MIDTERMS

ARL 301-3
BS Architecture 3-3
2ND Semester

8. Climatic Factors: Sun, Wind,

Site planning and landscape architecture Temperature, Precipitation
9. Sensorial Factors: Olfactory,
Site planning
Gustatory, Visual, Auditory, Haptic
The art and science of arranging the uses of
10. Regulatory Laws, Zoning Ordinances
portions of land is site planning. Site
and Standards
planners designate these uses in detail by
11. Site Elements: Foreground, Building
selecting and analyzing sites, forming land
Area, Service Area, Play Area, Private
use plans, organizing vehicular and
Area, Entourage
pedestrian circulation, developing visual
Slope Pattern
forms and material concepts, readjusting
▪ 0-5% generally flat, highly buildable
existing landforms by design grading,
▪ 5-10% gently rolling, moderately
providing proper drainage, and finally
buildable
developing the construction details
▪ 10-15% gentle to mild slopes,
necessary to carry out the project.
moderately difficult terrain
Site design ▪ 15-20% mild to steep slopes, difficult
Is the organizational stage of the site and terrain
landscape planning process. Entails the ▪ 20%-above harsh, steep slopes
whole range of concerns relating to the unbuildable
development, or redevelopment, of a piece
Site analysis
of ground for some planned purposes.
Site analysis is the process of evaluating a
Common purpose is the construction of a
particular locations physical, mental and
building on the ground of a site.
social characteristic with the ambition of
Landscape architecture developing a site solution that will both
refers to the act of planning, designing, address and enhance its internal and
specifying, supervising, and giving general external context.
administration and responsible direction to Site analysis will look at issues such as site
the functional, orderly, and aesthetic location, size, topography, zoning, traffic
arrangement, changing and development of conditions and climate. The analysis also
natural scenery and land areas to produce needs to consider any future developments,
the most desirable effect for human use and or changes to the site’s surroundings, such
enjoyment of various outdoor spaces – Art. II as a change of roads designations, changing
Sec. 2, Republic Act. 9053 “Landscape cultural patterns, or other significant building
Architecture Law”. developments within the area.

Aspects and core concepts Site inventory

1. Defining the site design problem. A list of elements that currently exist on the
2. Traffic circulation. property. Elements that exist on adjacent
3. Auxiliaries and Utilities properties should also be considered if they
4. Site Condition and Site Context impact the future design.
5. The Visible Site The location of inventoried elements can be
6. Vegetation and Landforms recorded on a base map or simple plot plan.
7. Geographic Factors: Soil, Site Arrows and other symbols can be used to
Contours, and Grading indicate elements such as views, wind, and
sun.

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 inventory landscape architectural and operational
Location programming
Neighborhood context ▪ Schematic design, design studies and
Zoning and size development, concepts and contract
Legal information documents and preparation of
Natural physical features preliminary technical and financial
Man made features component of a project
Utilities ▪ Preparation of Landscape plans,
Climate Construction, and project management;
Sensory giving general management,
Human and cultural context administration, supervision,
coordination, and responsible direct
analysis construction planning, designing,
Existing structures construction
Existing vegetation Defining the Areas in Landscape
Geology ▪ Circulation between areas should be of
Topography prime importance when locations for
Soil type and drainage those areas are determined.
Structures ▪ Proportions should be always a factor as
Views general areas are designated. Areas
Sound should be wider than deep for the best
Wildlife appearance.
Circulation and accessibility (paths, Circulation
movement through the landscape) ▪ Circulation elements should be
provided in the landscape for both
Auxiliaries and utilities motor and pedestrian traffic.
Possible locations of utilities ▪ Distinguish primary walks (for more than
Parking one person) and secondary walks (for
Height of building one person, only if necessary)
Regulatory factors ▪ Driveways should be designed for easy
Building code use, regardless of car size, but generally
should be inconspicuous as possible.
Landscape architecture
Decks and Patios
Landscape Architecture deals with the
▪ Should be designed for the normal, daily
protection, conservation and rehabilitation of
amount of traffic, with overload
the natural environment and scenery to
capability built into surroundings areas.
enhance the ecological system and quality of
▪ Choices between decks and patios, the
life, such as, but not limited to:
size of these elements, and their
▪ planning sites and outdoor spaces
importance evolve from the design-
▪ recommending on and formulating
analysis information.
landscape development policies
Land Forms
concerning visual resources,
▪ Nature has blessed us with a terrain that
streetscapes, and the like
sheds excess water and adds much
▪ Consultation, oral advice and direction,
interest to the landscape of the country.
conferences, evaluation, investigation,
It is the designer’s duty to work within
estimates, appraisals and assessment,

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 the boundaries of nature when altering stems, leaves, bark and buds
the land forms in any way. and can be seen and felt
1. Studying Land Forms ▪ Color
• Drainage Systems/ Irrigation • It results from light penetration,
Systems absorption, and reflection. The
• Surveying and Mapping more light rays are reflected, the
2. Alteration of Land Forms brighter the color; the more
• Site Grading absorbed, the darker the color will
• Cut and Fill be.
• Levels and Contour • Hues are the result of light rays of
Manipulations variable lengths being reflected in
Walls and Ceiling Coverings mixtures.
▪ The walls, ceiling and floor are the The principle of composition must apply from
dimensions of the outdoor “room.” A typical viewing points as well as when moving
ceiling (the sky) and the floor (the through the landscape.
ground) are always present, though they ▪ Simplicity - breeds elegance. Simple
might require modification. The walls lines forms and functional designs are
are created as part of the landscape always more interesting than complex
design. and hard-to-digest designs.
1. Framings and Enclosures ▪ Variety - used to control repetition and
2. Overhead protection spark the viewers interest, to prevent
3. Arbors and Shading monotony.
▪ Emphasis - or a focal point. It may be
Principles of planting design created by means of an accent plant
Physical Properties of Plants serving as an accent plant, a hard
▪ Form element, or a landscape
• Plant forms tend to reflect the embellishment.
natural terrain of the areas to which ▪ Balance - either symmetrical or
they are native. Good design calls asymmetrical. It must exist not only
for the use of these predominant from side to side, but also from
forms to blend with the natural foreground to background of the view.
surroundings. ▪ Sequence - can be created by a
• Typical tree forms are oval, progression of form, texture, or color. It
columnar, round, pyramidal, is the rhythm of the landscape, causing
weeping, conical, irregular, vase, the eye to progress to a point of
fustigate - Typical shrub forms are emphasis then move away gradually to
horizontal-spreading, weeping, the rest on another point of emphasis.
round, leggy, upright vase, arching- ▪ Scale - by controlling the proportionate
spreading, mounded, erect, scale of landscaping features, the
prostrate, trailing, mat-like, designer evokes emotion. It is usually
horizontal-creeping, narrow desirable to make people comfortable
pyramidal, conical. and relaxed, that is why landscaping is
▪ Texture done on a normal scale to which people
• Ranges from fine through relate easily.
coarse. It is created by the ▪

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 Planting and Architecture • Texture
▪ Elevations of Architecture – In • Color of Foliage
elevational view, the designer can • Growth and Development Rate
determine the dominant lines in the • Insect and Disease Susceptibility
architecture as well as its structural • Flower and Fruit Production
mass. • Commercial Availability and Price
▪ Balancing Structural and Plant • Special Use Considerations
Masses – Reversing structural masses
• Nomenclature
in planting units helps to balance and
▪ Plan Sizes at Purchase
strengthen the building-landscape
▪ Plant Conditions at Purchase
relationship.
▪ Enframement Trees – Help tuck the
Leaf morphology
building into the landscape. They must
be placed with all viewing angles in The Plant
mind. The enframement trees must be According to their habit of growth plants are
proportionate to the size of the building. described as trees when they are erect, living
▪ Colors and Architecture – from year to year, with a large development of
Complementary colors in subtle woody tissue, having a single distinct stem or
combinations are usually better than trunk, and reaching a height of 5 to 6 m or
stark contrasts that command too much more.
attention. Shrubs are tiny trees, and this term is
▪ Visual Interest – A correlation exists frequently applied to tree-like plants less
between the amount of visual interest in than 5 m in height, but by other authorities, it
the building architecture and the is restricted to small, erect, woody plants
amount required of the landscaping. The that produce several trunks from the base.
more visual weight contained in Small shrubs less than a meter high are
architecture, the less visual weight is called undershrubs, but all intergrades
required of the landscaping, and vice occur between undershrubs, shrubs, and
versa. trees.
▪ Focal Points – May be created at an Herbs are plants of various habits that
entryway by a sequence of color or contains but little woody tissue, and which,
texture or both. Embellishments may be at least the parts above ground, persist for a
used for accent, or ground pattern lines year or less; they vary greatly in size.
may direct attention appropriately. Plants that climb either by twining, using
Matching Plant Materials to Design Criteria special organs for attachment, or by
▪ Specifications for Plant Selection – sprawling over other plants or objects are
Plant selection should always be based called vines; these maybe either woody or
on specifications built during the design herbaceous according to the development
process and without consideration of and permanence of the woody tissue.
personal prejudices. Some woody vines are frequently called
• Climatic Adaptability and scandent shrubs, especially when sprawling
Hardiness over other plants or objects, with no special
• Soil Requirements adaptations for climbing.
• Sun or Shade Requirements Those that grow on other plants may be
• Size and Form either epiphytes, that is simply growing on

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 the supporting plant but taking no stem or from roots underground or from
nourishment from it, like most orchids, many adventitious buds on the trunk or larger
ferns, mosses, etc., or parasites, when taking branches of shrubs or trees, the latter being
part or all of their nourishment from the called stem-suckers; and stolon, a branch
hostplant from above ground that becomes prostrate
Certain plants that grow on decaying organic and strikes root at the tip or nodes, producing
matter and have no green tissue are called new plants.
saprophytes.
Plants that live but a short time, a few weeks
or months, and die after producing flowers
and seeds are called annual;
Like many herbs those that live for two years,
producing flowers and seeds the second year
and then dying, are called biennial;
Those that live from year to year, like all trees
and shrubs and many herbaceous plants
with underground stems, are called
perennial.
Stems According to Texture – As to
stem
differences in texture, stems are classified as
The stem is the axis of the plant, to which are
herbaceous when living for a short period,
attached all other parts. In most plants, the
forming no permanent woody tissue, and
stems are very evident, but in some species,
dying after flowering; suffrutescent when
they are entirely underground.
more or less woody or half-woody, at east at
Plants that show no obvious stem above
the base; and woody when forming
ground, but bear only leaves and flower
permanent woody tissue Lasting from year to
stalks, are called stemless or acaulescent.
year as in all shrubs and trees.
Stems According to Direction – Stems are
erect when they ascend perpendicularly from
the base; ascending when rising obliquely;
decumbent when more or less reclining on
the ground at or near the base; prostrate
when lying flat on the ground.

Specialized Stems – Special kinds of stems

or branches have received distinctive names,
such as culm, the hollow or solid stems of
grasses with well-defined nodes and
internodes; sucker, a branch arising from the

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 Underground Stems - Underground stems Plant structure
assume various forms and are frequently
confounded with roots. There are four
principal kinds, the rhizome or rootstock, the
tuber, the corm, and the bulb.

leaf
A flattened structure of a higher plant,
typically green and blade-like, that is
According to Leaf and Branches - As to the
attached to a stem directly or via a stalk.
arrangement of branches and leaves, they
Leaves are the main organs of
are opposite when two are borne at the same
photosynthesis and transpiration.
node from opposite sides of the stem;
A typical complete leaf consists of the blade
whorled or verticilliate when three or more
or lamina, the broad thin part of ordinary
are borne at the same node, arranged
leaves, the petiole or leaf-stalk, and a pair of
regularly around the stem; fascicled or
stipules, variously shaped appendages at the
fasciculate when two or more are borne at
base of the leaf-stalk or at the nodes, which
the same node on the same side of the stem;
may be leaf-like, scale-like, or even
alternate when one is borne at each node on
represented by sheaths or by spines. Stipules
one side, and the next above or below on the
are frequently wanting, such plants being
opposite side of the stem; distichous when
then termed exstipulate. The end by which
regularly arranged one above another in two
the leaf, or any other part of a plant is
opposite rows; and secund when all are
attached, is called the base; the opposite or
turned toward one side.
free end, the apex.

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 Leaf venation Leaf Shape and arrangement
Venation is the term applied to the method of
arrangement of the veins; there are two
principal kinds, parallel-veined and netted-
veined or reticulate.

Leaf margin
As to the outlines of leaves, various terms
have been selected to describe certain
shapes. These terms are also used for any
other flat parts of the plant, such as petals,
sepals, some fruits, seeds, etc.
Leaf base
As to the base of the leaf, it may be cordate
or heart-shaped when the outline of its
rounded base is turned in forming a sinus
where the petiole is attached; auricled, that
is eared, having a pair of small projections at
the base; sagittate or arrow-shaped where
the ears or lobes are acute and turned
downwards; and hastate where the basal
lobes are acute and point outwards

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 Leaf tip

Flowers and inflorescences are frequently

supplied with small or large, often leaf-
like organs, known as bracts and
bracteoles. In general bracts, when
present, are found under each branch and
branchlet of the inflorescence, while
bracteoles are borne on or at the base of
the pedicels of the flowers.

seeds
inflorescence The seed is the fertilized and developed
By the inflorescence, we mean the flowers ovule, and is exceedingly variable in size and
and their arrangement on the plant. Flowers shape, from the minute and almost dustlike
may be solitary or variously grouped. When a seeds of the orchids, to the very large seed of
single flower or group of flowers terminates a the coconut.
branch it is called terminal; when borne in The seed-coats usually consist of two layers,
the axils of the leaves, axillary: when borne an outer thicker one known as the testa, and
on the internodes between the nodes or axils, an inner more delicate one known as the
extra-axillary ; when borne opposite a leaf, tegmen. The scar where the seed was
leaf-opposed; when borne on the stem below attached is called the hilum.
the leaves, cauline; and when borne on the Externally seeds may be smooth, pitted,
root, radical wrinkled, or marked in various other ways,
hairy as in the cotton, winged, or supplied
with a tuft of hairs called a coma.

A complete flower consists of four sets of

organs, the two outer rows or whorls, known
as the floral envelopes, consisting of the
calyx and the corolla and collectively known
as the perianth, and two inner rows or whorls,
the essential organs, consisting of the
stamens and pistils.

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Plant material Grass lawn
Grass lawns provide cover for large areas
trees
giving aesthetic as well as functional value.
Trees provide shelter from the wind, shade
Many varieties of grass for lawn applications
from the sun, and a softness that contrasts
provide the landscape architect with a
with the hard lines of buildings. Like shrubs,
palette of species to be used in different
they attract birds and provide nesting places
situations either aesthetic or functional.
for different species. Trees can be used as
Cost wise the plant material is relatively
features in a garden or park or streetscape
cheap compared to other plants.
with emphasis being placed on form, bark
characteristics or foliage type. Some varieties Planting methods: trees
of trees provide enframent for the approach Bare-Root Planting – Prior to planting, soak
to a structure. Trees are useful for screening the tree’s roots in a bucket of water for 1 to 2
out undesirable views. hours. Also, prune off damaged or broken
roots. When ready to plant, dig a hole that is
2 to 3 times wider than the spread of the
tree’s root system. The depth of the hole
should be equal to the distance from the
tree’s trunk flare to the bottom of its roots.
(The trunk flare is the point where the trunk
shrubs
begins to spread out as it meets the roots.)
A shrub is considered a woody plant, usually
Build a cone shaped mound of soil in the
with multiple stems and which may reach a
center of the hole. Place the tree on top of the
height of 6meters. Within this definition
mound. The trunk flare should be even with
shrubs are designated as small (less than
the surrounding soil surface. Spread the
1mtr) medium (1-3mts) or tall (3-6mts).
roots evenly over the mound. Then begin
Shrubs provide brilliant floral displays, but in
backfilling with the original soil. As you
most cases these last only a few weeks.
backfill, firm the soil in the hole with your
It can provide a major component of Foliage
hands. Place soil to the trunk flare. Finally,
contrast and framing component to special
water the tree thoroughly.
views.
Balled and Burlapped (B and B) – B an B
Ground covers plants are dug with a ball of soil containing
the term ground cover can be used to their roots and the soil ball is then wrapped in
describe almost any plant in the landscape. it burlap and tied up with twine to keep it
does however refer to plant materials under intact. Plants sold this way have roots that
eighteen inches in height of spreading or won't survive bare-root transplanting such as
creeping habit. ever-green shrubs and deciduous shrubs.
Two functional classes of ground cover: Many B and B plants are grown in clay or fairly
LAWN SUBSTITUTE- used to cover a large heavy soil that will hold together well when
expanse of ground; ORNAMENTAL GROUND plants are dug up and burlapped.
COVER used to decorate walks with borders,
cover the ground where grass will not grow
and add beauty and accent to shrub masses.

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 Planting methods: shrubs and ground covers Visual value
Nursery Containers Describes the energy or impact of the plant in
▪ Easy to transport and do not require. relation to its surroundings.
▪ Immediate planting after purchase. Upright form, bright colors, and coarse
▪ When looking for container-grown textures are dramatic and have high visual
plants, look for good foliage, the root impact.
system should not be tangled or Low and prostrate forms, dull colors, and fine
constricted. textures are calm and have low visual impact.
Sprigging The visual value of all plants is dependent:
▪ Consist of tearing apart clumps of grass ▪ the distance from which they are viewer
stems to get pieces an inch or two long, ▪ the time of year
each carrying a few tufts of leaves. ▪ the quality of light
▪ Is the planting of sprigs, plant sections ▪ the adjacent plants
cut from rhizomes or stolons that ▪ the plant’s health
includes crowns and roots, at spaced
intervals in furrows or holes. tree form
Sodding Trees are often the dominant form in the
▪ Cut and rolled grass section laid out on garden because of their size. Trees are also
the area to be grassed. the most functional in the landscape,
▪ The quickest and most efficient method providing shade and blocking views, so when
when time and appearance are major choosing a tree form consider its function
considerations. Sod is fully mature lawn first.
grass grown on highly specialized farms. Choose a tree for its mature size and shape in
Hydro Seeding relation to space as it is important to ensure
▪ Grass seeds are mixed with a nutrient the tree will not outgrow the space and
water mixed and sprayed onto the area require severe running.
to be grassed.
▪ Hydroseeding typically consists of
applying a mixture of seed, wood fiber,
fertilizer, and stabilizing emulsion with
hydro-mulch equipment, which
temporarily protects exposed soils from
erosion by water and wind.

Physical characteristics
Some plants are extroverts- loud, boisterous,
and energetic attention getters - while other
Shrub form
plants are introverts- quiet, calm, and
Shrubs have variety of forms so it is
content to be in the background. A good mix
important to consider how shrubs will look
of plant personalities creates an interesting
when massed together.
and appealing garden.
Four Major Characteristics:
▪ Texture
▪ Form
▪ Size
▪ Color

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 Ground cover form Plant size
Ground cover or bedding plants tend to have Plant height is the measurement of the plant
the most complex forms, but they typically from the ground to the topmost portion of the
look better in masses because they are often plant at maturity. Plant spread is the
small and a little impact as individual plants. maximum width of the plant as measured at
In landscaping, the term ground covers its widest part from leaf tip to leaf tip at
usually refers to any one of a group of low- maturity.
lying plants with a creeping, spreading habit Plant is closely related to form.
that are used to cover sections of ground Plant Size Classification:
while requiring minimal maintenance. It is ▪ Small plants, typically groundcover and
also possible to use standard landscape bedding plants, are 0.60m tall or shorter.
ornamentals as a ground cover. Low- ▪ Medium plants, typically shrubs, range
maintenance perennials, such as daylily, can from 0.60-1.20m in ht.
be used to cover large expanses or slopes. ▪ Large plants are trees and shrubs that
grow 1.20-1.80m or higher at mature
size.

Plant color
Most plants are green due to chlorophyll
pigment found within the many chloroplasts
inside each green cell of the leaf. Every
chloroplast is a microscopic factory that
Plant texture uses sunlight to produce sugar and chemical
A plant's texture depends largely on the energy for the plant and oxygen gas for
characteristics of its leaves, such as the animals like us.
shape, size, coarseness, smoothness, shade Color theme is the overall color pattern of the
or tint. The concept of texture can also be entire landscape.
applied to the appearance of tree barks. In Choosing a color theme requires an
any landscape, you should aim to achieve understanding of the properties of color and
contrast between various leaf textures. the basics of color theory.
It refers to how coarse or fine the overall
surface and individual leaves of the plant feel Plant species
or look.
Aquatic species
Plants that grow in, floats on or lives in water.
Free Floating Plants - float freely on or below
the surface of the water and have no
connection.
example: Water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes)
Floating Leaved - leaves float but roots are
anchored in the soil at the bottom.
example: Water Lily
(Nymphaea odorata / pubescens)
Submerged Plants - live submerged in water,
roots in the soil at the bottom
example: Bay grass
(Najas guadalupensis)

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 Emergent Aquatics - leaves, stems and High altitude
flowers grow above the water with roots Vegetation at height of usually 4000- 5000ft.
anchored in soil. shows the sign of short, knarled trunks, the
example: Cat Tail leaf blades, are reduced in size and their
(Typha angustifolia) texture becomes leathery.
Uses The surrounding vegetation becomes an elfin
▪ Absorb dissolved minerals so help forest composed of a single story of trees not
cleanse polluted water. more than 15ft. ht. The trees become more
▪ Provide shelter, food and oxygen for fishes and more dwarfed and crooked and are
and other aquatic animal life. covered with orchids, mosses, lichens and
▪ Practical and economic aspects: conceal the like.
any boxes, pots, fixtures.
▪ Aesthetic/ ornamental value.

Coastal species
Plants adapting to coastal environments. The
fruits and seeds are adapted to floating in
salt water. Usually species of this
Growing plants in aquatic conditions environment, in general are those that have a
Zone 1: Hydric Soils woody structure. Herbaceous species are
▪ flowing open water along streams or prone to damage.
lakes Coastal species can be used as a
Zone 2: Hydric-Mesic Soils biotechnical erosion control of which their
▪ fluctuating water levels subject to boat influence on soil include:
or wind driven waves ▪ Foliage and residues intercept rainfall.
Zone 3: Hydric-Mesic Soils ▪ Root systems physically bind or restrain
▪ floodway terrace soil particles.
Zone 4: Mesic Soils ▪ Residues increase surface roughness
▪ seasonally variable moisture regimes and slow velocity of run off.
▪ Roots and residues increase infiltration
by maintaining soil porosity and
permeability.

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 Medicinal plants Moderately Resistant Shrubs
A medicinal plant is that species of the plant
kingdom, whose parts (flowers, leaves, roots,
stems, fruits, or seeds) are directly used or
used in some preparation as a medicine to
treat a condition or diseases.

Highly Resistant

Collector species (high-value plants)

Edible plants (fruit & leaves)

Pollution resistant
Plants have been reported to remove
gaseous and particulate pollutants from the
atmosphere. Some local plants are good
absorbers of SO2 and NO2.
Air pollutants are classified as:
▪ Natural Contaminant
▪ Aerosols and particulates
▪ Gases and vapors
Sulphur dioxide is one of the principal
constituents of air pollutants. The oxides of
nitrogen are second abundant atmospheric
contaminants in many cities. Nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide arise from many forms of
human activities.

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 that improve the overall well-being of disaster
Parameters of site selection survivors beyond pre-disaster conditions
should be maximized wherever possible.
Site selection
The process encompasses many steps from Maps as tools
planning to construction, including initial Maps are key tools in the selection and
inventory, assessment, alternative analysis, development of a new shelter site. Maps of
detailed design, and construction appropriate scales can be used to:
procedures and Site selection includes the
1. Identify possible site locations, applying
housing, basic services (e.g., water, fuel,
criteria such as elevation, slope, aspect
sewage, etc.), access infrastructure (e.g.,
(the direction the site faces), distance
roads, paths, bridges, etc.) and social and
from roads and towns, proximity to
economic structures commonly used by site
natural resources, distance from rivers
residents (e.g., schools, clinics, markets,
and other water supplies, risk to
transport facilities, etc.).
environmentally unique locations (e.g.,
Site development parks or reserves), and distance from
industrial or mining sites.
The physical process of construction at a
building site. These construction-related 2. Design the actual layout of the site,
activities include clearing land, mobilizing taking into consideration guidance on
resources to be used in the physical matching the physical layout of the site
infrastructure (including water), the with the infrastructure to be
fabrication of building components on site, constructed.
and the process of assembling components 3. Develop plans for the use of natural
and raw materials into the physical elements resources within or near the site as the
planned for the site. site develops (e.g. sourcing of sand and
The site development process also includes gravel) and once the site is occupied.
the provision of access; includes the physical 4. Help new residents and visitors find
process of construction at a building site, as homes and services within the site.
well as environmental improvements such as Types of Maps
the addition of home gardens and live fencing ▪ General Reference Maps
(e.g., fencing made from live shrub cuttings) ▪ Thematic Maps
▪ Topographic Maps
PROJECT CYCLE AND STRATEGIC SITE SELECTION AND ▪ Cadastral Maps
DEVELOPMENT ▪ Vicinity Map
Site selection and development involves a ▪ Navigation Charts / Series Maps
wide range of actions with social, ▪ Earth’s Coordinates System Maps
environmental, and economic dimensions. Mapping can be done with various degrees of
These can result in a wide range of impacts, sophistication, from simple community-
all of which play a role in the long-term health drawn diagrams on flip-chart paper to a
and security of people and communities detailed presentation of complex data using
recovering from disaster. The long-term a geographic information system (GIS). The
impacts of site selection and development choice of the most appropriate and efficient
decisions need to be defined, considered, mapping tools for use in shelter site selection
and addressed. Likewise, any opportunities

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 and development depends on several of people at a new site will not result in
factors, including: resource requirements that
▪ The physical size of the site unsustainably exploit locally available
▪ The number of sites to be developed natural resources.
▪ The complexity of the site development ▪ DENSITY
process and infrastructure to be built ▪ By definition, increasing the density of
▪ Available funds inhabitation at the site reduces
▪ In general, the more sites needed, the additional land needs, thereby reducing
larger the sites, and the greater the the immediate environmental "footprint"
complexity of infrastructure to be built of the site. However, sufficient space
on each site, the more sophistication in needs to be available to allow residents
mapping technique is needed to conduct their livelihoods and social
activities, and to live with dignity. An
SITE selection AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONs approach to defining density limits is to
General Conditions: consider the normal social and
▪ Have the least negative impact on the livelihood activities of a typical family in
environment the disaster-affected area, and to plan
▪ Have the fewest possible threats from for sufficient space for these activities.
the environment ▪ In general, the density of a site should
▪ Require the least extraction of natural be no greater than it was before the
resources for site preparation, disaster and should include space for
construction, and operation upgraded infrastructure (e.g., sewage
▪ Incorporate infrastructure and system) and services (e.g., schools with
community-managed systems for sport fields) after a disaster. An
minimizing and managing solid and appropriate density of inhabitants for a
liquid waste site will also depend on cultural
▪ Offer the best quality of life for residents considerations, a process requiring the
▪ CAPACITY participation of the intended residents
▪ The number of people at a new site of the site and the recognition of gender-
should not result in resource based differences in the use of space.
requirements that unsustainably exploit Some countries may have official
locally available natural resources, criteria defining density limits. There
because this is likely to result in lack of may also be circumstances in which a
access to vital resources in the future higher density is preferable for a short
(e.g., over pumping of groundwater). As period of time so that the safety of
a rule of thumb, the per capita resource residents can be better ensured in areas
requirements of a new site will be as where security is an issue.
high as existed before the disaster, and ▪ CLIMATE
may be higher if new housing, ▪ Most new shelter sites will be in the
infrastructure (e.g., water, sewage), or same climatic zone as was the pre-
livelihoods are introduced as part of the disaster shelter. However, new shelter
reconstruction process. Planners sites should consider the impact of
should consider, as well, that some potential future changes in climate,
countries may have official criteria such as the need for increased drainage
defining site capacity limits. The number

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 because of future increased rainfall) and considered as part of the site selection
incorporate features to enhance local and plan development process.
climate conditions. The site plan VEGETATIONS
incorporates measures to address ▪ As much of the natural vegetation
current climatic conditions. The should be retained at a site as is
potential for negative changes to local possible. Additional vegetation should
climate, such as changes in rainfall or be added through gardens, tree planting
frequency of severe storms, has been in public areas and near schools and
considered in the site plan. clinics, planting along water courses
▪ SLOPE and in designated greenbelts, and
▪ Sloping land is very important for proper planting as privacy buffers between
drainage, piped water, and sewage houses and to separate housing from
systems. However, it is preferred that public areas. Indigenous vegetation with
new shelter sites be located on land economic value [such as fruit trees],
with a slope of no more than 5%. Where should be planted where possible, with
this is not possible, a combination of community-level agreement as to their
terraces, vegetation, and appropriately ownership and use. The ownership of
designed drainage systems should be trees or vegetated areas and their
installed to limit erosion. produce - whether by individual,
▪ Steep slopes are also subject to household, or community - should be
landslides and slumping7 and should be decided through participatory
avoided; measures to control these discussions to avoid potential conflicts.
processes are very expensive and of The use of nonnative plants that have
limited reliability. the potential to invade agricultural and
CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE wildland areas should be avoided.
▪ Inhabitants near a prospective HAZARDS
settlement site and the prospective ▪ The safe management of natural
residents of the site should be hazards should be integral to a site
consulted on whether the possible site development plan. Hazards from natural
has any cultural, historical, political, or or technological sources (e.g., a toxic
social significance that could inhibit its dump) should be identified in the site
use as a settlement. A culturally selection process and in the associated
significant site may not be clearly environmental screening. As it is not
marked to outsiders and may be possible to avoid all hazards, a risk
significant for one group in an area but management strategy should be
not for others. In some locations, areas established as part of the development
of significant cultural importance are of the site.
also areas of considerable biodiversity • A hazards assessment for the site
precisely because they are treated as has been conducted and mitigation
special and not used in the same plans have been developed.
manner as the surrounding landscape. • The hazard assessment covers
The cultural, historical, political, and both natural and technological
social significance of locations at or hazards.
near the proposed site have been

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 • Mitigation plans incorporate WIND
structural (e.g., flood walls), ▪ The siting of the building should reflect
nonstructural (e.g., warning consideration of the local wind
systems), and ecological (e.g., conditions. Proper siting can enhance
maintenance of natural floodways) passive cooling and heating of the
measures. building which will be more comfortable
SITE ACCESSIBILITY for building occupants.
▪ A new settlement site should not be ▪ Adapting site designs for wind
physically isolated from road networks, conditions can also reduce demand for
towns, and markets, and should have fuel, lowering costs for building
easy internal access to all parts of the occupants.
site. Steep roads should be avoided. SUN
Where possible, roads should follow the ▪ The siting of the building should reflect
contours of the site. Aligning roads consideration of the sun track across
along contours is helpful for disabled the site. Similar to designing for wind, a
persons. Road surfaces should be site design for the sun track can
paved with stone, cement, or asphalt to enhance passive heating of the building
limit dust and water erosion; stone is which will be more comfortable for
preferred for paving if sufficient building occupants.
quantities are available locally, so that ▪ Adapting site designs for sun conditions
water can be absorbed by the underlying can also reduce demand for fuel,
soil. lowering costs for building occupants. In
▪ All roads should have adequate areas with high amounts of regular
drainage systems to prevent flooding sunlight, project planners may consider
and surface erosion. Vegetation, promoting solar water heaters and other
indigenous, if possible, should be used solar-based technologies.
to stabilize slopes and read shoulders.
▪ Runoff can be channeled to retention Site analysis
areas that can be used to water NATURAL FACTORS
vegetated areas within the site. Where ▪ Geology
the settlement reconstruction site is ▪ Geomorphology - physiography,
located close to a navigable body of landforms, soils, drainage, topography
water, space should be allocated for the and slopes, and soil erosion
on-land storage of boats and related ▪ Hydrology - surface and ground water
equipment. Any docks and boat ▪ Vegetation - plant ecology
launch/recovery areas should be ▪ Wildlife - habitats
located away from sensitive marine ▪ Climate - solar orientation, wind, and
habitats. humidity.

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 CULTURAL FACTORS ELEMENTS FOR INVENTORY
▪ Existing land use - ownership of ▪ Existing Structures
adjacent property, off- site nuisances ▪ Existing Vegetation
▪ Traffic and transit - vehicular and ▪ Geology
pedestrian circulation on or adjacent to ▪ Topography
site Density and zoning - legal and ▪ Soil Type and Drainage
regulatory controls ▪ Utilities
▪ Utilities - sanitary, storm-water, water ▪ Structures
supply, power supply, and ▪ Views
communications. ▪ Sound
HISTORIC FACTORS ▪ Wildlife
▪ historic buildings, landmarks, and ▪ Circulation (Paths, Movement through
archeology the landscape)
AESTHETIC FACTORS ▪ Any other condition that would affect
▪ Natural features the design
▪ Spatial patterns - spaces and
sequences
▪ Visual Resources - views and vistas

SITE INVENTORY
A site inventory is simply a list of elements
that currently exist on the property. Elements
that exist on adjacent properties should also
be considered if they impact the future
design.
The location of inventoried elements can be
recorded on a base map or simple plot plan.
Arrows and other symbols can be used to
indicate elements such as views, wind, and
sun.

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Ecological site considerations ▪ Texture are generally the most
meaningful; from them we can make
Soil and geology
inferences about bearing capacity.
GEOLOGY is the natural science that studies
internal drainage, erodibility, and
the Earth - its composition the processes that
slope stability
shaped its surface; and its history.
GEOMORPHOLOGY COMPOSITIONS
Earth is made up of rocks (including soil,
▪ Mineral Particles comprise 50% to 80%
sand, silt and dust) rocks are composed of
of the volume of the soil and form the
minerals; minerals are made up of atoms)
all-important skeletal structure of the
rocks soil. Sand and gravel particles provide
for the greatest stability, usually yielding
IGNEOUS ROCKS
a relatively high bearing capacity.
▪ (from the Latin word for fire) form when
▪ Organic Matter varies radically in soils
hot, molten rock crystallizes and
and usually imposes a limitation to any
solidifies. Igneous rocks are divided into
building structure. Organic matter is
two groups, intrusive or extrusive,
important only for soil fertility, moisture
depending upon where the molten rock
absorption and retention and for
solidifies.
landscaping.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
▪ Water content varies with particle sizes,
▪ When igneous rocks are exposed to the
local drainage, topography, and climate.
surface and weathering reduces them to
Most water occupies the spaces
particles, these particles are moved by
between particles; only in organic soils
an erosional process and deposited in
do the particles themselves actually
layers into rivers and oceans.
absorb measurable amounts of water.
METAMORPHOSED
▪ Air is what occupies remaining space
▪ when sedimentary rocks are pushed to
that is not occupied by water. In layers
deeper levels of the earth, they
where groundwater is formed by gravity
transform into metamorphosed rocks
water in the subsoil and underlying rock,
due to changes in pressure and
there is absence of air.
temperature.
▪ Texture is the term used to describe the
GEOMORPHOLOGY composite sizes of particles in a soil
In site planning, it is important to establish sample. There are 12 basic terms for
the relationship between soil composition texture, at the center of which is Class
and land uses (other than agriculture). Soil LOAM, which is an intermediate mixture
surveys help guide in site selection for of 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay.
residential, industrial, and other forms of
development that involve surface and
subsurface structures. Several features, or
properties, are used to describe soil for use
in site design.
▪ Composition refers to the material
that makes up soil: mineral particles,
organic matter, water, and air.

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 drainage topography
GOOD DRAINAGE – refers to the soil's ability Topography is the shape and arrangement of
to transfer gravity water downward through: physical surfaces. In the case of geothermal
▪ Infiltration - the rate at which water exploration, horst and graben topography or
penetrates the soil surface (usually volcanoes may indicate underlying structures
measured in cm or inches per hour) and their associated processes that may be
▪ Permeability - the rate at which water conducive to the development of geothermal
within the soil moves through a given systems. Although topographic features are
volume or material also measured in cm very preliminary indicators of geothermal
or inches per hour) systems. They are easily identifiable.
▪ Percolation - the rate at which water in
a soil pit or pipe within the soil is taken slope
up by the soil (used mainly in Slope landforms are not necessarily formed
wastewater absorption tests and because of volcanism but rather by tectonic
measured in inches per hour) activity or erosion. A butte--the term for
which comes from the French word meaning
"little hill"--is characterized by steep vertical
edges and flat tops.

Slope analysis
Understanding slope forms for site design
requires understanding of local geologic, soil,
hydrologic, and vegetative conditions.

BAD DRAINAGE – means that gravity water is Slope form

not readily transmitted by the soil and soil is expressed graphically in terms of a slope
frequently or permanently saturated and may profile, a silhouette of a slope drawn to
have water standing on it caused by: known proportions with distance on the
The local accumulation of water; A rise in the horizontal axis and elevation on the vertical
level of groundwater within the soil column; axis. Four basic slope forms are detectable
The size of the particles in the soil being too on contour maps.
small to transmit infiltration water.
Angle of repose
angle at which soil can be safely inclined and
beyond which it will fail.

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 Topographic map closest line. You find the contour interval for
A map of a portion of the earth that describes your map in its legend.
the shape of the earth's surface by contour
Contour features
lines.
Practice reading features from a map of a
familiar area. Visualize how the terrain on the
major landmarks relates to the contour lines
on your map.

Pick out features like peaks and saddles.

Identify subtler features like cliffs, which

Contour lines indicate the steepness of have grouped together, and ridgelines, which
terrain. Contour lines connect points that connect Peaks and contour lines decrease
share the same elevation: Where they're elevation on each side.
close (they together never intersect),
elevation is changing rapidly in short distance Valleys are low elevation areas between
and the terrain is steep. Where contour lines ridgelines; some might have a creek running
are wide apart. Changing elevation, is slowly along the bottom, though that isn't a
indicating a gentle slope. requirement for a feature to be a valley.

Contour lines also indicate the shape of the

terrain. Roughly concentric circles are
probably showing you a peak, and areas
between peaks are passes. Studying a topo
map of a familiar area is a great way to learn
how to match terrain features with the
contour lines on a map.

depression
Hatchure marks – short line used for
shading and denoting surfaces in relief (as in
map drawing) and drawn in the direction of
slope.
Contour Interval (abbreviated as C.I.) – the
Index Contour Lines – Every fifth contour difference between two consecutive
line is a thicker, "index" line. At some point contours. Choice of contour interval depends
along that line, its exact elevation is listed. on:
Contour Interval – The change in elevation
1. the level of detail needed to be
from one contour line to the next is always
portrayed;
the same within the same map. Many maps
2. the scale of the map;
have either a 40- or 80-foot contour interval:
An 80-foot interval simply means that each 3. the range in elevation or relief of the
contour line is 80 vertical feet from the next area to be mapped.

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 Vegetation + soil type
Foliage intercepts raindrops
Organic litter on the ground reduces the
impact of raindrops. Roots bind together
aggregates of soil particles. Cover density, in
form of ground cover or tree canopy,
decreases soil loss to runoff
Foliage intercepts raindrops
Organic litter on the ground reduces the
Index Contour – As a general rule, every 5th impact of raindrops. Roots bind together
contour, starting from sea level, is an index aggregates of soil particles. Cover density, in
contour. It is drawn as a heavy line and is form of ground cover or tree canopy,
labeled with its elevation. decreases soil loss to runoff
Gradient – change in elevation over a
specified horizontal distance. On a contour
map, gradient is determined along a line or
stream course by:
1. using the contour lines to determine the
difference in elevation between two
points;
2. using the horizontal scale to determine
the distance between the same two
points;
3. dividing the vertical difference by the
horizontal distance.
Elevation or Altitude – vertical distance
between that point and a fixed datum Soil type intermediate textures like sand will
(usually mean average sea level). which by usually yield (erode) first
definition has an elevation of zero. To erode clay, the velocity of the runoff
Bench Mark – a point whose elevation has should be high enough to overcome cohesive
been precisely defined by government forces that bind the particles
surveyors. Its location is marked by a small Similarly, high velocities would be needed to
brass plate. Designated by "B.M." move masses of pebbles and particles larger
Spot Elevations – Marked with an "X" or are than those of sand
shown at many section corners, bridges, road CLAY SOIL – Clay soil is defined as soil that is
intersections, hilltops, etc. composed of mostly clay particles. Soil that
Depression Contours – closed contours with consists of over 50% clay particles is referred
hachures (short lines perpendicular to the to as "heavy clay."
contour line) pointing toward the lower
elevations within a depression. They
generally encircle small depressions.

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 LOAM SOIL – Loam is considered to be the mulches, fertilizers, drainage as sand, or
most desirable medium for growing vegetable other soil additives to solve drainage issues
crops, flowers, shrubs, trees and many other and provide the proper growth medium for
types of ornamental plants. most plants.

Loam is considered ideal for gardening SOIL EROSION PREVENTION

agricultural uses because it retains nutrients SLOPE AND SIZE INCLINATION – The
well and retains water while still allowing the velocity of runoff is closely related to the
water to flow freely. It is found in a majority of slope of the ground over which it flows.
successful farms in regions around the world Slopes that are both steep and long produce
known for their fertile land. the greatest erosion because they generate
runoff that is high in velocity and mass.
Loam soil feels soft and rich and is easy to Slope also influences the quantity of runoff
work over a wide range of moisture since long slopes collect more rainfall and
conditions. Loam is soil composed of sand, thus generate a larger volume of runoff.
silt, and clay in relatively even concentration
(about 40-40-20% concentration
respectively). Loam soils generally contain
more nutrients and humus than sandy soils,
have better infiltration and drainage than silty
soils, and are easier to till than clay soils.
Loams are gritty, moist, and retain water
easily.
SANDY SOIL – A soil in which sand
predominates is classified, logically enough,
as a sand-textured soil, or simply a sandy Water resources
soil. Sandy soils are coarse in texture. Some Hydrology – the natural science that studies
plants and trees love growing in sandy soils, the Waters of the Earth, their occurrence,
while others can't tolerate it. circulation and distribution, their chemical
SILT SOIL – Silt soil is finer than sand, but still and physical properties, and their reaction to
feels gritty. Silt is commonly found in the living environment including their relation
floodplains and is the soil component that to all living things.
makes mud. Soils with a lot of silt make Hydrologic cycle – or the planet's water cycle,
excellent farmland but erode easily. This is described by the movement of water from the
the soil blown away in dust storms and oceans to the atmosphere to the continents
carried downstream in floods. Silt soil is like and back to the sea.
loam soil but contains smaller ratios of both
sand and clay particles.

Silt soil feels smooth and silky. Silt soil

retains water well but may drain slowly
depending on the exact clay-silt-sand ratio.
Because of this, gardeners usually amend
assistance particles, Such silt soil, mixing in

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 aquifer
A permeable geological stratum or formation
that can both store and transmit groundwater
in significant quantities.

Watershed
A geographic area of land bounded by
topographic features and height land that
captures precipitation, filters and stores
water and drains waters to shared Knowledge
of destination boundaries is critical
watershed to quality and storm water
management.
Wetland wildlife
Wetland species include birds and mammals
needing habitats with: Wetland food plants or
wild herbaceous plants of moist to wet sites,
excluding submerged or floating aquatic
plants; Shallow water development with
water impoundments not deeper than 5 ft.;
Excavated ponds with ample supply of water
at least one acre and average 6ft depth.
streams.

Climatic control
Precipitation – Plants help to control
precipitation reaching the ground. By
intercepting rain and slowing it down, they
aid in moisture retention, and in the
prevention of soil erosion. They also help soil
retain water by providing shade, or protection
from the wind, water shedding function of
trees roots.

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