1. Semiconductor Gas Sensor

(a) cylinder; (b) disk; (c) parallel plates; (d) interdigit and (e) surface acoustic
wave (SAW) line.

Working principle

• Imagine a microscopic dance of electrons on a semiconductor chip. Gas

molecules landing on the chip disrupt this dance, altering the chip's
conductivity.
• This change is like a fingerprint identifying the gas and its concentration. The
sensor then converts this change into an electrical signal for detection.
 Advantages
- simple structure, low price, high detection sensitivity, fast reaction speed, etc.

Disadvantages
- The measurement linear range is small. It is greatly interfered by other gases
in the air, and is easily affected by the ambient temperature.

Specification

2. Electrochemical Gas Sensors

Working principle

• Picture a miniature battery where gas molecules fuel a chemical

reaction. Specific reactions with different gases generate unique electrical
currents.
• By measuring the current, the sensor identifies the gas and its
concentration. These sensors are highly sensitive to specific gases like
carbon monoxide
Advantages
- Fast response, good linear output and other advantages.

Disadvantages
- It needs to be detected in an environment with oxygen (1-10% VOL), and liquid
electrolytes need to be consumed during use. Easily disturbed by temperature,
humidity, pressure, and gases with similar chemical properties. If there is mixed
gas on site, it is easy to cause errors.
 Specification

3. NDIR Gas Sensors

Working principle

• Think of an infrared light beam dancing through a chamber. Different gas

molecules absorb specific wavelengths of this light, like shadows revealing
their presence.
• The sensor measures how much light is absorbed at different
wavelengths, providing a unique signature for each gas and its concentration.
Advantages
- Common sensors on the market, such as catalytic combustion (CAT),
electrochemical (EC), and semiconductor sensors, cannot measure any gas.
For example, CO2 cannot be measured, but NDIR sensors can measure CO2.
The most commonly measured gases for NDIR are CH4 and CO2.
- Oxygen is not required. The CAT sensor requires oxygen to participate in the
oxidation reaction. But NDIR is an optical sensor and doesn’t require oxygen to
be involved.
- The measurement concentration can reach 100%v/v. Because the NDIR
sensor signal characteristics are: in a normal environment, the signal strength
is the largest; the greater the measured gas concentration, the smaller the
signal.
- Good stability. NDIR sensor stability basically depends on the light source. As
long as a good light source is selected, the long-term stability will be excellent,
and it can be achieved without calibration for 2 years.
- Low maintenance cost.

Disadvantages
 - NDIR sensors consume high power. Measuring gas concentrations at the ppm
level is expensive. The structure, software and hardware are more complex,
and the price is relatively expensive.

Specification

4. Catalytic Gas Sensors

Working principle

• Imagine a tiny stage where gas molecules ignite on a heated catalyst

surface, creating miniature flames. Different gases produce distinct heat
signatures.
• By measuring the heat change, the sensor identifies and quantifies the gas
present. These sensors are adept at detecting low levels of flammable gases.
Advantages
- Strong resistance to harsh climate and poisonous gas, long service life. Can
detect all flammable gases, including alkanes and non-alkanes. Low
maintenance cost.
Disadvantages
- Work in the dark, easy to explode or catch fire. Components are susceptible to
poisoning by sulfide and halogen compounds, which shorten their service life.
In a hypoxic environment, the error is larger.
 Specification

5. Magnetic Gas Sensors

Working principle

• Imagine a microscopic stage where gas molecules influence the "spin" of

electrons in a special material. These materials, called magneto-resistive, have
properties that change depending on the magnetic field surrounding them.

• When gas molecules interact with the material, they alter the local magnetic
field. This, in turn, affects the electron spin and their resistance to electrical
current. The sensor measures this change in resistance to identify and quantify
the specific gas present.

• Think of it like a tiny detective with a magnetic compass. Each gas molecule
leaves a unique "fingerprint" on the magnetic field, revealing its identity and
concentration.
Advantages
- Detects oxygen with excellent selectivity. Magnetic oxygen analyzers are
highly accurate.

Disadvantages
- Single measurement type, the small application range.

Specification
6. Photoionization Gas Sensors

Working principle

• Picture a high-energy light knocking electrons out of gas molecules, creating a

cascade of charged particles. The number of released electrons depends on
the gas type.
• By measuring the flow of these charged particles, the sensor identifies and
quantifies specific gases, particularly organic compounds.
Advantages
- PID has high sensitivity, no poisoning problem, safe and reliable. Can detect
more than 400 types volatile organic gases.

Disadvantages
- Cannot measure air, toxic gases and natural gas, etc.
Specification

7. Thermal Conductivity Gas Sensors

 Working principle

• Think of a gas race where different gases compete for heat transfer. Each gas
has a unique thermal conductivity, affecting how quickly heat flows through the
sensor.
• By measuring the heat flow rate, the sensor identifies and quantifies the gas
present. These sensors are simple and reliable for basic gas detection.
Advantages
- Wide detection range, the highest detection concentration can reach 100%.
Good working stability, long service life, no catalyst aging problem.
Disadvantages
- Poor detection accuracy, low sensitivity, temperature drift.

Specification

FLOW SENSOR

Flow sensors are the unsung heroes of many industries, silently monitoring and measuring
the flow of liquids and gases. From ensuring proper fuel delivery in your car to optimizing production
lines in factories, these sensors play a crucial role in maintaining efficient and accurate operations.

1. Differential Pressure Flow Sensors

 Working Principle:
• Restriction: A constriction or orifice is placed in the flow path, creating a
pressure difference between the upstream and downstream sides. This
pressure difference is proportional to the square of the flow velocity
(Bernoulli's equation).
• Pressure Measurement: Sensors measure the pressure at both points
(upstream and downstream) of the restriction.
• Flow Calculation: The pressure difference is converted to a flow rate using the
specific sensor design and calibration.

2. Thermal Mass Flow Sensors

Working Principle
• Heated Sensor: A sensor element is heated to a constant temperature above
the flowing fluid.
• Heat Transfer: The flowing fluid removes heat from the sensor element at a
rate proportional to the mass flow rate.
• Power Measurement: The amount of electrical power required to maintain the
sensor's temperature is measured.
• Flow Calculation: The power measurement is converted to a mass flow rate
using the sensor's specific design and calibration.

Specification
 pH SENSORS
pH sensors are the watchful guardians of acidity and alkalinity, playing a vital role in various
fields, from scientific research to environmental monitoring and industrial processes. These tiny
marvels measure the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution,
1. Combination Sensor

Working Principle
This workhorse combines a reference electrode and a sensing electrode in a
single probe. The reference electrode provides a stable voltage, while the sensing
electrode reacts to changes in hydrogen ion concentration, generating a potential
difference measured by the meter.
Applications
Widely used in laboratories, environmental monitoring, and basic industrial
applications due to their simplicity and affordability.

Advantages
Easy to use and maintain, compact and portable, suitable for a wide range of
pH values.

Disadvantages
Susceptible to contamination and reference electrode drift, less accurate than
high-end sensors.

Specification

2. Differential pH Sensor
 Working Principle
Like the combination sensor, but with an additional grounding electrode. This
electrode helps stabilize the reference electrode and minimize interference from
external electrical noise, improving accuracy and stability.
Applications
Ideal for harsh environments with high ionic strength or electrical noise, such
as wastewater treatment, metal finishing, and pulp and paper industries.

Advantages
More resistant to contamination and interference, higher accuracy than
combination sensors, suitable for challenging applications.

Disadvantages
More expensive and complex than combination sensors, larger size may limit
installation options.

Specification

3. Lab Grade pH Sensor

Working Principle
These high-precision sensors often utilize a combination or differential design
with advanced materials and features. They may have double junctions to prevent
reference electrode contamination, temperature compensation for accurate readings
across temperature ranges, and specialized glass bulbs for specific applications.
 Applications
Critical analytical measurements in research laboratories, pharmaceutical
manufacturing, and food and beverage industries.

Advantages
Highest accuracy and stability, suitable for demanding applications requiring
precise pH control.

Disadvantages
Most expensive among these types, delicate and requires careful
handling, may have limited compatibility with certain meters.

Specification

4. Process pH Sensor

Working Principle

Designed for continuous monitoring in industrial processes, these sensors are

typically ruggedized versions of combination or differential sensors. They have
durable bodies, flow-through designs for self-cleaning, and extended calibration
intervals.
Applications
Monitoring and control of pH levels in chemical plants, water treatment
facilities, and food production processes.

Advantages
Robust and reliable for long-term use, minimal maintenance
requirements, suitable for harsh industrial environments.

Disadvantages
Less portable and versatile compared to lab sensors, higher initial cost due to
specialized features.
 Specification

CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

Capacitive proximity sensors are like magical tools that can "see" objects without even
touching them. They're not just for futuristic sci-fi movies; these versatile sensors are used in
various applications, from touchless buttons in elevators to liquid level monitoring in tanks.

Working Principle
Imagine two metal plates separated by a thin gap. This forms a capacitor,
storing electrical energy. When you bring your hand close to the sensor, its
capacitance changes because your hand acts as another conductor. The sensor
detects this change and triggers an output signal, indicating the presence of an object
nearby.

Applications
- Touchless buttons: No more pressing buttons! Elevator buttons, automatic
faucets, and even some appliance controls use these sensors to detect your
approach and activate the desired function.
- Liquid level monitoring: Forget poking your head inside tanks or
containers. Capacitive sensors can tell you how much liquid is inside, even
if it's non-conductive like oil or milk.
- Material handling: Robots and machines rely on these sensors to identify
and pick up objects of different shapes and sizes, all without making
physical contact.
- Security systems: Door and window alarms often use capacitive sensors to
detect intruders approaching.
 Advantages

• Non-contact: No wear and tear on the sensor or the object being detected.
• Versatility: Works with various materials, including
metals, plastics, liquids, and even granulates.
• Accuracy: Reliable and precise detection within their sensing range.
• Durability: Generally robust and resistant to harsh environments.

Disadvantages

• Sensing range: Limited detection range compared to some other sensors.

• Environmental factors: Temperature, humidity, and nearby objects can
affect their performance.
• Calibration: Some sensors may require occasional calibration for optimal
accuracy.
• Cost: Can be more expensive than some other proximity sensor types.

Specification

NPK SENSOR

Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the three essential macronutrients for
plant growth. Monitoring their levels in the soil is crucial for farmers to optimize fertilizer application
and ensure healthy crops. NPK sensors provide an efficient and accurate way to do just that.
Working Principle

- Probe insertion: The sensor probe is inserted into the soil at the desired depth.
- Ionic interaction: The probe's electrodes interact with the charged ions (mainly
nitrate, phosphate, and potassium) in the soil solution.
- Conductivity measurement: The interaction creates a flow of
electricity, measured as conductivity.
- Data analysis: The sensor's internal electronics analyze the conductivity data
and convert it into NPK readings.
Applications

- Precision farming: NPK sensors enable site-specific nutrient

management, applying fertilizers only where and when needed. This reduces
waste, optimizes costs, and protects the environment.
- Soil health monitoring: Regular NPK monitoring helps track soil fertility trends
and identify potential nutrient deficiencies or imbalances.
- Crop yield optimization: By maintaining optimal NPK levels, farmers can
maximize crop yields and improve overall farm productivity.
- Environmental protection: NPK sensors help minimize fertilizer
overuse, preventing nutrient runoff and water pollution.

Advantages

- Real-time data: Sensors provide immediate readings, allowing for quick

adjustments to fertilization practices.
- Accuracy: Modern NPK sensors offer reliable and accurate measurements
compared to traditional soil testing methods.
- Cost-effectiveness: Sensors can save costs in the long run by reducing fertilizer
waste and improving yields.
- Ease of use: Many NPK sensors are portable and user-friendly, even for
farmers with limited technical expertise.

Disadvantages

- Initial investment: The cost of purchasing and maintaining NPK sensors can be
a barrier for some farmers.
- Calibration: Sensors require regular calibration to ensure accurate readings.
- Soil variability: NPK levels can vary significantly within a field, and single
readings may not capture the full picture.
- Limited scope: Sensors primarily focus on NPK; other essential soil nutrients
might require separate testing.
 Specification

HUMIDITY SENSOR
Capacitive

Working Principle

These sensors use a hygroscopic material (like polymer film) that changes its
capacitance with humidity. As the air becomes more humid, the material absorbs
moisture, increasing its capacitance and altering the electrical signal.

Resistive

Working Principle
These sensors use a material (like metal oxide) whose resistance changes with
humidity. Dry air offers high resistance, while humid air lowers the resistance, causing a
change in the sensor's electrical output.
Thermal

Working Principle
These sensors utilize the differing heat capacities of dry and humid air. They measure
the time it takes for a heated element to cool down, with higher humidity leading to faster
cooling and a change in the sensor's signal.

Applications

- HVAC systems: Maintaining optimal humidity levels in buildings for comfort, air
quality, and preventing mold growth.
- Agriculture: Monitoring humidity in greenhouses, fields, and storage facilities for
optimal crop growth and preventing spoilage.
- Industrial processes: Controlling humidity in manufacturing processes for product
quality, preventing corrosion, and ensuring safety.
- Weather monitoring: Measuring humidity levels for weather forecasting and climate
studies.
- Medical equipment: Monitoring humidity in medical devices and incubators for optimal
patient care.

Advantages

- Improved accuracy and control: Precise humidity measurements allow for better
control of environments and processes.
- Enhanced efficiency and productivity: Optimized humidity levels can improve energy
efficiency in HVAC systems and enhance crop yields in agriculture.
- Reduced costs and risks: Maintaining optimal humidity can prevent equipment
damage, product spoilage, and health risks associated with excessive moisture or
dryness.
- Real-time data and automation: Many sensors offer real-time data and integration with
automation systems for continuous monitoring and control.

Disadvantages

- Sensor sensitivity and accuracy: Different sensor types have varying sensitivities and
accuracy levels, requiring careful selection for specific applications.
- Calibration and maintenance: Regular calibration and maintenance are important for
maintaining sensor accuracy and performance.
 - Environmental factors: Factors like temperature, dust, and contaminants can affect
sensor readings and require consideration.
- Cost: High-precision sensors can be expensive, especially for specialized
applications.

Specification

DISSOLVED OXYGEN SENSOR

Dissolved oxygen (DO) sensors are vital tools for monitoring the health of aquatic
ecosystems. They measure the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, which is crucial for the survival
of most aquatic organisms. Low DO levels can indicate pollution, eutrophication, or other
environmental stressors, making these sensors essential for environmental monitoring, aquaculture,
wastewater treatment, and various other applications.

Electrochemical

Working Principle
These sensors utilize a membrane-covered cathode and anode separated by an
electrolyte. Dissolved oxygen diffuses through the membrane and reacts with the electrodes,
generating a current proportional to the DO concentration.
Luminescent

Working Principle
These sensors contain a luminescent dye and a light source. When excited by light,
the dye emits light of a different wavelength. The intensity of the emitted light decreases with
increasing DO concentration due to quenching by oxygen molecules.
Applications
- Environmental monitoring: Measuring DO levels in water bodies like rivers, lakes, and
oceans to assess water quality and aquatic health.
- Wastewater treatment: Monitoring DO levels in wastewater treatment plants to ensure
efficient microbial activity and optimize treatment processes.
- Aquaculture: Maintaining optimal DO levels in fish farms and aquariums for healthy
fish growth.
- Agriculture: Monitoring DO levels in hydroponic systems for optimal plant growth.
- Medical: Measuring DO levels in blood for diagnosis and monitoring of certain
conditions.
Advantages
- Real-time monitoring: DO sensors provide continuous and real-time data on DO
levels.
- High sensitivity: Modern sensors can detect very low levels of dissolved oxygen.
- Compact and portable: Many sensors are small and lightweight, making them easy to
transport and deploy.
- Reliable and durable: DO sensors are generally robust and can withstand harsh
environments.
Disadvantages
- Maintenance: Electrochemical sensors require regular cleaning and calibration to
maintain accuracy.
- Membrane fouling: The membrane in electrochemical sensors can become clogged
with debris, affecting performance.
- Cost: Some sensors, particularly luminescent types, can be expensive.
- Limitations in specific environments: Certain sensors may not perform well in high-
salinity or highly polluted water.

Specification