10 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systems Fred Damm Collins Radio Company Dallas, Texas GENERAL A directional antenna system is a complex network of radiators, branching, and coupling circuits that are imtegrated into a single closely coupled system. Radio frequency energy is fed to he individual radiating clements of the array or system in the proper proportions and phase angle relationship to produce the desired radiation pat tern. The control of the amount of power flowing to each radiator and its phase angle celationship to that in ¢he other radiators is the function of a system of networks for dividing the power, shift ing its phase, and matching the various impedances encountered in the array. This feeder system should have a degree of flexibility and @ range of adjustment that permits this function to be accom plished at the initial (une up and at any time that the performance of the system is affected by external changes TYPICAL FEEDER SYSTEM A block diagram of a typical feeder system is shown in Fig. 1. The power divider is a branching circuit that divides the total transmitter power between the individual radiators. The proportions in which this power i divided is determined by parameters of the array. Power division can be accomplished by a variety of different circuit configurations and generally takes a form that is determined by the porsonal preference of the designer or the engineer who is responsible for the inigial cune up. The power divider is often preceded by a matching network to give a more precise and wider range of adjustment of the input impedance of the feeder system and to provide a degree of isolation 10 the input impedance from short term variations occurring in the array. Superscript numbers in toxt fer to reforenecs at the end ot the chapter 253 The phase control of phase shifting networks are generally lagging T networks. They. ususlly have unit impedance transformation, and have a characteristic impedance equal to that of the transmission lines that they feed. It is expedient to use networks which shift the phase by 90° since greater excursions of phase around this value can be obtained without affecting the characteristic impedance seriously. However, che actual phase shift used is dictated by the overall phase require- ments of the entire system and it is not always possible to use a shift of 90° in all of the networks. It is wise, however, to manipulate the phases (0 affect a shift of as near 90° jr as many networks as is possibile The primary purpose of the antenna matching networks is to transform the complex operating impedance of the antennas to the characteristic impedance of the transmission lines that feed them. This impedance is 2 function of the an. tenaa’s seffimpedance, the mutual impedances between the antenna, and the phase and magni tude of the field radiated from the antenna."" In some arrays, the impedance of one or two ane tennas may have a negative resistive component This requires chat the feed system provide for Feeding power from the antenna back to the power divider. The phase shift in these networks is 4 part of the overall phase problem and must be considered along with that of the phase sbiting networks and the transmission tines. Design of networks that have specific trans. formation and phase properties has been discussed by several authors? POWER DIVIDERS Any power divider is a form of one of the basic citenits shown in Fig. 2, of a combination of several of them. No matter which of these basic circuits is used, the input impedance is a complex impedance that may be transformed to any value of input resistance that is desired. The load254 Power Dividers tor Directional Antenna Systems,£2 Rt 2 &4 E R Power Dividers 255, FIG. 28. SERIES POWER DIVIDER, 3 FIG.28. SHUNT POWER DIVIDER 3 INPUT Qe———4— ry 2 ut Fig. 2. £3 FIG.2c, HYBRID (SHUNT SERIES) POWER DIVIDER E1 RI R2 RS256 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systems resistances Ry, Ro, and Ry are the input imped- ances of the phase shifting networks that feed each of the lines to the antenna. Assuming thet the lines are properly terminated and the phase shifling networks have a unity transformation ratio, the resistance of the loads is equal to the characteristic impedance of the lines, ‘The voltage developed actoss each load is equal to the square root of the product of the power fed to the antenna and the impedance of the lines. The phase relationship between these voltages depends upon the transformation that occurs within the power divider. The magnitude of the phase difference between these voltages is greater where the voltage differ ence is greater and less where the voltage differ- ence is less, being zero when the voltages are equal. An exception to this rule occurs when a tower with @ negative resistance exists and power is fed into the power divider from this tower, Phase difference may be reduced by increasing the circulating current in the divider, but, higher losses occur and a coinpromise between phase difference and efficiency must be reached DESIGN OF POWER DIVIDERS The design of power dividers of the type shown in Fig. 2a by algebraic methods is tedious and time consuming. However, it can be accomplished easily and quickly by graphical means. The accuracy of this method is as good as design by the use of a slide rule and it gives @ good visual representation of the curtents and voliages in- volved and their relationship to each other. Design errors and poor assumptions can be recognized and corrections ean be quickly made. In the examples shown, vectors with closed arrowheads represent currents and those with open arrowheads represent. voltages. If rectangular co- ordinate paper is used. the printed divisions on the paper can be used for the magnitude of the vectors and a divider and straight edge used to transfer them to the vectors. If plain paper is used, ‘an electrical engineers scale is used for decimal scale divisions and different scales may be used for voltages and currents Fig. 3 is a vector diagram of the voltages and currents found in the power divider of Fig. 2a From antenna impedance and power division cal culations,"? the amouat of power flowing to each of the loads is known and knowing the resistance of the loads, the magnitudes of the currents and voltages can be calculated. Since the loads are assumed to be resistive, the currents and voltages are in phase for a given toad. ‘The current and voltage /, and Ey for the load with the least power are laid owt as shown in the diagram. The current in the bottom end of the inductor, Js, is determined by the voltage, Ey, and Fig, 2 (Seales 150 E20). the reactance of that portion of the inductor. Since the value of this reactance has not been determined, a value of the magnitude of f, can be assigned to it, The relative phase of the currents in all the loads is dependent on the magnitude of this current so some care should be used when assign- ing a value to it. The magnitude of this current, should be two to four times the value of fy and if 1, is relatively small, Z_ should be chosen to be at least as large or slightly larger than Zy, the current in the load receiving the most power. ‘The vector sum of Jy and fz is Ic, the current owing in the inductor above the number I tap. ‘The voltage developed across the portion of the coil between taps | and 2 leads Jy by 90°. The voltage E12 is added vectorially to E, at right angles to I, to a distance from the source equal to E,, E> and Ty are then laid out on the diagram and Iz and [, added vectorially to give Ig. The voltage E23 across taps 2 and 3 leads Ig by 90° and is laid out to extend E in a direction which js at right angles to Jg to a distance from the source equal 10 By. This procedure is continued for a8 many loads as are required, in this case three, until the current into the top end of the coil and the total voltage across Ry are deter- mined. In our diagram, these are Jy and EyThe resistive component of the impedance seen a the input (at tap 3) is then R =~ where Pis the total transmitter power The magnitude of the impedance at the input is zfs G The reactive component of this impedance is , ak A, = 4250 cos" ‘The @ of the power divider is then and may be extended to any greater value desired by increasing the amount of reactance above the upper tap. The @ of the circuit would also be greater if [, were initially given a higher value ‘The circuit may be resonated to produce the desired inptt resistance. The input resistance is Rin = FDR Since R has been determined, @ may be extended to result in the desired value for Rin. The value of Q then is Rin, Q R ‘The resonating capacitor has a reactance of Ri i Xe Q Rin, may be adjusted to che value desited for a common point resistance or may be transformed 10 that value by means of an Lor T network.” Problem: Design a power divider for a 3-tower directional array where the power of 10 kilowatts Js divided and fed to the antennas in the following proportions, 1,800 watts, 3,200 watts, 5,000 watts by means of transmission lines of 50-ohim imped: ane, See Fig. 4 ‘The voltages at the loads are Fy = JPR = /18OOXSO = 300 volts Ey = JPR = S3OX SD = 400 volts Ey = JPR = \/3000X50 = 500 volts Design of Power Dividers 257 16.24 12.18 G——-— 509 s000 WATTS 10a so0v 29 a ———s02 3200WATTS BA aoov 1 a——s08 ieoowatts 6A nov Fig The current in the loads ate BO, Sp = 6 amperes 200 So.” B-amposes 000 _ so 7 amperes Referring to Fig. 3, the seale used for current is 50 divisions per inch and voltage scales are 20 per inch. Draw &,, 300 volts, and /,, 6 amperes, and add J, 14 amperes lagging sy by 90°, The value of /4 was chosen arbitrarily. The veetar sum of Jy and Ig is labeled J, and has a value of 15.2 amperes Bir Is drawn from the end of &) and is perpendicular to Js. £2 is drawn to coincide with Eyy at a point where £; has a value of 400 volts. ‘A pair of dividers may be used for this purpose. /> is drawn along E, 10 a length of 8 amperes. /p and 1, are added vectorialy resulting in a value of 19.1 amperes for Je. The procedure is continued until /> id determined and a value of 25.7 amperes is measured The input resistance then is P= 10 R 10000 Ht Gani = 152 ohms “The magnitude of the impedance is Ey _ 500 z= Ba = 300 «19.45 ohm: To 53 7 19-45 ohms258 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systoms The reactive component of the impedance is Ry 452 Xp = 4/2 sin (cos 5) = 419.45 sin cos" 55.) =/12.15 ohms. The common point impedance may then be adjusted to 50 ohms ot a value larger than. this and then transformed to 50 ohms by an L or T network. For example, adjust the input impedance to 70 ‘ohms and then transform to 50 ohms using an network as shown in Fig. 5. The @ of the circuit is a 19 Ta ‘The resonating capacitor has a reactance of o- fin VR Rin |, 70 Q To resonate the circuit, the inductive reactance of the divider must be adjusted to Xe 368 4)Xp = +7RQ = 47(05.2)(19) 4728.9 Since at tap 3 we have a reactance of 47 12.15, the value of reactance to be added is 28.9 — 12.15 = 16.75, The reactance of the inductor to be added above tap 3 is +7 16.75 ohms. The total reactance of Ly may be determined by adding up the reactance of all of its parts These are determined by dividing the voltage veross each part by the current through it and adding them together, thus E, _ , 300 £1 2 30 - jag mao Ev. _ 10s £2 2 18 2 569 7 7! 35a 7 19% = Fig. 6 Total reactance is J Xp =] 214 +} 6.924) 6.55 +) 16.75 = 51.62. ‘The components of the L matching network are designed as Follows: Xpq = + RlCommon point) Qs Rin @ Xer Qy is the @ of the L network and is ‘Then the reactance of Ly is Xz2 = 4) (50)(.633) = 431.6 = 7105. The seactance of C, and C; may be com- bined jeto one value Xe , —1—- i076 rt 4d Ke Xa 7368 * 70s ‘The vector diagram for the power divider Fig. 3 hhas been extended to show the graphical design of the rest of the circuit as we have just designed it, Currents and voltages at the divider input and the common point input for the total power are Pr }0000 Eep = J Pr Rep = C0000) SO. = [Pr (0000 fin = =f = 119: " Rin 70 5 amperes Bin = V/ PrRin = 110,000) (70) = 837 volts ‘The current /y in the divider and the current in Cy add vectoriaily to give us the current into the resonated divider fin and the current in Cy, Fey, is leading the voltage across it by 90°. Since the current Jn and Fin are in phase, resonant condi- tion, they’ are drawn as shown in Fig. 3. Bin is 837 volts and when drawn as shown will coincide with Ey which is the voltage from tap 3 to the top of the inductor and is drawn perpendicular to 1, the current in the top end of the inductor. 707 voltsTea is added t0 Ie, for the total capacitor current, The common point current lop is 14.14 amperes and is drawn to add vectorially with fos, determining the length of Zeq. The vottage at the common point Egp is drawn in phase with Lep and has a magnitude of 707 volts. Since the common point current flows through £2 the voltage Ez» developed across £2 will lead the current by 90°, The vector sum of Ein and Ey 48 Bep. ‘The magnitude of these vector currents and voltages may be scaled and their ratio determined to give the reactance of £2 and C (Cl + C2) 445 ” Tqae 41316 2716 ‘These values agree with those determined earlier. Problem: Design a power divider for a three-tower directional array where the power of 10 kilowatts is divided and fed to the antennas in the following proportion: 7800 watts, 3200 watts, -1000 wants, Transmission line impedance is 50 ohms. The solution of this problem will be covered only far enough (o illustrate the procedure necessary to accommodate the negative power flow The load currents and voltages are Ey = TOONS = 224 volts £2 = y/GHIOVS0) = 400 volts Es = / T8050) 625 volts x [QE = 447 amperes 8 amperes = flee 2 _ ty 0 12.5 amperes. Since P is negative, either the eurrent or voltage must be negative. A negative current results in a better phase angle relationship between output powers so the design will consider only a negative current for / The circuit diagram is shown in Fig, 6 and the vector diagram in Fig. 7. Symbols used in Fig. 2 are used in this example and the procedure is the same as used in the first problem except that now /, is negative so the vector is drawn in a direction opposite that of the voltage Ey. The outputs are more nearly in phase in this example. This is due to Design of PowerDividers 259 <= 500 eDOWAITS —IZSAMPERES 625,VOLTS sq 5000 SZOOWATTS 8 AMPERES con VOLTS 2 00 sop0.waT ts. 4 47 auvenes 224 VOLS Fig. 6. the effect of the negative current flow. Iy. fy in this example is 21.7 amperes and the input resistance is P _ 10000 > Byapt 213 ohms ‘The magnitede of the impedance at tap 3 is ‘The reactive component of the impedance is 1213 388 Xp =jZsin cos" F =4j288sin cos = +)19.4 ohms, ‘The divider impedance of 21.3 +/ 19.4 may then be transformed to the desited common point pedance, a8 was Jone in the first example260 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systems ‘SHUNT POWER DIVIDER The shunt power divider, as shown in. Fig. 2 consists of a group of variable inductors in parallel between the common input point and ground. The loads are connected from the variable taps to ground and each is adjustable from maximum voltage to zero voltage. The impedance at the input of each of these branches depends upon the position of the tap and is a pure reactance when the tap is at the minimum position énd an impedance consisting of the reactance of the total inductor in shunt with the load resistance at the maximum position. Both the total reactance of the inductor and the resistance of the load are fixed quantities for any given application. The series input impedance of each branch is determined by finding the series impedance of the load resistance and the portion of the inductor in shunt with it and adding to this series impedance the teactance of the remainder of the coil. The solution of this problem is complicated by the fact that all of these branches must be connected to a common voltage source and develop a voltage at its output that is proportional to @ specified power output A series:parallel conversion chart is a valuable tool for the solution of the problem, This chart is ilustrated in Fig. 8 and consists of 2 family of resistance cittles on the x axis and a family of reactance circles on the y axis superimposed on rectangular grid lines. The solution of the series impedance of a reactance and resistance in parallel is accomplished by selecting the parallel resistance circle and following it to the point where it coincides with the parallel reactance circle. The vertical distance of this point from the x axis represents the series reactance and the horizontal distance Som the y axis represents the series resistance. There remains, hawever, the reactance of the remainder of the indUctor above the tap which must be added to the series reactance of the impedance for the shunt position. The locus of all of the impedance points, as the tap is moved from the top to the bottom of the inductor, is a curve beginning at the junction of the load resistance circle and the circle representing the total reactance of the inductor, terminating on the y axis at the tend of this same reactance circle. A family of these curves for values to total coil reactances of from 4/50 to 4/150 ohms and a load resistance of 50 ‘ohms have been drawn on the conversion chart. The procedure for the design of a shunt power divider will be demonstrated by an example. Problem: Design a shunt power divider, Fig. 9, for a three-tower directional array where the total power of 10 kilowatts is divided and fed to the antennas in the following proportions, 1,800 watts, 3,200 watts and 5,000 watts by means of transmis. ssion lines of SO-ohm impedance. The total re actance of each of the variable inductors is as assumed to be +/100 ohms. We then use the curve connecting the end points of the 100 ohm reactance circle where it coincides with the y axis at one end. and the 500 ohm resistance circle at the other end. ‘This curve is the locus of all values of branch input impedance a5 a 50-ohm load connection is moved from the top to the bottom of the 100-chm inductor. A reference must now be established for ‘one of the branches to which the other branches are related When the ioad of one of the branches is set at the top of the inductor, the branch parallel resistance is ‘50 ohms and the branch parallel reactance is #7100 ohms. The series resistance is 40 ohms and the series reactance is +20 ohms. This position is shown on Fig. 8. Itis desirable however to move the cperating point down the coil to allow for adjustment latitude, Adjustment to Point 1, Fig. 8, results in a parallel resistance, Rp, of 70 ohms and a parallel reactance, Xp, of 75 ohms. If the antenna receiving the most power (5,000 watts) i connected to this tap, the input voltage required is, B= /PRp = STK TO = 591.6 volts. This voltage then is the input voltage for all of the branches, ‘The parallel resistance for the other branches may then be determined by Be Rp - = eo For the second branch, the parallel resistance is _ 591.6)? 109.4 ohms 3200 9-4 ol Rp and for the third branch, the parallel resistance is (91.67 = 194.4 0h 1800 ons Rp The points on our locus curve corresponding to these parallel resistance values are shown as Point 2 and Point 3. The parallel reactances for these points are read from the chart and are 473 and +80, respectively We then have three parallel resistance values and three parallel reactance values which when in shunt result in the input impedance. The resistance values are again 70, 109.4, and 194.4 ohms. Combined in parallel, they are Rpin = aia ta Roy * Ros * ResShunt Power Divider 261 REACTANCE Resi stone Fig. @, A seties-paralle} conversion chart. The X axis sa family of resistance circles and ¥ axle isa family of reactance circles262 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systems = [| = | 70 1094 194.4 ‘The reactance values are agein 475, 73, and 80 ‘ohms. Combined in parallel they are = 7253, The total power is 591.6)" 3 = 10,000 watts. ‘The parallel resistance of 35 ohms and reactance of 425.3 are then converted to series resistance and reactance Rp_Xp?__ (35) (253)? Re Xe" _ G5) 25.30 ms Rs Rp? + Xp? (35)? + (25.3)? ye BER. CY 08.9) gg oy, 3” Rpt exp” GSP Vasae 710° ohms ‘The series impedance is 12 + /16.6 ohms. If all of the taps are moved up on the inductors, the series resistance is raised. If larger inductors are used, the series resistance is also raised. This series impedance may then be transformed to a common point impedance by adding series inductance and resonating the circuit with a shunt capacitor as was done in the examples fora series power divider. The input impedance may be transformed to any higher value desired and then transformed to the common point by means of an L or T network, as was done in an earlier example ‘The phase angle of the currents in the load referted to the input voltage may now be deter- ined. This phase angle is the difference between the input impedance phase angle and the phase of the current in the input with respect (0 the current in the output, The cursent in the load and the current in the shunt portion of the inductor have a 90° phase difference and their vector sw is the input current. Then the phase angle between the input current and load current is B= tan Js q where /s is the inductor shunt current and /y is the load current. ‘The input impedance phase angle which iso is the phase relationship between input voltage and current is 6 = tant in The phase difference between these is the phase relationship between input voltage, which is our reference, and the output cuttent + Xin stan’ ‘The input impedances for the branches can be found in Fig. 8 by reading the x and y axis dimensions for the points labeled 1, 2, and 3. They are Brarich 1 (5000 watts) 37.5 +35 Branch 2 (3200 watts) 33.8 + /50.5 Branch 3 (1800 watts) 27.8 +/68.5 ‘The curtents in the loads are determined by the relation ip n= fe and are for Branch 1tzy = branch 2,tp, = /2M = 8 amperes Branch 3,/,3 = [= = 6 amperes. ‘The currents in the shunt portion of the inductors are determined by the relation £vTK XX = 10 amperes Is where X is the reactance of the shunt portion.The X can be determined from Fig. 8 by dropping our impedunce points vertically to the 50:ohm parallel resistaice circle and from this point following the parallel reactance citcle 10 the y axis ‘where the shunt reactance is read. This may be checked by measuring the distance from the impedance point to the S0-ohm circle and subtrac: ting this value from 100. The shunt reactance for Point 1 is found to be 87 ohms. This distance between Point 1 and the 50-ohin circle is measured and found to be 13 and confirms the value 87 ‘The shunt reactance for Point 2 is likewise Found to be 73, and the distance from the point to the 50-ohm circle is measured and found to be 27 confirming the value 73. Tn the same manner, the reactance for Point 3 is found to be $6. The distance here is 44, which confirms the value 56, ‘The shunt currents are then Found to be = 9.75 amperes = 5.48 amperes 5.36 amperes. Igy = VER. VGOXS ¥ 36 ‘The phase angles of the load currents then related to the input voltage are 0, = ton! 35 + tat SB = 13° The phase difference between outputs using @, as.areference are a= 0° f= 88° O3 = 13.2%, HYBRID (SHUNT-SERIES) POWER DIVIDER The hybrid power divider, as shown in Fig. 2c, consists of a group of L networks each of which Hybrid (Shunt-Sories) Power Divider 263, transforms the load (transmission line) impedance toa value of resistance that is deterinined by the power Rowing into its load. Since the input impedance of each of these networks is greater than the output impedance, the shunt legs of the & networks ate in parallel at their inputs and can all be combined as one reactance value equal to the reactance of all of the shunt legs in parallel. This reactance is generally capacitative and is not shown in Fig. 2c. The input impedance of each of the bianiches is deterinined by first selecting the desired input parallel resistance and determining the voltage developed across this resistance by the Lota! power input. The input parallel resistance of each branch is then determined by the following relationship: Be Ro5 where £ is the voltage across the input and P the power fed to each branch load. Knowing both the input and output resistance, an L network for each branch may be designed or Fig. 8 may be used in the following manne1. From the output load resistance value on the x axis, follow a straieht line up to each of the input parallel fesistances. The input impedances of each of the branches are found at the point where the vertical Tine crosses each input parallel resistance circle Both series and parallel value of input resistance and reactance may be read at these points. The parallel reactance of all branches are combined in shunt to give the total parallel reactance of the input. If this is inductive, a capacitor having a reactance equal to this reactance is connected across the input, resulting in a resonant condition and ga input resistance equal {0 that of the originally selected value Problem: Design a power divider, Fig. 10, for a theeestower directional antenna array where the total power of 1 kilowatt is divided and fed to the antentias in the following proportions: 200 watts, 350 watts, and 450 watts by means of transmission lines of 50-ohm impedance. ‘Assume that an input impedance of 62.5 ohms is specified. This may be transformed to any common point impedance desired by means of a T network The input voltage for our divider is found by the following relationship. E = /PR + 1000 625 = The input parallel resistances for each branch is then 50 volts 07 GEO 312.5 ohms EP (250)? Ry ap = = 1786 ohms264 Power Dividers for Directional Antenna Systems en soo Soownrrs H ay SDDS B _ (250) Ra =F, = Gag = 1389 ohms Moving in a vertical line up from the S0-ohm point on the x axis to @ Point A on a 312.5-ohm resistance circle, we find a point whose rectangular coordinates are 50-ohm resistance and 114.6-ohm reactance. These are the series components of the input impedance, and the reactance value 114.6 ‘olims is the value of the Series Inductor L1. The parallel components of this impedance are found by following the circles to their indexes. The parallel resistance is the valle we previously determined 312.5 ohms and the parallel reactance is found to be 136.2 ohms by following the reactance circle to the y-axis. The series and parallel components are then: Ris = 50 ohms, = 4) 114.6 ohms = 312.5 ohms ip = 47 136.2 ohms. Tn the same manner, the series and parallel components for the input impedance of Branch 2 are found to be at Point B. Ras = S0.ohms Mas = 4/804 obrrs Xap = 178.6 ohms Xap = 47111 ohms And for Branch 3, the values are found at Point C. Rys = 50 ohms +7 66.6 ohms Rap = 138.9 ohms Xap = 4] 104 ohms. ‘The parallel resistances are then cambined to give us the iput parallel resistance. = 1 - as 1 1 1 1 po a Fa Rop 3125 * 1786 * i389 The parallel reactances are then combined to give us the input parallel reactance \ a ot Xip Xap Xap +/136.2 7 = 1386. 104 1 pen 4 A capacitor of 38.6-0him reactance is then connected across the input to resonate the circuit and to provide a resistive input impedance of 62.5 ‘ohms. As mentioned before, this impedance may be iransformed to any vale by means of aT network. ‘The phase shifts encountered in the braniches are given by this relationship @ = tan and 8, = tan! HAS = 665° 6 = tan A = sa.y0 65 = tan SS = 53.19 ‘An interesting special case of this power divider is called the quadrature power divider. Two outputs are required to have a phase difference of 90° with any power division ratio. Two L networks are used with one being a lagging network with an inductor in the series arm and a capacitor in the shunt arm and the otler a leading network with a capacitor inthe series arm and an inductor in the shunt arm, ‘Then, if the input parallel resistance has the same value’ as the loads, the shunt urms will have equal values of reactance of opposite sign and can be omitted and the power divider is a branched network with @ capacitor in one series arm and an inductor in the other. The solution of this divider is accomplished in the same manner as the hybrid divider with the only special requirements being that the input parallel resistance is the same as the oad resistances, the phase difference is 90° and ‘only two outputs are used CONCLUSION ‘The generally accepted types of power dividers have been described and design examples have been Conclusion 265 shown. Many combinations of these types are possible and possibly desirable depending upon the particular application involved These combinations are left 10 the ingenuity of the reader. REFERENCES 1. EAL Laport. Radio Antenna Engineering New York: McGraw-Hill Book, 1952 G.H. Brown. “Directional Antennas,” Proceed: ing LR.E,, 1937, 28, 78-145. 3. A.P. Walker. NAB Handbook. New York: MoGraw-Hil, 1960, 4, WL. Everett and G. E. Anner. Communications Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, Chapter uw