STRUCTURAL

DESIGN
Master’s degree in
Buildings Engineering

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN POLITECNICO DI TORINO

Department of Structural, Geotechnical

OF STRUCTURES
and Buildings Engineering
(DISEG)

Diego GINO, PhD

[email protected]
Fundamental rules

Conception of a structure: identifying, developing and assessing different design

alternatives. All activities and developments leading from the design criteria to a suitable
structural solution.

A satisfactory structural performance is a consequence of a conceptual design

based on:

 simplicity, uniformity and symmetry

 hyperstaticity, continuity (redundance and robustness)

 resistance and stiffness of the whole structure with reference to lateral actions

 resistance and stiffness of the whole structure for torsional effects

 resistance and stiffness of the floors within their own horizontal plane

 adequacy of the foundations with respect to type of the soil

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Criteria to select the structural solution

The selection of the structural solution should be performed taking into account
that it will have to withstand to:
 Vertical actions
 Horizontal actions

Vertical actions

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Horizontal actions Bracing systems

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Analysis of the «load paths»
With the aim to perform the design of a structure the first and crucial step it is to
understand how the loads are carried from the floors to the foundation level (load path):

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 Behaviour of the structural elements

1D 2D 3D
(beams, columns, …) (shells, plates, (D-regions)
membranes, walls)

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 Understanding the “load paths”

1. Flow of vertical loads

in the horizontal
plane (from the floor to
the column)

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2. Flow of vertical
loads in the vertical
plane (from the
columns of each floor to
the foundation)
1 2 3 4
Notes
1-2-3 → simple paths (‘diercts’)

4-5-6 → complex paths

7 → solution strongly asymmetrical
(high in-plane rotations - torque)
not reccommended
5 6
8 → solution close to be symmetrical
(low in-plane rotations)
reccomended

3. Flow of horizontal
loads

7 8

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The horizontal actions
(wind, earthquake) can act
in any direction, and
therefore it is necessary to
provide elements to absorb
them in two directions
perpendicular to each other
 bracing systems

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The analysis starts from the secondary elements to pass, following the path of the loads,
to the main elements and arrive at the foundations.
The reactions at support of an element become loads for the supporting element (see
example)

Free-body diagrams according to load

paths approach
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Choose the configuration of the structural system
The study of working direction of floor systems and position of columns is closely
connected to the architectural layout and intended use of the structure.

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 Disposition of vertical structural elements
The decision about the positioning of vertical elements should be performed acconting for:

 the minimum requirements for dimensions of functional modules

 that the vertical elements with bearing function can be columns or walls
 the orientation of major inertia direction of vertical elements is determined according to
load paths and orientation of principal beams and frames
 that the decks (i.e. floors) can work as one-way or two-ways systems

a1, a2: minimum functional

modules
(e.g. minimum distance
between vertical elements)

Disposition of basic
functional modules

Vertical
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CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF STRUCTURES systems 12 12
Which is the best solution?

The solution is not

unic, no «a priori»
answer exist!

The answer can only be found during the development of the project and in
response to the needs of the various figures involved (client, architect, structural
engineer, geotechnician, plant engineer, construction company, ...)
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Disposition of bracing systems
Braced frame

 Steel structures

Truss system

Pendulum structure

Rigid frame (moment resisting frame)

Shear wall
Rigid node
Rigid node
 Steel structures
 RC structures

Unbraced Braced

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Examining the spatial complex the response of the building, it must result:

 Each floor acts as a plate restrained by vertical bracing systems

 The floor must also be able transfer horizontal actions coming from the
overall behavior of the building  rigid behaviour (easy to be realized in
RC solutions, more difficult for steel ones)

 The bracings must guarantee at least 3 constraint conditions at each

floor (i.e., at least isostatic):

- 2 translations (x and y)

- 1 in plane rotation (torsional)

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 Each bracing element provides constraint conditions that correspond to the
displacememt that is it is able to control:

RC shear wall or truss sytem Simple support

Crossing of shear walls or Hinge

truss systems

RC core Full restraint

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 Example of scheme for disposition of bracing systems (shear walls)

F1
1
F2 a
2
F3 a
3
R3
R1 R2
q
L

qL
1) q distributed R=
1 R=
2 R=
3 0
2

F ⋅ 2a + F2 ⋅ a
R1 = − R2 =1
2) F1 F2 F3 L
R3 = F1 + F2 + F3
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 It is possible to define some criteria to be followed for good practice to locate both
vertical elements and bracing systems:

Regularity:

 Simplicity: clear and direct load paths for the transmission of actions (vertical and lateral)
from the point in which they are applied up to the foundations.
Structural simplicity allows:

- simple dimensioning and sizing;

- easy realization of numerical models for structural analysis;
- easy estimation of effects of actions
- construction details that are easy to be conceived and realized

Not correct Appropriate

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 Uniformity and Symmetry: the structure must be designed in such a way to ensure a uniform
distribution of loads (vertical and lateral) and a uniform distribution of resistant elements.
In particular, it is necessary to ensure:

- uniformity in mass distribution  affects the location of center of masses (CM)

- uniformity in the distribution of stiffness and resistance (and therefore in the distribution of vertical
elements)  affects the location of center of stiffness (CR)

A good solution is able to minimize as

much as possible the distance between
the center of the stiffness and the
center of the masses. This result may
be achieved by uniformity and
symmetry criteria for disposition of
e vertical elements.

Crucial when seismic issues dominate

the design!!!

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 As for example (similar considerations may be exploited for other horizontal actions as wind):
the action of an earthquake on a building, and more generally on a structure, consists of structural
accelerations which can be represented by horizontal inertia forces at the level of the various floors of the
building, where the mass is assumed to be concentrated. The point at which this force is applied is called
the 'center of masses'.

The effect of such horizontal forces on the generic floor is to translate the floor as a rigid body with
respect to the floor below.

The relative displacements between floors, induces on the frames and walls the arising of resistant shear
forces inside that members, which are proportional to their stiffness. The resultant of that orces, for each
floor, is turns out to be concentrated in ‘center of stiffness’.

If center of masses and center of stiffness do not coincide, a torque moment around
the center of stiffness arises increasing the demand in terms of dispalcements on the
colums that are far from that center

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 Examples of regularity:

In-plane regularity

Not correct Appropriate

In-elevation regularity

NotStructural
correct Appropriate
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Redundancy (hyperstaticity)  robustness

Robustness with respect to accidental actions is the capacity of a structure to cope with
accidental events (such as fire, explosions, impacts, etc.) or the consequences of human
errors without suffering disproportionately excessive damage if compared to the original
cause.

Specific design for robustness in crucial for “sensitive structures” and can be achieve by
means of:

 design against specific damaging scenarios (e.g., removal of one ore more columns)
 alternative load paths

 design adopting prescriprions and detailing for robustness specified by standards 

additional floor reinforcement (floor chains)

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Floor with mono or bi-directional behaviour?
With reference to the generic floor field (related to the
functional module), it is possible to realize floors with mono
(1D) or bi (2D) directional behaviour.

How can I decide which kind of solution fits better? Floor field

From the structural point of view, the choice is affected by

these 3 parameters:

 Shape of the floor field: maximum effectiveness of 2D elements for square shapes,
gradually reduced effectiveness for elongated shapes (usually used up to L2/L1<1.5
with L2>L1).

 Size of the floor field: fields smaller than 10÷12 m can be effectively covered with
2D behavior elements (i.e., beyond the floor becomes too heavy). For superior
spans it is better to use 1D solutions (that allow to reduce the weight of the floor).

 Typology of loads applied on the floor field: for distributed (or concentrated, but
mobile) loads, it is preferable to have 2D behavior elements. For concentrated (or
spatially fixed forces)1D elements.

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  Example

Which solution to choose between the two shown in the figures?

In other words, which solution involves a smaller volume of material or a lower thickness of the structural
package?

As usual, a unic answer to the question does not exist, but depends on the value of the lights and the size
of the load. We can have some considerations:

 If we imagine L1= 9m, L2 = 24m we can think of using prefabricated floor elements and cast in-situ main beams.

 Commonly, for L2 large in absolute value (as in the case taken for example), it is better to opt for solution a) keeping the
beam as short as possible.

 When the absolute size of L2 is small (and therefore its thickness is small) it is often preferable to adopt solution b)

In most of the cases the solution a) is prefereable with respect to b)

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 Different functional requirements for the same building or
complex of buildings
Frequently, the same building need to fulfill several
functional requirements (e.g., conference rooms or
halls in hotels…)

 Separate larger volume.

Solution that respects simplicity and consistency

 Greater volume positioned at the bottom, with the

solution maintained throughout the height. Uniformity is
maintained, but it is not economically satisfactory.

 Greater volume positioned at the bottom, with standard solution

for the rest of the height. It needs an element of great
resistance to bring the columns in false.

 Larger volume positioned at the top. Structurally

correct solution, but functionally inadequate (access
of people)

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Integration with service systems
The definition of the structural solution have to take into account that the building need to
arrange and dispose also service systems for energy supply, air conditioning, lightening,
etc…

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  Examples of floor package: clay/concrete mixed floor

Pavement

Pevement heating system,

waterproofing layer, insulation layer,
etc…
Lightweight concrete layer («massetto
in calcestruzzo leggero») 10-15 cm
Services can be integrated here!!

The structural package is just a part of the total floor Structural package
thickness!!! (e.g., clay/cement mix floor, steel
with corruagates sheets) –
The total thickness and related dead and carried thickness defined according to
permanent loads depends from the choices of the structural needs
needed stratigraphy.

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 The thisckness of the floor system
 Examples of floor package: steel floors (slab) is in general not enougth to
allow for the location of service
plants

The primary or secondary beams can be

designed with appropriate holes in the webs to
allow for services realitazion.

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Influence of the span length
The length of the span is certainly a crucial factor in identifying the structural system.

Beyond certain level of spans, it is necessary to adopt systems able to increase the internal
level arm of structural members (i.e., distance between compression and tension zone)
mono-directional (1D) bi-directional (2D)

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 Increasing the span lenght, it may be necessary to increase the number of
«structural levels»

 One-level system  Two-levels system  Three-levels system

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Expansion joints in buildings

The effect of uniform thermal variation may induce significant stresses in long
buildings (e.g., from summer to winter ΔT).

It is recommended to size expansion joints to accommodate thermal induced

displacements in case of buildings with L ≥ 30m

The expansion joint is physically realized by

disconnecting or splitting the main structural
frames (e.g., doubling 1 alignment of columns)

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 The principle to size of the expansion joints can be following: JBeam >> JColumn

T D T

T JT T JT h

Jc Jc h
T T

T T h

L1 L2

𝐿𝐿1,2
𝛿𝛿1,2 = 𝛼𝛼 � � ∆𝑇𝑇 D = 𝛿𝛿1+ 𝛿𝛿2
2
Displacement of the building in horizontal Size of expansion joint
direction due to uniform thermal variation (only thermal effects, be careful in seismic
(seasonal effect) design – hammering effect)
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Staircases
The stairs of within buildings may be designed using variuos materials and solutions:

- RC stairs

- Steel stairs

- Mixed solutions

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The sizing criteria of staircases can be assumed as the following:

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 Steel solutions

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 RC solutions

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Foundations systems
Foundations should be able to distribute and transfer loads from vertical elements
to the ground:

The choice of the type of foundation depend on:

 the load level: soil resistance is lower than the one structural members (need of
bigger surfaces to distribute loads)

 the type of soil (geotechnical considerations for evaluation of the resistance and
interaction of the system soil-foundation-structure) – not in this course

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 Typologies of foundations

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Note 1

If isolated footings are used, in particular for sesmic areas, connections beams
are reccomended in order to:
Connection beam
- accomodate differential settlements
- distribute and transfer horizontal actions

Poor concrete
Footing (5 cm)
Gravel

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Note 2: Steel structures vs RC strcutures

In steel structures foundations are in general realized with the same solutions with respsect
RC structures.
The difference is that if for RC structures the column is monolithic with the foundation, in steel
structures is neccessary to apprpriate design the connection

 In steel structures

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 In RC structures

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 Note 3: RC foundation should not be
directly in contact with the soil

In general, a poor concrete layer (5-10 cm)

should be realized before to cast the RC
foundation: RC foundation
Poor concrete
- realization of a plane surface (5-10 cm)
- avoid contact of reinforcement and
concrete with the soil (aggressives)
 Realization of the reinforcement cage up to the poor
 Operations of realization of poor concrete layer on the soil concrete layer

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Pres-sizing rules for foundations

Foundations shoud be designed accounting for geotechnical issues and interaction of the
foundation systems with the structure  dedicated geotechnical and structural analysis and
verifications are needed

Pre-sizing of isolated foundations

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑞𝑞
(related to
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 design value of the capacity of the
axial force soil/structure
system)
q limit pressure for the
soil

(related to shear
1 1
 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐵𝐵 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐵𝐵 resistance of the
10 15
footing)

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Typical values of q for type of soils:

Clay Soils: Sand Soils:

Soft Clay: 0.025 to 0.050 MPa Loose Sand: 0.050 to 0.100 MPa
Medium Clay: 0.050 to 0.100 MPa Medium Dense Sand: 0.100 to 0.200 MPa
Stiff Clay: 0.100 to 0.200 MPa
Very Stiff Clay: 0.200 to 0.400 MPa
Dense Sand: 0.200 to 0.300 MPa
Very Dense Sand: 0.300 to 0.400 MPa
Silt Soils:
Loose Silt: 0.025 to 0.050 MPa Gravelly Soils:
Dense Silt: 0.050 to 0.100 MPa Loose Gravel: 0.100 to 0.200 MPa
Dense Gravel: 0.200 to 0.300 MPa
Very Dense Gravel: 0.300 to 0.600 MPa

Rock:
Soft Rock: 0.400 to 1.600 MPa
Hard Rock: 1.600 to 3.200 MPa or more

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References

- Structures – Daniel L. Schodek (ISBN 0-13-855304-1).

- Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods, 5th Edition - Edward Allen, Joseph
Iano (ISBN 978-0-470-07468-8).
- Concrete Buildings Scheme Design Manual, O. Brooker (ISBN 1-904818-44-7).
- F. Angotti, M. Guiglia, P. Marro e M. Orlando, Progetto delle strutture in calcestruzzo armato.
- A. W. Beeby and R. S. Narayanan, Designers’ Guide to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode
2: Design of Concrete Structures. General Rules and Rules for Buildings and Structural Fire Design
- M. Pagano, Teoria degli edifici, Liguori Editore.
- EN1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, CEN, Brussels.

- http://www.steelconstruction.info/Multi-storey_office_buildings
- http://www.steelconstruction.info/Single_storey_industrial_buildings
- Strutture in acciaio per l’edilizia civile ed industriale – D. Danieli, F. De Miranda
- Architettura acciaio. Edifici civili – F. Hart, W. Henn, H. Sontag
- Fondamenti di tecnica delle costruzioni – a cura di Mauro Mezzina
- Building Construction Illustrated, 4th Edition – Francis D.K. Ching (ISBN 978-0-470-08781-7)
- “Progettare costruzioni in acciaio” – G. Ballio e C.Bernuzzi – Heopli
- “Strutture in acciaio” – G. Ballio, F.M. Mazzolani – Hoepli
- “Progetto di strutture in acciaio” – N. Scibilia – Flaccovio 2005
- “ESDEP, Structural Steelwork Eurocodes: Development of a Transnational Approach (1998)
- Steel Structures Design Based on Eurocode 3, Farzad Hejazi , Tan Kar Chun, Springer

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