Studies in Gestalt Therapy 2(2), 43-56

James I. Kepner

Towards a More Deeply Embodied Approach in

Gestalt Therapy 1
This article critiques and assesses the development of body-oriented work
in gestalt therapy. Strengths of the gestalt therapy approach are highlighted as
work with the "actual," and holding an integral viewpoint. The author criti-
ques limitations in the field involving a narrow epistemology of the founding
perspective, the inadequacy of awareness alone for psychophysical change,
the inclusion of structural concepts, and the need for physical methodology
including touch and movement and other somatic methods. A brief model is
offered for appreciating the multi-level complexity of a more fully embodied
approach.
Key words: Body-oriented work, gestalt therapy, epistemology, gestalt
therapy training, non-dualistic approach, self, organism/ environment field,
figure/ ground, structured ground, awareness, patterns and organization,
developmental theory.

Borfy Process: A Gestalt Approach to Working With the Borfy in P.rychotherapy

(Kepner, 1987) was published 21 years ago. The book was my attempt to
articulate a fuller body-oriented psychotherapy from the gestalt therapy ap-
proach. Gestalt therapy certainly had interest in body process and experience
but, up to that time, the actual methodology for body-oriented practice was
very limited. I found the ways in which gestalt therapists utilized more inten-
sive body therapeutic techniques to be a kind of grafting of often incompati-
ble methods or approaches onto gestalt therapy technique. This often re-
sulted in an unintegrated hodge-podge. As a "Young Turk" at the brash age
of 34, I also had the motivation to "correct" my elders and teachers in the
gestalt therapy world who, I thought, did not go far enough in working with
the body. My training in hands-on body methods, as well as my more inten-
sive study of processes such as posture, body structure, and breathing, gave
me a perspective, and a belief that I had something to say.

1 This section was edited by Neil Harris.

Towards a More Deepfy Embodied Approach ]. I. Kepner

Still, it was in many ways only the articulation of a starting point for a worlds. Body process is no sooner observed or reported than there is an
gestalt therapy body-oriented approach. Only now, after many years of prac- attempt to assign it meaning in some way. A client has an internal sensation
tice, am I more fully encompassing what a deeply embodied approach really and the therapist asks, "So what is it like?" Or one interprets body process
is. I am grateful nonetheless for the continued place Bocfy Process has in the metaphorically, e. g., chest pains are obviously wounds of the heart. Or one
gestalt therapy literature as a foundational text for many training programs. sees it as representational of a larger story, much as dream images are seen as
Given a world where most books come and go within a year or so, being condensed images describing a larger and more complex narrative.
seen as relevant 21 years into publication says something - but what is it In a non-dualistic, holistic, integral approach, however, we view the body
saying? as intrinsic to the person-as-embodied, rather than as an epiphenomenon
While I would like to think that the durability of this text is due to my through which we interpret a separate "psyche." By attending to, and en-
great erudition, I'm afraid that it may more likely represent how little we've hancing actual body process and experience, without jumping to the repre-
advanced in formulating a more rich body-oriented approach in gestalt ther- sentational, meaning emerges naturally from it as more complexly organized
apy. That Bocfy Process has not been superseded is perhaps an implicit critique figures are formed. Working with body experience in a way that stays closer
of the state of gestalt therapy in regards to working with one's embodied to the actual sensations, actual movements, actual process, is more "expe-
reality. rience-near,'' compared to abstracted interpretations of body experience.
There are some truly important things the gestalt therapy orientation to When we move too readily to the representational, to what body experience
body process and somatic experience has to say. And at the same time, there means rather than what it is as an actual process in-and-of-itself, we end up
are some areas in which our theory has severely limited our creativity and many steps removed from real, concrete experience of embodiment.
thinking The gestalt therapy approach has some particular strengths in terms By staying close to the actual, body experience and process as it is expe-
of understanding and working with body process and experience therapeuti- rienced, we can put together a whole sequence that tends to speak for itself:
cally, and simultaneously some critical lacks in this regard. There have been a more complete figure/ ground that maps more closely onto the emergent
what I believe to be some artificial restrictions in the way that we view our process, and which moves clients closer to an integral relationship with their
approach, which have limited some important areas of development and being. Their body process and experience makes sense not because we sym-
which leave us handicapped in formulating a more complete body-based bolize or interpret it, but because it becomes given as intrinsic to their self-
therapeutic approach. experience.
This understanding of the body-as-actual is essential because it provides a
It's the Real Thing . .. ground and reference point that counterbalances much of where both clients
Body process and experience are so useful in therapy because they have and therapists get themselves into trouble: by imagining things that are not
such immediacy and actuality in our experience. What is happening physical- real. While one's imagination can fabricate notions that appear real, interpre-
ly, somatically, is given in our experience, and often readily observed as well. tive theories included, these are not necessarily what is actual and true in our
Tightening of shoulders, stopping of breathing, the emergent internal sensa- experience and contacting. One can generate feelings of fear by imagining
tions of warmth or discomfort are all definite occurrences rather than scary things, but the present, embodied experience of one's feet on the floor,
thoughts about, abstractions from, or representations of experience. one's legs as support, one's dorsal strength and capacity and internal flow of
Most therapists, if they attend to the body at all, tend to take body breathing, generate a very different sense of self, grounded in what is imme-
process and body experience as "nonverbal communication" or as some- diate, real and demanding. This is importantly different from what is gener-
thing symbolic, metaphorical, or representational in nature. This is a remnant ated in the virtual world of one's imagination.
of psychoanalysis and the distinctness therein of psychological and somatic
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Towards a More Deeply Embodied Approach J. I. Kepner
Botfy Process: Sequence Is Not "Conversion" Missing Pieces
Another strength of the integral approach to body-as-self intrinsic to ges- As a writer whose topic has always been fundamentally integrative in na-
talt therapy is the way we look at somatic symptoms. In traditional therapies, ture, I have frequently objected to narrow and overly purist definitions of
bodily symptoms have been seen as a kind of "conversion" of psychological gestalt therapy. Revolutionary as the holistic view of gestalt therapy was at its
distress into the somatic realm. The very notion of conversion rests on the outset, this narrowness of focus in gestalt therapy created significant road-
erroneous notion that the "psychological" occupies a related but entirely blocks to developing a more widely applicable and relevant way of working
separate sphere of reality from the somatic. But in an integral view many in gestalt therapy, and especially in body-oriented work. This narrowness
somatic symptoms like pains, tensions, even changes in function, are not included an ideological allegiance to certain epistemological and theoretical
conversions from the psychological to the somatic but rather embodied notions and a general attitude of abhorrence of content knowledge and
processes that appear mysterious only because they have been disconnected structural theories, as if they are somehow inappropriate to be integrated
from their sequence or context. with the "pure process" orientation of gestalt therapy. This attitude generally
For example, a client's report of a history of restricted breathing does not has hamstrung the development and advancement of the gestalt therapy.
need to be interpreted as "repressed sadness,'' sadness being seen as a "psy- Since my suggestions represent a plea to broaden our epistemology in
chological" tension. Gestalt therapy methodology gives us experiential ways gestalt therapy, I hope the reader will allow a brief divergence while I discuss
to explore these tensions and discover from experience that they are an iso- this and how it applies to working with the body.
lated part of the natural sequence of crying movements and holding against these move-
Undoing Gestalt Therapy's Narrow Epistemolog/
ments. What started as symptom becomes restored to its context as a part of
natural, sequential movement: flow from the abdomen through the chest, Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman (1951) argued that, from a field perspec-
which forms the activity of sobbing along with the activity of controlling sob- tive, "body," "mind," and other reductions are not separate entities but ra-
bing. ther abstractions from the field of organism and environment (the O/E
This is the natural sequence of how grief is felt and expressed in the field).
body, and what we have here is not "repressed grief", nor the "somatic con- From the point of view of psychotherapy, when there is good contact
version" of sadness, because sadness is intrinsical!J somatic in nature and - e. g., a clear bright figure freely energized from an empty background -
cannot be converted into something it already is. What we have is the action then there is no peculiar problem concerning the relations of "mind" and
of crying and holding against crying isolated into sensation in such a way to "body" or "self' and "external world." (p. 255)
obscure its sequence and context as movement. Although it may seem to In experience, from this perspective, these aspects of the field appear to
gestalt therapy readers that I am underscoring an obvious point, my expe- be seamless unless adjustment was problematic in some way. "The body"
rience is that this insight from the gestalt therapy approach is not at all ob- only becomes abstracted when some experience of distress or deliberateness
vious to many therapists. It is often lost as well to gestalt therapists whose makes that aspect of our experience figural, or when body process is felt to
work with the body tends to be more cursory in nature. The notion that be an interference with some other important figure, thus interfering with
bodily process and experience is intrinsic to self process and experience, what contact. By "abstracted" they mean rendered in experience as separate from
I refer to as "the intrinsic embodiment of human reality," and that all contact the more seamless whole of the field. The "body" is some selected aspects of
is bodily in nature, is more often espoused than practiced.
2
This topic deserves a much longer discussion than the aims of this paper can en-
compass. My comments are intended to set the context for viewing body-oriented
work rather than to be a complete discussion.
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Towards a More Deep!J Embodied Approach J. I. Kepner
our bodily sensation, movement, and functioning which is felt to be more ly because the structured nature of ground may prevent it. We therefore need
"it" and less "I" than other aspects of our bodily sensation, movement, and structural theories and objective fields of knowledge to give us maps for the
functioning. This is not an objective reality, but a subjective one. possibilities of ground structures, so that our experiments may be informed
Basic splits of this kind are never simple errors that may be corrected by these possibilities and underlying frameworks. An example of this is the
by adducing new evidence, but they are themselves given in the evidence of structured ground of trauma response that gets patterned into nervous sys-
experience. (p. 256) tem organization. Much in contact is impossible to address so long as the
Therapy, therefore, is the experiment with conditions that might engend- therapy does not deal with the neurobiological responses conditioned by
er a different kind of experience: trauma.
Similarly, much of what is intrinsic to our bodily reality and life is critical-
For how to learn .. against the evidence of one's senses? ... It is a
ly influenced by structures of ground such as body structure, nervous system
process of experimental life-situations that are venturesome as explorations
response patterns, movement patterns laid down by early developmental
of the dark and disconnected, yet are at the same time safe, so that the de-
liberate attitude may be relaxed. (p. 266) processes, and so on. It is impossible to work cogently and completely as a
body-oriented therapist without appreciating these underlying biological and
This argument circumvented the claim to objective authority by the the-
developmental psychological realities and having a conceptual map outside
rapist in favor of orientation centered on the client's experience. Having
of gestalt therapy itself in order to see how they might influence present
somewhat conveniently narrowed the scope of "psychology" to subjective
experience.
experience and carved out the work for gestalt therapy as that of contact and
With our fine methodology for process, and belief in the transformative
subjective experience, gestalt therapy developed a rather marvelous array of
powers of awareness, it is sometimes difficult for gestalt therapists to appre-
techniques for experimenting with experience. However, this narrowing of
ciate how exclusion of this important scientific knowledge has narrowed our
subject matter and epistemology to the subjective, has left us with a focus
field's focus. Process does not in and of itself inform us about the underlying
functionally severed from the larger fields of psychology, neuroscience, deve-
structures and mechanisms that are intrinsic to embodied experience, and are
lopmental psychology, and other areas of science and discourse.
critical in guiding useful interventions. There has been a spirit of ideological
Thus we are left with an exquisite methodology for working with expe-
purity in gestalt therapy, which has limited our drawing on realms outside of
rience, but we are terribly uninformed by objective perspectives and con-
our practice that are critical to a more cogent practice. This spirit has insisted
cepts. Nor does our theory articulate an integral way of relating theory and
that it is inappropriate to utilize any concepts that are structural in nature or
concepts from the sciences to our method. If gestalt therapy is not to be-
that do not emerge from process and awareness. This purist spirit sometimes
come (or, perhaps, it already is) irrelevant to the larger world of psychothe-
objects to objective scientific frames of reference, as if they all are somehow
rapy except as a set of techniques, then we must articulate a broader episte-
violations of gestalt therapy precepts, which are in the creative and artistic
mology that does not exclude important areas of knowledge as if they are
realm. In fact, this spirit has, in my mind, actually limited our creativity and
not relevant to gestalt therapy.
narrowed our appreciation of the complexity of human experience. Nowhere
Another way of saying this, as Wheeler (1996) noted, is that there is no emp-
is this more apparent to me than in body-oriented practice.
ty background The notion is illusory. The ground is not only populated but The usefulness of character structure theories and understanding of the
also structured in nature. It is actually full of all sorts of things that influence,
underlying neurobiology of experience are just two examples. Having an
shape, foster, and constrain our figure-formation at the contact-boundary.
understanding of the patterns of body structure and how they precondition
Structured ground means that we cannot assume that critical awareness will
contact and body experience allows us to develop directions for experiments
necessarily emerge naturally from fostering awareness in the present, precise-
that simply won't otherwise present themselves to awareness because they
48 49
Towards a More Deeply Embodied Approach J. I. Kepner
are fixed ground conditions. As well, any life events, such as trauma reac- the "Concentration Therapy" of Fritz Perls, for example (Perls, 1969), does
tions, are as much neurobiological events as they are "meaning" events. Em- not (Kepner, 2003).
bodied intervention must knowledgeably work to actively alter neurobiologi-
cal conditions or healing will not happen. Reworking figure/ ground, unfold- Pl:ysical Methods for Bocfy Therapy
ing meaning, and contact will not change the trauma response in the nervous All this underlines the importance of developing a repertoire of interven-
system. Similarly, gestalt therapy does not have a methodology for touch tions in body process and experience that are grounded in physicality. These
intervention, which is an important embodied mode of contact and commu- include the use of touch, movement work that cover the range from suppor-
nication. Continuing to look only to our own theory will keep us narrow in tive and developmental movement to expressive movement, work with body
this regard. energy and flow, breathing and so on. I see gestalt therapy's utility in its syn-
What follows are some of the areas we must broaden, reaching beyond cretic capacity (Kepner, 2000b). Ironically, it is our theoretical looseness, not
what has been given in the initial formulation of gestalt therapy to make a our theoretical rigor, that is our strength as it allows us to draw from metho-
more complete body-oriented approach possible. dologies outside our given approach. Since these are only developed rudi-
mentarily within the traditional gestalt therapy approach, we must reach
Awareness Is Not Sufficient for Psychoprysical Change
outside gestalt therapy to acquire more specific, knowledgeable, and detailed
Being a therapy of awareness, gestalt therapy has a bias that awareness physical interventions.
alone is the agent of change. If, however, our physical nature is intrinsic to This may be one of the reasons why development of more deeply body-
how we are, then the realities of embodied life have to be considered in the oriented gestalt work has been slow: to learn additional body approaches
process of change. To change anything that involves our motor (muscular) takes time and dedication. It is like having to learn two or three professional
functioning requires practice and repetition. Simply being aware of what is fields rather than only one. Without it, though, little new can be contributed
and what is needed is insufficient for change. This is true whether we are to the limited existing framework of embodied work in gestalt therapy. Ilana
trying to change our golf swing, our grounding, or our tightening against Rubenfeld (2000) studied Feldenkrais and Alexander Technique to acquire a
tears. Awareness alone does not produce change without repeated bodily more deeply somatic methodology. Years of study were required for Ruella
action and movement. Frank (2001) to master the developmental movement theory and framework
Habits of adaptation, tension, and movement also can become literally of Body-Mind Centering (Bainbridge-Cohen, Nelson, and Smith, 1993)
structured and rigidified into our physical tissue. Changing the embodied while also learning gestalt therapy, and to integrate them. My own studies of
nature of such processes requires doing physical things that actually change energy work, neurobiology, body structure and developmental movement,
the tissue. That is to say, direct physical intervention must be used in order and finding ways to bring these procedures and theories into gestalt therapy
to affect body tissue, movement organization, and neurological organization. experiments and organization of experience, have been a continuous and
Awareness itself may be an interactive phenomenon of the subtle energy long-term project.
within the nervous system rather than only a cognitive or psychological phe-
nomenon. Body awareness itself appears to be importantly dependent on the Where We Are and What Is Needed
flow of subtle energy through the nervous system. In this way, one's capacity It might be helpful to have a framework to understand what needs to be
to be aware of body process and experience depends on the degree to which added to gestalt therapy in order to elaborate a more deeply embodied ap-
one's nervous system is available to energy flow. Methodology that opens proach. One framework is to see how our therapeutic framework orients
the pathways of energy through the nervous system engenders a much high- from a "level of view," or scale of focus. A present-centered, here-and-now
er degree of body awareness in a way that mere attention and concentration, focus on process is a very close-in viewpoint and, in a way, a narrow frame
50 51
Towards a More Deepfy Embodied Approach ]. I. Kepner

of reference. Our view may stay very close to what is happening and what is manage contact and experience are not creatively unlimited but very much
observed, or we may "step back" and look at things from a bit further away, given in our common biology, our somatic coping equipment. From this
in a way that abstracts the particulars and relates them to a larger framework. perspective it is not the creativity of our adjustment but the somatic com-
Each level of stepping back (or, alternatively, moving further above) is sug- monality of human adjustment possibilities that makes body-oriented thera-
gested by additional meters of distance in this metaphor. I will frame them py so useful because they pre-organize individual experience.
specifically in terms of body therapy concerns. These patterns influence functioning and experience in generalizable
Gestalt therapists traditionally work from a very close-in viewpoint that ways, which means that therapists can be assisted by general principles of
we can call the 0.5 meter and 1 meter view. I describe it as follows: bodily organization that apply across individuals, even though they may ex-
0.5 Meter (1:1 scale) View: Here and Now Boqy Process perienced differently in a subjective sense. There are two ways to look at
these cross-individual patterns, slightly different levels of view or abstraction:
At this close-in view we focus on the clients' emergent body
sensation, movement, and gesture in the therapeutic moment. 5 Meter (5:1 scale) View: Inherent!J (across Individuals) Organized
Patterns
To see more than each moment one at a time we have to step back and
If you step back metaphorically another couple of meters you
see how emergent processes form patterns.
see that there are groupings of bodily form and function. One
1 Meter (2:1 scale) View: Patterns of Boqy Process. set of patterns is that of body structure. People with thin, taut,
Over time we can see repetitive patterns of body process, over body organization and narrowed body volumes will tend to be
the length of a therapeutic encounter or even over many en- asthenic and intellectual with a tendency to disconnect from
counters, such as the repetitive way a client minimizes his/her their bodily life in favor of cooler logic and thought. People
breathing to control the intensity of his/her bodily and emo- with thickened and dense musculature and barrel-like body vo-
tional experience, or the characteristic way a client restrains lumes will tend to set themselves into place, both physically and
his/her right arm when approaching issues involving aggres- emotionally, and organize towards difficulty from an attitude of
sion. enduring suffering. In other words, those with similar shaping
Within these levels of view, we need make no assumptions about or ge- and bodily organization will tend to share common (but not all)
features of adaptation, defense, and experience. It is precisely
neralizations beyond this individual. Observing and putting together patterns
because these set patterns influence experience but are not giv-
of process does not per se require a theoretical structure that likens this indi-
en in the person's experience (structure is, to use Gordon
vidual's process to those of others. Thus the client's meaning need only be Wheeler's phrase, structured into the ground) that body therap-
derived from that individual's experience. ists need to be able to see these patterns - because the client
Gestalt therapists tend to resist going beyond these levels of view because will not.
of their emphasis on the individual person as implicitly creative. With apolo-
And these patterns of bodily form and organization also can be seen to
gies to fans of Otto Rank, the truth is that most of our adjustment is simp!J
have implications as well when seen as part of a developmental sequence.
not all that creative in nature3 . The human organism is really more similar, one
to the other, than different. As embodied beings especially, the ways we can 20 Meter (20:1 scale) View: Developmental Boqy Patterns
Standing back a bit further, and abstracting a bit more, we gain
enough distance to see that these patterns are part of develop-
3 One of my teachers was asked by a New Age believer, "Well, don't we create our mental processes over time and are rooted in early develop-
own illness?" She responded with Churchillian raised eyebrow, "You are not that mental growth and adaptation. Body patterns of movement and
creative!"
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Towards a More Deep!J Embodied Approach J. I. Kepner
structure are not just meaningful because individuals share dling and skin contact, mother-infant gaze, mutual regulation of parasympa-
them with others of "like body" but also because they are theo- thetic states and feelings, mutual regulation of arousal and emotional states,
retically or scientifically related to a developmental context. and so forth.
Certain body structures may be adaptations from earlier phases
in infant and child development, and carry implicit in them the Towards an Embodied Future
concerns of those particular developmental periods. Adult dif- If I have been a bit peevish in my critique of our limitations here, it is be-
ficulties with physical support for contact may rest on missing cause I so fervently wish to see gestalt therapy occupy a greater place in the
steps in developmental movement sequences from earlier pe- field of body therapy than we have. Body psychotherapy has been dominated
riods.
in Europe by Reichian and Reichian-derived schools, and in the United
Having a developmental context to body process and organization makes States by bioenergetics and a plethora of newer approaches, which incorpo-
a tremendous difference for a body therapist. Developmental theory helps us rate much of gestalt therapy without recognition or credit to its origins. But
identify the bodily resources and supports needed for contact, and the deve- this failure of recognition is our own failure as gestalt therapists to take ad-
lopmental sequence helps us understand the order and hierarchy of experi- vantage of our methodology and to rigorously integrate new ideas and con-
ments: what needs to be attended to first, and what body process is built tent theories into the loose schema we have. We ourselves have not broken
upon what other body process. You have to crawl before you can walk, and free of our exciting but limited origins. There is so much wonderful work to
walk before you can run. The choice of experiment in body therapy is go- be done and gestalt therapy has much that would allow creative synthesis, if
verned not just by the "emergent figure," but also by an understanding of practitioners can immerse themselves in, and draw from, the body arts and
what is developmentally required in the sequence from less complexly orga- sciences that have been available to us since the inception of gestalt therapy.
nized contact to more complexly organized contact. Without an understand-
ing of development, including the development of bodily capacities and
organizations, our determination of what interventions are useful and appro- References
priate for a particular client at this particular time rests purely on whim or
Bainbridge Cohen, B., Nelson, L., & Smith, N. S. (1993). Sensing, feeling, and action: The
intuition. experiential anatomy of body-mind centering. Northampton, MA: Contact Editions.
Gestalt therapy itself has little to say about the sequence of development Frank, R. (2001). Body of awareness: A somatic and developmental approach to psychotherapy.
and growth, although there have been some laudable attempts at correcting Cambridge, MA: Gestalt Press.
Kepner, J. I. (1987). Body process: Working with the body in psychotherapy. Cleveland, OH:
this (Wheeler and McConville, 2002 & 2003) - and this is just as true in the
Gestalt Institute of Cleveland Press.
realm of embodiment. "Oral aggression" as a developmental theory, in a Kepner, J. I. (2000a). Embodied language: Embodied experience as self experience. Unpub-
modern context where so much more about child development is known, is lished manuscript.
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Gestalt Review, 4(4), 262-266.
singly limited and reductionist as the monotonic lens of classical psychoana-
Kepner, J. I. (2001 ). Touch in gestalt body process psychotherapy: Purpose, practice
lysis which reduced all development to the expression of sexuality (libido). and ethics. Gestalt Review, 5(2): 97-114.
We have confused a limited metaphor about engaged contact with actual Kepner, J. I. (2003). Energy & the nervous system in embodied experience. Pre-
psychobiological processes. One has only to participate in infant feeding to sented to the United States Association for Body Psychotherapy. Available for
recognize that there many different forms of movement engaged in this downloading at www.pathwaysforhealing.com.
Perls, F. S. (1969). Ego, hunger and aggression. New York: Vintage Books. (Originally
process well beyond chewing. Embodiment is intrinsically bound to mutual, published 1947.)
body-to-body social interaction and contact, such as bonding through han-

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Perls, F., Hefferline, R., & Goodman, P. (1951). Gestalt therapy: Excitement and growth
in the human personality. New York:] ulian Press.
Rubenfeld, I. (2000). The Listening Hand, New York: Bantam.
Wheeler, G. (1996). Gestalt reconsidered: A new approach to contact and resistance. New
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Wheeler, G., & McConville, M. (Eds.). (2002 & 2003). The heart of development: Gestalt
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& Vol. 2: Adolescence (2003). NY: Routledge.

Author
Jim Kepner Ph.D., is the author of Boc!J Process: A Gestalt Approach to
Working With the Botfy in P[Jchotherapy and Healing Tasks: P[Jchotherapy With
Adult Survivors of Childhood Abuse. He teaches internationally on these topics,
as well as on Nervous System Energy Work, a hands-on system of which he
is the co-originator. He lives in Shaker Heights, Ohio where he is a psychol-
ogist in private practice.

Address for correspondence:

E-mail: [email protected]

Bridges in Practice

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