Application guidelines

Metal-oxide surge arresters

in medium-voltage systems
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Foreword to the sixth edition

First published November 1994
2nd revised edition: September 1995
3rd revised edition: May 1999
4th revised and expanded edition: February 2009
5th revised edition: May 2011
6th revised edition: June 2018

All rights reserved. Neither the complete brochure

nor parts of it are to be copied, reproduced, transmitted The first edition of our guidelines for the dimensioning, testing and application of
in any way or translated into other languages without the
express written consent of Hitachi Energy Switzerland Ltd.
metal-oxide surge arresters (MO surge arresters) for use in medium-voltage systems
© Hitachi Energy Switzerland Ltd. appeared in 1994.
Surge Arresters
Wettingen, Switzerland
A number of developments in technology and application of MO surge arresters as well
as in standardization have taken place in the past years. The standards produced by
TC 37 of IEC have undergone radical changes, based on recent research work initialized
and supervised by Cigré working groups WG A3.17 and WG A3.25 of SC A3 High
Voltage Equipment. Edition 3.0 of IEC 60099-4 contains important changes to the
definitions and test requirements of the energy-handling capability. All related standards
of the IEC 60099 series were adapted accordingly, and new standards were published.

Consequently, it was necessary to completely revise the selection principles and

application recommendations. In principle, this revised brochure keeps the concept
of the previous editions. The design, function and application of MO surge arresters
are described, taking into consideration the new definitions and test procedures.
Some chapters have been shortened and are more concentrated, for better readability.
Additional and more detailed information will be given in separate documents with
respect to theory, background information, and specific applications.

We hope that you as a reader will be satisfied with the new appearance of our new
edition, and that you will find it useful for your purposes. We welcome amendments
and suggestions that help us to better understand and meet all possible customer
needs. Further, we would like to thank everyone who contributed their valuable
comments on this brochure.

Bernhard Richter
Hitachi Energy Switzerland Ltd.
Surge Arresters
Wettingen, May 2018
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Table of contents
032 
06 Neutral earthing methods and determination of Uc
6.1 General considerations
6.2 Systems with insulated star point or with earth fault compensation
6.3 Systems with high-ohmic insulated neutral and automatic earth fault clearing
6.4 Systems with direct or low-ohmic star point earthing
Systems with direct star point earthing
Systems with low-ohmic star point earthing
6.5 Four-wire, multi-earthed-wye systems
003 Foreword to the sixth edition
6.6 Distribution systems with delta connection
6.7 Arresters between phases
006 01 Introduction
Six-arrester arrangement
Neptune design
008  02 Surge arrester technology
6.8 Operating voltage with harmonic oscillation
2.1 General
2.2 Arrester design
037 07 Coordination of insulation and selection of MO surge arresters
2.3 Metal-oxide resistors
7.1 General considerations
2.4 High-field MO resistors and GIS arresters
7.2 Selection of nominal discharge current, charge and energy
2.5 Influence of different frequencies and DC voltage on MO resistors
7.3 Protection level
Different frequencies
7.4 Selection of arrester housing
DC voltage
2.6 Microvaristors and field grading
041 08 Protective distance of MO surge arresters
8.1 General considerations
018
03 Function and performance of MO surge arresters
8.2 Traveling waves
3.1 General
8.3 Protective distance
3.2 Currents and voltages
8.4 Induced voltages
3.3 Charge transfer and energy absorption capability
3.4 Cool-down time
044  09 Equipment protection
3.5 Stability of an MO surge arrester
9.1 General considerations
Thermal stability
9.2 Protection of transformers
Long-term stability
9.3 Protection of cables
3.6 Protective characteristics
9.4 Cable sheath protection
3.7 Temporary overvoltage
9.5 Arresters in metal-enclosed medium-voltage substations (cubicles)
9.6 Generator connected to a lightning-endangered MV line
024  04 Service conditions
9.7 Protection of motors
4.1 Normal service conditions
9.8 Arresters parallel to a capacitor bank
4.2 Special service conditions
9.9 Line traps (parallel protection)
4.3 Overload behavior
9.10 Line arresters
4.4 Mechanical stability
4.5 Elevated ambient temperature
050 10 MO surge arresters in parallel connection
4.6 Pollution and cleaning
10.1 General considerations
4.7 Altitude adjustment of the arrester housing
10.2 Parallel connections to increase the energy handling capability
10.3 Coordination of parallel-connected MO surge arresters
026 05 Tests
5.1 General
052 11 Accessories
5.2 Type tests (design tests)
11.1 Spark prevention unit
5.3 Routine tests
11.2 Disconnectors
5.4 Acceptance tests
11.3 Indicators
5.5 Special tests
11.4 Brackets, ground plates and clamping devices
5.6 Commissioning and on-site tests

053 12 Monitoring of MO surge arresters

054 13 Overload and failure analysis

055 14 Summary and developments

056 Acronyms/Abbreviations

057 Literature
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01 Introduction
Close cooperation with Hitachi Energy’s corporate research
Special applications, like parallel connection of MO resistors
center, which is located a short distance from the surge arrester
and surge arresters, and coordination of surge arresters, are
factory, ensures that the current state of the art is considered in
addressed in a separate chapter. Accessories like disconnec-
material technology and processing of MO resistors and surge
tors and indicators, etc., are mentioned. Finally some remarks
arresters. This, and decades of experience in the design and
are made on the overload performance of MO surge arresters
development of MO surge arresters gives the competence for
Hitachi Energy in Switzerland produces MO surge arresters for the protection of equipment specific solutions and applications in overvoltage protection.
and failure analysis. An overview of ongoing developments in
MO surge arrester technology and standardization closes this
against transient overvoltages. Decades of experience in design and development gives the Due to the variety of MO resistors and surge arresters pro-
brochure. Acronyms, abbreviations and a list of literature are
duced, applications in AC and DC power systems, e.g. traction
competence for specific solutions. systems and high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems are
given at the end.

possible with products adapted to the system and environmen-

In the large number of publications on MO resistors and
tal requirements.
MO surge arresters, different terms are used for basically
the same object: ZnO varistor, ZnO resistor, MO varistor, MO
In this brochure, the basics of MO surge arrester technology
resistor, varistor, ZnO or MO arrester, MO surge arrester, etc.
are described, covering the function and performance of MO
This has historical reasons, and also depends on the technical
material and MO surge arresters. Service conditions and tests
community or the kind of research and development performed.
according to the current international standard IEC 60099-4,
Overvoltages in electrical supply systems result from the In this brochure, the technical terms MO resistor and MO surge
effects of lightning incidents and switching actions and cannot
The most effective protection against Ed. 3.0 are listed and briefly explained. Then follows a section
arrester are mainly used, following the wording in the interna-
on neutral earthing methods in medium-voltage power systems,
be avoided. They endanger the electrical equipment because, overvoltages in medium-voltage systems is which is important for the selection of the power frequency volt-
tional standards of IEC TC 37, which are directly related to the
for economic reasons, the insulation cannot be designed subjects of this brochure.
to withstand all possible cases. An economical and safe on-line
therefore the use of surge arresters in the ages that can be applied to the MO surge arresters. Installation
principles and the protective distance of MO surge arresters is
system calls for extensive protection of the electrical equipment vicinity of the electrical equipment. addressed, followed by a more detailed section describing the
against unacceptable overvoltage stresses. This applies gener-
protection of various equipment in medium-voltage systems.
ally to high-voltage systems as well as to medium- and A surge arrester is a protective device for limiting surge
low-voltage systems. voltages on equipment by diverting surge current and returning
the device to its original status. A surge arrester is capable of
Overvoltage protection can be basically achieved in two ways: repeating these functions a large number of times as specified.

1. Avoiding lightning overvoltage at the point of origin, such Today’s technology for surge arresters intended for use in
as through shielding wires in front of the substation that medium-voltage systems is the gapless metal-oxide surge
intercept lightning arrester (MO surge arrester) with a synthetic housing. Therefore,
2. Limiting overvoltage near the electrical equipment, for this brochure concentrates only on MO surge arresters without
instance through surge arresters in the vicinity of the gaps with silicone housing, as developed and produced
electrical equipment by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland.

In high-voltage systems, both methods of protection are Hitachi Energy in Switzerland has concentrated all surge
common. Shielding wire protection of overhead lines in arrester activities under one roof in Wettingen. This ensures that
medium-voltage systems is not generally used. all steps in development and production, from raw material
qualification up to shipment of the final product, are under the
same management and quality control.
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02 Surge arrester technology

All MO surge arresters produced by Hitachi Energy in Switzer- Figure 2 shows an MO surge arrester of the POLIM-D type
land used in medium-voltage systems are designed according manufactured according to this technique. It is shown before
to the same principle. This construction concept of silicone and after being molded in silicone. The flexible method of
direct molding, which was patented by Hitachi Energy, consists construction (modular concept) makes it possible to change the
of two electrodes connected together through two or more form of the arrester to meet any necessity.
glass-fiber reinforced elements. It results in a stiff cage or
Based on experience in surge arrester design and application from the very beginning frame, which guarantees the mechanical strength. The MO The demands on the arresters depend on the operational condi-
of arrester technology, Hitachi Energy in Switzerland produces today MO surge arresters, resistors are arranged within this frame. Additional metal cylin- tions and the type of the electrical equipment to be protected.
ders with the same diameter as the MO resistors fill the inside
MO resistors and microvaristors for various applications in overvoltage protection and completely, forming a uniformly round active part. The MO Figure 3 gives an overview of the variety of MO surge arresters
field grading. resistors are pressed together with a bolt in the center of developed and produced by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland,
the lower electrode; the bolt is secured in the end position, covering station and distribution types intended for use in
thereby providing each arrester with the same contact pressure. medium-voltage systems, as well as arresters for application
The active part is placed into a mold and completely sealed with in traction systems (AC and DC) and for special applications.
silicone. As a result, the surge arrester, which is completely
sealed and tight, has no internal void.

tage that it forcibly breaks apart when the MO blocks are

2.1 General overloaded. Another disadvantage is the fact that there are
different insulating materials, which also means that there are
Hitachi Energy in Switzerland has a long history in MO technol-
more boundary layers. Therefore, it is necessary to take spe-
ogy and surge arrester design. In the 1980s, BBC (now Hitachi
cial measures for sealing. This principle of design belongs in
Energy) started producing MO resistors and gapless MO surge
Group II, see Figure 1b
arresters. In 1986, the first MO surge arresters with patented
direct molding for medium-voltage systems were delivered.
• In a glass-fiber reinforced tube made of synthetic material,
In the same year, the first gapless MO surge arrester for SF6
which is covered with an insulating polymeric material, the
gas insulated substations (GIS) came to market.
active part is installed, similarly to insulators made of porce-
lain. These “hollow” insulators have the same disadvantages
Since the beginning, continuous development of products and
as the porcelain insulators: they need a sealing and pressure
process technology has taken place. High-field MO resistors
relief system and they can have internal partial discharges.
have been developed, along with MO resistors for DC applica-
This is considered Group III, see Figure 1c
tions and microvaristors for field grading applications, to name
a few. Applications in specific fields, like traction systems,
Silicone rubber (usually simply referred to as “silicone”) is
power electronics and wind power parks, are possible with 1a 1b 1c 02
an excellent insulating material for high-voltage insulators.
products adapted to the specific requirements.
In high-voltage technologies, silicone has been successfully
used for about 50 years for long rod insulators and bushings,
2.2 Arrester design for example. The first MO surge arresters with the typical Hita-
chi Energy direct molding were used in 1986. Millions of these
Generally, an MO surge arrester is made up of two parts: arresters have been, and are still being, used trouble-free all
the active part, consisting of one or more piled up MO resistors, over the world and under all climate conditions. 01 Design principles for MO surge
and an insulating housing, which guarantees both the insulation arresters: a) Group I, b) Group II,
c) Group III. For explanation see
and the mechanical strength. The basic Si-O-Si-O matrix with additional CH3-groups (methyl) text above.
is characteristic of silicone. The filling materials and special
02 POLIM-D type MO surge arrester
Fundamentally, there are three different possibilities for additives cause the arcs and creep resistance necessary for
(design Group I).
construction: use in high-voltage technology. The qualities of silicone include Left: active part before molding.
Middle: schematic design.
• The active part is held mechanically together with glass-fiber very high elasticity and resistance to tearing, high temperature
Right: complete arrester.
reinforced loops or straps. The polymeric material (such as stability, very low combustibility (silicone is a self-extinguishing
03 Range of MO surge arresters
silicone) is directly molded on to the MO resistors. This direct material) and high electrical disruptive strength. Besides all developed and produced by
molding has the advantage that no gas volume remains in these qualities, the most remarkable one is hydrophobicity: Hitachi Energy in Switzerland.
the arrester. Sealing problems and inner partial discharges water simply rolls off the silicone surface. Silicone insulators are
are thus out of the question. There are no interfaces between water-repellent even if they are polluted. This means that the
the polymeric materials into which humidity can penetrate. hydrophobicity is also transmitted into the pollution layer on the 03
The danger of violent shattering of the housing is negligible. surface. All this provides excellent performance properties for
MO surge arresters designed according this principle belong high-voltage equipment insulated with silicone. The hydropho-
to Group I, see Figure 1a bicity of the silicone can be diminished under the influence of a
long period of humidity or electrical discharges on the surface;
• The active part is wrapped with glass-fiber material and is it is however completely restored in a short period of time (from
soaked with resin, which turns the whole into a rigid body. a couple of hours to a couple of days). As much as we can say
The insulating polymeric housing is then slipped over the resin today this mechanism works for unlimited time.
block or shrunk onto it. This construction has the disadvan-
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The MO resistor stack of the surge arrester behaves in an 2.3 Metal-oxide resistors Figure 5 shows a selection of MO resistors. Figure 6 shows in Metal-oxide resistors have an extreme non-linear voltage-cur-
almost pure capacitive manner with applied continuous operat- an enlarged form the inner structure of the MO material. It is rent characteristic, which is described as
ing voltage Uc. The stray capacitance of each resistor against MO resistors are made of different metal-oxides in powder absolutely necessary to obtain a very homogeneous structure
the earth causes an uneven voltage distribution along the form, which are compressed and sintered in the form of round of the material in order to achieve a high specific energy I = k × Uα
arrester axis under applied Uc. This unevenness increases with blocks. Figure 4 shows the principle of the manufacturing handling capability for the MO resistor. The energy handling
the length of the resistor stack. High-voltage MO surge arrest- process. The diameter of the MO resistors produced by Hitachi capability of an MO resistor and of an MO surge arrester α is variable between α ≤ 5 and α ≈ 50.
ers therefore need grading elements, such as grading rings, Energy in Switzerland lie between 38 mm and 108 mm. The respectively, depend on the volume of the active part, the k is a material depending factor.
which mostly compensate the unfavorable influence of the stray height of the MO resistor blocks is typically between 23 mm and design (heat transfer) and the electrical dimensioning.
capacitance. The resistor stack with medium-voltage arresters 46 mm. For special applications, the MO resistors can be sliced An exact value for α can only be provided for a very restricted
is, however, so short that the uneven voltage distribution can be to a height as small as 0.8 mm. The diameter of the MO resis- range of the current in the characteristic curve.
neglected. Therefore, medium-voltage arresters do not require tors determines the current; the height of the MO resistors
any grading elements. (or resistor stack) determines the voltage in continuous opera-
tion and the volume of the blocks determines the energy
As a rule, the mechanical loads are low with medium-voltage handling capability and charge transfer capability.
arresters. All Hitachi Energy medium-voltage arresters can be
installed in regions where earthquakes occur. Horizontal and The lateral surface of the MO resistors is passivated with glass,
hanging installation is possible. If the arresters have to bear the contact areas are laser cleaned and activated before metal-
additional mechanical loads, besides their own weight and the lizing with soft aluminum. The metallization reaches up to the
normal wind and ice loads, that exceed the guarantee data, edge of the MO resistors. In this way, the MO material of the
then the manufacturer should be contacted. MO resistors produced by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland is
completely covered.

05 Range of MO resistors produced by

Hitachi Energy in Switzerland.

1 Mixing of the 2 Spray-drying of 3 Pressing of 4 Sintering

metal-oxide powders the powder mixture the MO resistors

8 MO resistors ready to 7 Final tests of 6 Laser cleaning, 5 Coating the surface

be installed in the arrester the MO resistors activation and metallizing passivation with glass

04 Manufacturing process of MO resistors 06 Surface electron microscope

image of the MO structure. Fracture
surface, enlarged 2’000 ×. The MO
grains and the boundaries between
the single grains can clearly be seen.
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Region C is the area of currents greater than about 100 A, of boundary layers per unit height. By increasing the number of
The typical U-I characteristic of such an MO resistor (or MO reference voltage is negligible. Therefore, the reference volt-
and it describes the protective characteristic of the MO surge boundary layers, i.e. reducing the size of the grains in a given
surge arrester) is shown in Figure 7. Some important terms are ages, which are measured at single MO resistors, can be added
arrester. It is considered to be the high-current region. The most MO resistor, the field strength can be increased up to 4 kV/cm,
explained below. to give the reference voltage of the entire arrester. The measure-
important parameter is the lightning impulse protective level Upl. considered to be “high-field” (HF).
ment of the reference voltage is a routine test for each MO
This is the maximum permissible peak voltage on the terminals
Region A describes the part of the U-I characteristic curve resistor and each MO surge arrester produced by Hitachi
of an arrester subjected to the nominal discharge current In. Hitachi Energy in Switzerland developed a specific recipe for
relevant to the power frequency voltage. It is also considered to Energy in Switzerland. The measurement of the reference
The amplitude of the nominal discharge current In, with a wave high-field MO resistors that provides lower power losses, espe-
be the pre-breakdown or low-current region. The continuous voltage Uref at iref, and the residual voltage Upl at In ensures a
shape of 8/20 μs, together with the arrester class prescribe the cially at higher temperatures. This opens advantages in the
operating voltage Uc is the power frequency voltage that can be control of the U-I characteristic of each MO resistor.
test parameters, see also section 3.3, Table 2. Figure 10 shows design of MO surge arresters with high-field MO resistors.
applied to the MO surge arrester (or MO resistor) continuously
as an example the nominal discharge current In and the residual In arrester designs with SF6 gas as insulating medium (GIS
without any restrictions. The current flowing through the MO
surge arrester is the “leakage” current ic, which is almost purely
It is important to note that in Region A, voltage Upl of an MO resistor. It needs to be mentioned that in arresters) the use of high-field MO resistors can bring really big
Region C we have a positive temperature coefficient. The influ- advantages. As the MO resistor stack can be reduced by up to
capacitive (see Figure 8). The power losses at Uc can be the resistive part of the current, and ence of the temperature on the residual voltage of the MO 50 percent, the size of the vessel can be reduced accordingly.
neglected, assuming standard ambient conditions and the cor-
rect choice of arrester.
therefore the power losses, depend resistors is in the range of only a few percent and can be This reduces the volume of the vessel and the amount of SF6
neglected in standard applications. gas needed. Further, high-field MO resistors can find their
strongly on the temperature of the application in liquid-immersed arresters and in arresters
The rated voltage Ur is the voltage value that is applied for
t = 10s in the operating duty test in order to simulate a tempo-
MO resistors. 2.4 High-field MO resistors and with solid insulation, e.g. completely encapsulated arresters.
High-field MO resistors for DC applications are also available.
rary overvoltage in the system. The relationship between the
rated voltage and the continuous operating voltage is generally
Due to the negative temperature coefficient in this region, GIS arresters The use of high-field MO resistors in standard applications, e.g.
there is a strong increase in power losses with increasing air-insulated MO surge arresters (AIS), brings little or no benefit,
Ur /Uc = 1.25. This is understood as a given fact, but it is not
temperature. This may be critical for the thermal stability of the The field strength (voltage per unit height of the MO resistor) because the height of such a surge arrester is given by the
defined anywhere. Other ratios are possible. The rated voltage
MO surge arrester in service, and it has to be considered in is generally in the range of 2 kV/cm at a given current iB in the external flashover withstand capability of the housing.
has no other importance, although it is often used in type
the relevant type tests, as well as in applications at elevated breakdown range, considered to be the “normal” field strength.
designations or when choosing an arrester.
ambient temperatures. The field strength of MO resistors is determined by the number

The reference current iref is the peak value of the resistive

Region B is the breakdown region. It is the part of the U-I curve
component of a power frequency current, and is chosen by the
in which even minimal voltage increases lead to a significant rise
manufacturer. Usually, the same current density is used for all
in the current. Only transient events in the time range of
MO resistors in production. The reference voltage Uref is the i, u i, u
milli- and micro-seconds (switching overvoltages) can be
peak value of the power frequency voltage divided by √2, which
handled by the arrester. A continuous application of power
is applied to the arrester to obtain the reference current (see
frequency voltage in this area of the characteristic would
Figure 9). Because of the dominant ohmic component of the ref-
destroy the arrester in a fraction of a second.
erence current, the influence of stray capacitances of the MO
resistors or MO surge arresters at the measurement of the

Region A Region B Region C

α≤5 I = k x U α with α ≈ 50 α≤5 t [ms] t [ms]
U
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Uc ic Uref iref

08 09
Upl

08 Continuous operating voltage Uc and

u [kV] i [kA] leakage current ic of an MO surge arrester.

18 12
09 Reference current iref and reference
voltage Uref.
Uref 15 10
10 Nominal discharge current I n = 10 kA
Ur and residual voltage Upl.
12 8

9 6
Uc
6 4

3 2

0 0
Ic Iref In log I
t [μs]

07 Non-linear voltage-current characteristic of an MO resistor (principle) 0 10 20 30 40

A: Region relevant to power frequency voltage.
U i
B: Region with the highest non-linearity.
C: Region describing the protection characteristic.
10
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Figure 11 shows the relation between an MO resistor with frequency, because the MO surge arrester behaves in an almost DC voltage systems are broadly used for traction systems. 2.6 Microvaristors and field grading
normal field strength and a high-field MO resistor, developed purely capacitive manner considering the continuous operating The nominal voltages in the public DC traction systems lie
and produced by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland, as used in GIS voltage. Because of between Un = 600 V (urban traction systems) and Un = 3’000 V Microvaristors (μvar) are small spherical particles that behave
arresters. The high-field MO resistor has the same rated voltage (long-distance trains). It is necessary to observe both the high like a varistor (see Figure 13). The materials of the microvaristors
of 8.8 kV as the normal-field MO resistor. The diameter of the 1 electrical requirements for MO surge arresters in the traction and the production process are similar to the materials and
XC =
high-field MO resistor is, at 108 mm, the same as for the MO ωxC systems, as well as the mechanical and safety-relevant require- production of MO resistors.
resistors with standard field strength. The height of the MO ments.
resistor with normal field strength is 46 mm, the one for the XC = capacitive impedance Microvaristors are used in polymeric materials, e.g. silicone,
high-field MO resistor is 24 mm. ω = 2 × π × f = angular frequency Additional DC voltage applications are to be found in converter for field grading purposes. Typical applications can be in HV
C = capacity of the MO surge arrester stations, drives and photovoltaic systems. It is absolutely nec- and MV terminations, long rod insulators for AC and DC,
Hitachi Energy in Switzerland has developed and produces essary to get into contact with the manufacturer if MO surge grading tape for stator windings, or semi-conducting varnish.
SF6 gas-insulated (GIS) MO surge arresters for all transmission the capacitive impedance becomes smaller with increased arresters are to be used in such installations.
system voltages. Figure 12 illustrates the reduction in volume of frequency, and consequently the capacitive current increases The advantage of microvaristor filled polymers (compounds) is
the arrester vessel if high-field MO resistors are used instead with increasing frequency. Table 1 shows typical values as that the non-linear characteristic of the compound is given by
of MO resistors with standard field strength. examples. the U-I characteristic of the microvaristors and not by the filling
grade only, as is the case with other functional filler materials,
It has to be understood that doubling the field strength means like e.g. carbon black.
01 Power losses P v and continuous current ic for an MO surge
doubling the energy under a given current impulse, and conse-
arrester of class SL with Uc = 20 kV.
quently the temperature rise. Therefore, the increase in field This makes it possible to adjust the properties of the
strength means that the energy absorption capability, thermal compound to the required applications. The large variety of the
Frequency f in Hz 1 150 1
stability and voltage withstand capability is decreased. These field strength of the compound allows tailor-made solutions for
Power losses PV in W 2 150 1
disadvantages can be technically covered by increasing the different products. Hitachi Energy in Switzerland produces
diameter of the MO resistors or by the use of heat sinks in an Continuous current iC in mA, rms 3 150 1 microvaristors for the various applications mentioned and
arrester design. As mentioned above, Hitachi Energy in Switzer- consults on the development and production of field grading
land developed a specific recipe for high-field MO resistors that products.
The dimensioning and application of MO surge arresters for
avoids such drawbacks in the design of MO surge arresters for
railway systems with f = 50 Hz and f = 16.7 Hz is precisely
gas insulated substations (GIS).
described in a separate brochure.

2.5 Influence of different frequencies and The manufacturer must be contacted if the MO resistors or
arresters are to be used for frequencies rated higher than 60 Hz.
DC voltage on MO resistors A special case are test transformers and resonance circuits with
450 Hz, which are sometimes used for on-site insulation tests.
2.5.1 Different frequencies
In this case the capacitive current of the arrester is approxi-
Beside the system frequency of f = 50 Hz and f = 60 Hz,
mately nine times higher than with 50 Hz.
the “railway frequency” of f = 16.7 Hz also has technical
importance. MO surge arresters without spark-gaps can be
2.5.2 DC voltage
used without any problem with these frequencies. It is to be
In principle, in DC voltage systems, there also appear
noted that the continuous current ic will change with the
overvoltages produced by lightning or switching activities,
which may endanger the equipment and the insulation. In this 12 GIS arresters. The arresters have the same ratings.
case, it is also necessary to use an arrester as protection Left: design with MO resistors with standard field strength.
Right: with MO resistors with high-field strength.
against overvoltages. MO surge arresters without spark gaps
are particularly suitable, because they do not conduct any
follow current after the limiting of the overvoltage, except a
leakage current of a few μA, and therefore it is not necessary
to extinguish any DC current arc.

It is to be observed that only MO resistors with proved DC long-

term stability are to be used for MO surge arresters in DC volt-
age systems (see section 3.5.2). It goes without saying that all
the type tests using continuous voltage should be performed
with DC voltage. Typical DC voltage stresses are to be found in
11 MO resistor with normal
the high-voltage DC transmission (HVDC). The various voltage
field strength (left, field strength stresses in HVDC systems and the relevant tests are given in 13 Photograph of sintered microvaristors determined by electron
approximately 2 kV/cm) and
a high-field MO resistor with
the standard IEC 60099-9, Ed. 1.0, Surge arresters – Part 9: microscopy. The diameter of the microvaristors is in the range of
20 to 150 μm.
approximately 4 kV/cm Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for HVDC converter
field strength (right).
stations, published in June 2014.
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Metal-oxide resistors –
at the heart of modern
surge arresters.
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03 Function and performance

Long-duration current impulse Ild classification based on repetitive charge transfer rating (Qrs), as
Also called rectangular wave (Irw) or square wave, a long-dura- well as on thermal energy rating (Wth) for station class and ther-
tion current impulse is a rectangular impulse that rises rapidly mal charge transfer rating (Qth) for distribution class arresters.
to its peak value and remains constant for a specified period

of MO surge arresters
of time before it falls rapidly to zero. The length of the current Station and distribution class arresters are classified as
pulse duration is correlated to the line length in transmission indicated in Table 2. The letters “H”, “M” and “L” in the designa-
and distribution systems. Rectangular impulses are used in tion stand for “high”, “medium” and “low” duty, respectively.
laboratories during type tests. The current amplitudes are typi-
cally up to 2 kA and reproduce the load of an arrester when a In medium-voltage systems, distribution arresters are mainly
MO surge arresters are devices that protect electrical equipment and installations by limiting charged transmission line discharges into the arrester in case used. For specific applications, where higher energy require-
of an overvoltage occurrence. See Figure 15 for an example of ments apply, such as protection of cables, rotating machines or
surge voltages and diverting surge currents to earth. a rectangular current impulse with a virtual time duration of capacitor banks and other important equipment, station class
2.15 ms. arresters may also be needed for medium-voltage systems.

For comparison of different MO surge arresters, it is regarded The repetitive charge transfer rating Qrs is defined as the
as a matter of course to use a rectangular wave of 2 ms dura- maximum specified charge transfer capability of an arrester,
tion, although there is no norm established for doing so. Speci- in the form of a single event or groups of surges that may be
High current impulse Ihc
3.1 General Peak value of discharge current having a 4/10 μs impulse shape.
fied is either the amplitude of the rectangular wave for a specific transferred through the arrester without causing mechanical
MO surge arrester, or the energy transferred into the arrester failure or unacceptable electrical degradation to the MO resis-
The high current impulse represents not only an energetic
The function of a surge arrester with an active part consisting of during the flow of the rectangular current. tors. This rating is verified in a type test on single MO resistors
stress, but also a dielectric one, taking into consideration the
a series connection of MO resistors is very simple. In the event in open air and, therefore, is an MO resistor-related material
high residual voltage that occurs with a high current impulse
of a voltage increase at the arrester’s terminals, the current rises test.
according to the characteristic curve (see Figure 14) continually
with a peak value of 100 kA. However, it is necessary to strongly 3.3 Charge transfer and energy
emphasize that a high current impulse with an amplitude of 100
and without delay, which means that the arrester skips over to
kA is not the same as a real lightning current of the same ampli-
absorption capability
the conducting condition. After the overvoltage subsides, the
tude. The real lightning current of this amplitude measured
current becomes smaller according to the characteristic curve. With Ed.3.0 of IEC 60099-4, a new concept of arrester
during a thunderstorm lasts longer than several hundred micro-
The subsequent current after the MO surge arrester protected is classification and energy withstand testing was introduced:
seconds. Such strong lightning currents and impulse shapes
an almost pure capacitive leakage current ic of about 1 mA. the line discharge classification was replaced with a
are very rare and appear only under special conditions, such as
during winter lightning in hilly coastal areas.
In is the nominal discharge current, and Upl is the lightning im-
pulse protection level of the surge arrester. It is defined as the u[kV] i[A]
Switching current impulse Isw
maximum voltage between the terminals of the surge arrester 14 700
Peak value of discharge current having a virtual front time
during the flow of In.

U/Upl
1.5
greater than 30 μs and less than 100 μs, and a virtual time 12 600
to half-value on the tail of roughly twice the virtual front time. 4/10 μs
The following paragraph shows, and briefly explains, typical
The switching current impulses are used to determine the volt- 1/9 μs
10 500
current and voltage waveforms in the high-current region 8/20 μs
age-current characteristic. The current amplitudes lie between
(protection characteristics) of the characteristic curve. For the 8 400
500 A and 2 kA for station class arresters, and roughly repro-
low-current region, see Figure 7 in section 2.3.
duce the load of an arrester caused by overvoltages due to 30/69 μs 6 300
AC
circuit breaker operation. Uref

3.2 Currents and voltages 0.5 Ur

4 200

Steep current impulse Uc 2 100

iref
Residual voltage Ures Current impulse with a virtual front time of 1 μs and a virtual isw in
0 0
Peak value of voltage that appears between the arrester termi- time to half-value on the tail not longer than 20 μs. The steep
I[A]
nals during the passage of discharge current. current impulses are used to determine the voltage-current 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 t[ms]
characteristic. They have amplitudes up to 20 kA and roughly 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105

The residual voltage of an MO resistor or MO surge arrester is reproduce steep current impulses like those which may appear U i
determined with surges having different wave forms and current with disconnector operation, re-striking, back flashovers, and
heights, and it is given in tables or as a voltage-current charac- vacuum circuit breakers. All the current impulses described 14 Voltage-current characteristic of an MO surge arrester with I n = 10 kA, 15 Long-duration current impulse Ild = 506 A with a virtual
type SL. The voltage is normalized to the residual voltage of the arrester duration of the current of t 90% = 2.15 ms. The residual voltage
teristic on a curve (see Figure 14). The measurements are gener- above (except the high current impulse) are used to determine at In. The values are given as peak values for the voltage (linear scale) is U res ≈ 10.8 kV.
ally performed on MO resistors. As the measurement is mostly the voltage-current characteristic of an MO surge arrester. and the current (logarithmic scale). Shown are typical values.

performed in regions of the characteristic where the ohmic part It is to be considered that only the virtual front time and the
of the current is dominant, the capacitive stray influences can amplitude of the current impulses are decisive for the residual
be ignored. The residual voltages measured on single MO voltage and not the virtual time to half-value on the tail. That is
resistors can be summed as the residual voltages of the the reason why the tolerance for the virtual front times is very
whole arrester. tight, and contrastingly, the virtual times to half-value on the tail
are very broad.
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02 MO surge arresters made by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland, classification according to IEC 60099-4, Ed. 3.0. 3.5.2 Long-term stability to IEC 60099-4 (Ed. 3.0). In addition to type tests of over 1,000
An MO surge arrester can operate absolutely reliably if the hours, there are also accelerated ageing tests according to
Arrester class designation Station SH Station SM Station SL Station SL Distribution DH
voltage-current characteristics curve of the MO resistors under internal manufacturer instructions to be conducted on each
applied continuous voltage does not change. The continuous production batch.
Hitachi Energy type (choice) POLIM-H..N POLIM-S..N POLIM-I..N MWK POLIM-K POLIM-D current ic should not be allowed to shift to higher values to also
Nominal discharge current In 20 kA 10 kA 10 kA 10 kA 10 kA prevent increases in power losses. A change of the electrical It should be emphasized that the long-term stability test must
Switching impulse discharge current 2 kA 1 kA 0.5 kA 0.5 kA – characteristic curve due to applied continuous voltage Uc is not be performed with the same kind of voltage that is applied to
Q rs (C) 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.0 0.5 to be expected with MO resistors that are produced by leading the MO surge arrester in the system. Thus, the MO resistors
international manufacturers, considering the present state of for AC systems must be tested with AC voltage, and the MO
Wth (kJ/kV rated) 12 8 5 4.5 –
technology. resistors for DC systems must be tested with DC voltage. Expe-
Q th (C) - - - – 1.1
rience shows, however, that DC-stable MO resistors are usually
Under certain circumstances, a change (or, more precisely, de- also stable under AC loads, but AC-stable MO resistors are not
terioration) of the voltage-current characteristic curve can occur necessarily stable under DC loads. That is why it is particularly
due to extreme stresses, such as very high or very steep current important to use DC-stable MO resistors with MO surge arrest-
The thermal energy rating Wth is the maximum specified
energy, given in kJ/kV of Ur that may be injected into an arrester
3.5 Stability of a MO surge arrester impulses. Another cause that can lead to a change of the elec- ers in DC systems.
trical characteristics close to the rim may be different compo-
or arrester section within three minutes in a thermal recovery
There are two situations to take into account: the thermal stabil- nents of the materials in which the MO resistors are embedded. Figure 17 shows an example of a long-term stability test.
test without causing a thermal runaway. This rating is verified
ity of the MO surge arrester after adiabatic energy absorption This is the reason why the surface area of the MO resistors is Temperature and test voltage are to be kept constant over the
by the operating duty test for station class arresters. This test is
(sometimes known as “short-time stability”) and the long-time passivated, which means that they are coated with a gas-proof whole test time. The power losses P are recorded and should
a thermal stability test for MO surge arresters of classes SH, SM
stability of the MO surge arrester in system operation. glass that is also highly robust. decrease constantly or remain constant. The test duration of
and SL.
1,000 h at 115 °C is considered to correspond to an operating
3.5.1 Thermal stability All these reasons make it indispensable to permanently control time of 110 years in the system at an environmental temperature
The thermal charge transfer rating Qth is the maximum specified
In Figure 16, P represents the power losses of the MO resistors the long-term behavior of MO resistors during their manufac- of 40 °C.
charge that may be transferred through the arrester or arrester
in an arrester when Uc is applied. It is evident that P exponen- ture. This is achieved with the long-term stability test according
section within one minute in a thermal recovery test without
tially increases with the MO-temperature T, which also results in
causing a thermal runaway. This rating is verified by the operat-
increased heating of the active component. The cooling down
ing duty test for distribution class arresters. This test is a
of the MO resistors occurs with the heat flow Q˙ from the active
thermal stability test for MO surge arresters of classes DH, Thermal runway
W
part of the arrester to the exterior. P is greater than Q˙ at tem- P, Q˙
DM and DL.
peratures above the critical point (thermal stability limit). Here,
the cooling is not sufficient to dissipate the heat produced by
The operating duty tests are performed on thermally prorated
the power losses to the exterior. The MO resistors would con- Thermal
sections representing the arrester being modelled. The purpose
tinue to heat up and the arrester would be destroyed by over- stability
of this test is to verify the arrester’s ability to thermally recover limit
heating. This occurrence is called “thermal run-away” or
after injection of the rated thermal energy Wth or transfer of the
“thermal instability”.
rated thermal charge Qth under applied temporary overvoltage
T Q˙
and following continuous operating voltage conditions. Q˙
If the power losses P stay under the critical point (i.e. P < Q˙),
it is possible to eliminate the warmth faster than it is produced, P
Stable
3.4 Cool-down time and the active part cools down until it returns to the stable operating
working condition after the cool-down time (stable operating point
T[°C]
The arresters in the system can work reliably and safely if their point). This is the area of thermal stability. As long as the critical
energy absorption or charge transfer capability is greater than point is not exceeded, the arrester can branch off the loaded
the energy strain expected in the system operation. In case of energy as often as is necessary, which means that it can limit 16 Power losses P of the MO resistors and the heat flow Q˙
from the active part of an arrester to the exterior, as a function
multiple surges, one after another, the injected energy accumu- the overvoltage just as often as is required. It is possible to raise of the temperature (T) of the MO resistors at continuous operating
lates in the arrester, and therefore an intermediary cool-down the critical point to such a level, that even if the highest energies voltage Uc. P

time can be ignored. But if the energy reaches the guaranteed are likely to occur during the operation, this critical point cannot 1.1

value, which is applied in the operating duty test, the arrester possibly be reached. This can be achieved through suitably
1.0
must have enough time to cool down. The necessary cool-down dimensioning of the MO resistors and through design measures
time for the arrester depends on the construction, the ambient that enable them to cool down. 0.9
temperature and the applied voltage. The cool-down time typi-
cally lies between 45 and 60 minutes, depending on the arrester 0.8

type and the ambient conditions.

0.7

0.6

0.5

t[h]

0 200 400 600 800 1000

17 Example of a long-term stability test

(type test over 1,000 h).
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3.6 Protective characteristics neutrals for several hours. Their height depends on the system
configuration and the treatment of the star point. The duration is Long term tests of the MO
The protective characteristic of an arrester is given by the maxi-
mum voltage Ures at the terminals of an arrester during the flow
given by the time that elapses until the registration and the
switching off of the system failure. resistors in modern automated
of a current surge. Generally, a lightning impulse protective level
of Upl ≤ 4 p.u. is considered acceptable. This is a value that MO surge arresters are able to withstand an increased operat- test stations ensure reliable
is generally accepted for the insulation coordination. The real
residual voltage with nominal discharge current In (thus Upl) can
ing voltage for a certain period of time. The factor of resistance
(T) of the arrester against such temporary overvoltages can be performance.
lie above or below that, depending on the type of arrester. If Upl seen as an example in Figure 18. T = UTOV/Uc is the extent of the
is set in a relationship with Uc of an arrester, it is possible to get permissible height of UTOV.
very good information about the quality of the arrester perfor-
mance with regard to the protective level. The smaller the Upl/Uc The following example should explain the use of TOV curves
ratio, the better the protection. in Figure 18. An arrester with Uc = 24 kV is operated with Uc
in a normally functioning, undisturbed system for an unlimited
In addition to the residual voltage at In, the residual voltages at period of time. At time t = 0 the arrester is stressed with an
steep current impulse and at switching current impulse are also energy of Wth = 5.625 kJ/kVUc. Immediately afterwards, the
important. The residual voltage increases slightly with the cur- temporary overvoltage UTOV = 31 kV occurs. Therefore, it is
rent, but also with the steepness of the current impulse, as can T = UTOV/Uc = 31 kV/24 kV = 1.29. T = 1.29 results in a time of
be seen from the data sheets of each arrester, and also from the t = 20 s according to curve b. That means that the arrester
voltage-current characteristic. Depending on the application, can withstand an increased voltage of 31 kV for 20 s without
the residual voltage at the steep current impulse and at switch- becoming thermally instable. After 20 s, the voltage must go
ing current impulse must be taken into account, apart from the back to Uc so that the arrester does not become overloaded.
residual voltage at In. If the arrester is not loaded with the energy Wth before the
appearance of the temporary overvoltage, it is curve a that
counts, and the arrester can withstand UTOV for 90 s. Therefore,
3.7 Temporary overvoltage the height and duration of the admissible temporary overvoltage
directly depend on the previous energy load of the arrester.
Temporary (short-time) overvoltages UTOV are power frequency
overvoltages of limited time duration. They appear during
switching operations or earth faults in the system and they can
stay in medium-voltage systems with insulated transformer

T = UTOV/UC

1.60

1.50

1.40
a

1.30
b

1.20

1.10

1.00

t[s]

0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000

18 Resistance T = UTOV/Uc against temporary overvoltages

depending on the time t. Curve a is valid for an arrester without
energy pre-stress, curve b with a pre-stress of the guaranteed energy
Wth, and t is the time duration of the overvoltage at power frequency.
Example for type MWK.
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4.5 Elevated ambient temperature 4.7 Altitude adjustment of the arrester

04 Service conditions Hitachi Energy arresters (AC and DC voltage) are guaranteed
to function flawlessly up to 40 °C ambient air temperature.
housing
Correction factors for altitude adjustment of external insulation
This also includes maximum solar radiation of 1.1 kW/m2 for
are given in several IEC and IEEE standards. The correction fac-
outdoor arresters. If there are heat sources in the vicinity of the
MO surge arresters must perform reliable under normal and special service conditions. arrester, the increased ambient temperature has to be taken into
tors differ from standard to standard, depending on the type of
equipment and mainly due to assumptions and safety margins
Adaptations in design may be necessary to meet specific applications. account, and the value of Uc increased if necessary. If the ambi-
considered. In IEC standards the normal service conditions are
ent temperature exceeds 40 °C, Uc must be increased by 2 per-
valid up to 1,000 m above sea level, while in IEEE standards
cent for every 5 °C of temperature elevation. This correction is
1,800 m are mentioned. Above these “standard altitudes” an
possible up to maximum of 80 °C ambient temperature.
adjustment of the arrester housing has to be considered.

If it is not acceptable to increase the continuous operating volt-

MO surge arresters made by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland can
age Uc, and consequently the protection level Upl, in a specific
be used without any housing adjustment up to a height of 1,800
application, then a reduction of the thermal energy rating has to
m above sea level. At higher altitudes, the air density may be so
be considered.
low that the withstand voltage of the arrester housing (external
• Areas with a risk of explosion flashover) is no longer sufficient. In this case, the unaltered
4.1 Normal service conditions • Unusual mechanical conditions 4.6 Pollution and cleaning active part of the arrester (same protection level) must be
• Voltage distortions or voltages with superimposed contents placed in an elongated housing with a longer flashover distance.
The service life of an arrester made by Hitachi Energy in
of high frequencies that are caused by the system Silicone is the best insulating material in case of pollution. As a reference value, one may consider that for every 1,000 m
Switzerland is 30 years or more under normal operating
This is mainly because the material is water-repellent (hydro- above 1,800 m above sea level the flashover distance must be
conditions and if it is correctly chosen according to the system
Further special conditions are listed in IEC 60099-5 (Ed. 3.0). phobic). Silicone arresters behave more favorably under condi- increased by 10 percent. For example, at an altitude of 3,300 m
voltages and the expected electrical and mechanical loads.
tions of heavy pollution than porcelain-housed arresters or other above sea level the flashover distance of the housing must
The normal service conditions for an arrester are listed in
The following paragraphs illustrate a few special cases. It is polymeric insulation materials, e.g. EPDM. Decisive for the long- be 15 percent longer than that of a standard arrester. It is
IEC 60099-4 (Ed. 3.0).
advisable to contact the manufacturer should conditions appear term behavior under pollution of an insulation made of a poly- necessary to observe here that the flashover distances of
• Ambient air temperature within the range of -40 °C to +40 °C
that are not covered here. meric material is the dynamic behavior of the hydrophobicity, surge arresters for lower voltage levels are initially relatively
• Solar radiation of 1.1 kW/m2
which is originally always very good. large, exceeding the minimum requirements of the withstand
• An altitude not exceeding 1,000 m above sea level
voltage. Thus, in each individual case it should be checked
• Frequency of AC voltage between 48 Hz and 62 Hz 4.3 Overload behavior whether the normal housing possesses a sufficient withstand
• A power frequency voltage at the arrester terminals not higher Depending on the material, a loss of voltage for application at higher altitudes.
than the continuous operating voltage Uc of the arrester Any arrester can be overloaded. The causes can be extremely
• Wind speed ≤ 34 m/s high lightning currents, lightning currents with a very large
hydrophobicity can be permanent or
• Vertical erection, not suspended charge, or a “voltage-transition”. This is to be understood as temporary. In contrast to other polymeric
a short-circuit between two different voltage levels. In all these
All arresters made by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland meet, situations, there is in fact an energy overload. In the case of an
materials, silicone is able to regain its
or even exceed, these operating conditions. For example: overload, the MO resistors either spark-over or break down and hydrophobicity after losing it temporarily.
• The ambient air temperature can be up to 55 °C tend to create a permanent short-circuit. An arc results inside
(at derated thermal energy capability) the arrester, and the current in this arc is defined by the In our operation instructions the best way to clean silicone
• The AC power frequency can be between 15 Hz and 62 Hz short-circuit power of the system. Hitachi Energy arresters with surfaces, if needed, is described.
• The altitude can be up to 1,800 m without altitude correction directly molded silicone housings do not face the risk of explo-
• The arresters can be mounted in any position, sion or violent shattering in the case of an overload. There is no
including hanging air space between the active part of the arrester and its silicone
insulation: thus, there is no space for the pressure to build up.
The occurring arc (or sparks) escapes the silicone insulation
4.2 Special service conditions as soon as it occurs and is freed. Because of their special
construction, the arresters are protected from violent shattering
The following examples are typical special service conditions
up to the highest short-circuit currents.
(referred to as abnormal serviced conditions in IEC 60099-4
(Ed. 3.0)) that may require special consideration in the manufac-
ture or application of surge arresters and should be called to 4.4 Mechanical stability
the attention of the manufacturer.
• Ambient temperatures in excess of + 40 °C or below – 40 °C Hitachi Energy’s arresters are operationally reliable even in
• Service at altitudes above 1,000 m areas of high earthquake activity. The arresters may partially
• Fumes or vapors that may cause deterioration of the insulating take on the support function or serve as line arresters, or they
surface or mounting hardware may have the function of suspension insulators. The manufac-
• Excessive contaminations by smoke, dirt, salt spray, or other turer should be informed about such operational situations.
conducting materials The values given in the data sheets of the individual arresters
• Excessive exposure to moisture, humidity, dropping water are not to be exceeded. Arrester types that are to be applied
or steam for rolling stock are delivered with a reinforced base plate and
• Live washing of arresters are tested under vibration and shock conditions.
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05 Tests
Heat dissipation behavior of test sample Power frequency voltage-versus-time test (TOV curve)
In the operating duty test and the power frequency voltage-ver- The purpose of the test is to demonstrate the temporary
sus-time test, the behavior of the tests sample is to a great overvoltage (TOV) withstand capability of an MO surge arrester.
extent dependent on the ability of the sample to dissipate heat, The test is performed with prior duty (injection of rated thermal
i.e. to cool down after being stressed by a discharge. Therefore, energy Wth or rated thermal charge Qth) and without prior duty.
the thermal equivalency between the complete arrester and the The test procedure is the same as the thermal recovery tests
Constant quality and the guaranteed performance of the products is ensured by a number arrester section shall be demonstrated by a test. in the operating duty tests (second part of the operating duty
of tests performed during development and production of MO resistors and surge arresters. tests). But instead of applying only the rated voltage Ur, the
Operating duty tests TOV test has to be performed with four different overvoltages
The purpose of the operating duty tests is to verify the arrester’s at different time durations each (test with prior duty), and two
ability to thermally recover after injection of the rated thermal overvoltages at different time durations (without prior duty).
energy Wth or transfer of the rated thermal charge Qth under The published data must cover the time range between
applied temporary overvoltage and following continuous 0.1 s and 3,600 s.
operating voltage conditions.
Tests of arrester disconnector
If an arrester absorbs energy from a system event (e.g. lightning This test applies principally to distribution arresters and non-
impulse, switching surge, temporary overvoltage), the tempera- gapped line arresters. The test is to verify that the disconnector
Residual voltage tests
5.1 General These tests determine the voltage-current characteristic in the
ture of the MO resistors may rise to a point that is beyond the of an arrester can withstand all stresses related to their applica-
arrester’s ability to thermally recover to its previous steady state tion in arresters without operation such as charge transfer and
high current range. The residual voltage for steep current im-
Tests have to demonstrate that an MO surge arrester can condition. Arrester manufacturers are required to specify values operating duty. The test also demonstrates that the disconnec-
pulse, lightning current impulse and switching current impulse
survive the rigors of reasonable environmental conditions and for energy (Wth for station class arresters) or charge (Qth for tor will perform according to the time-current characteristic
at different amplitudes is determined and given either in tables
system phenomena, while protecting equipment and/or the distribution class arresters) that represent the thermal limit for published by the manufacturer. Furthermore, the water tightness
or in a curve form. The residual voltage tests are generally
system from damaging overvoltage caused by lightning, switch- each arrester type. This implies that the arrester must always and the mechanical strength of the disconnector have to be
performed on MO resistors.
ing, and other system disturbances. Arresters manufactured by remain thermally stable after duty while in service over its verified.
Hitachi Energy in Switzerland are tested according to the expected lifetime. It is also the purpose of this test to ensure
Test to verify long term stability under continuous
current international IEC standards. IEC 60099-4: 2014 (Ed. 3.0) that the protective characteristic is not significantly changed Short-circuit tests
operating voltage
is applicable for the MO surge arresters with polymer housings. by such duty. The test consists of two parts: Surge arresters are not allowed to fail with violent shattering
The test is an accelerated ageing test performed on individual
Below, the main tests relevant for MO surge arresters with poly- in case of overloading and should self-extinguish any open
MO resistors to provide insurance that they will exhibit stable
meric housings for medium-voltage systems are addressed in 1. The characterization and conditioning part of the test, flames within a defined period of time. This is to be proved
operating conditions in terms of power loss over the anticipated
brief. If in doubt, only consider the text in the current edition which may be performed at an ambient temperature of 20 °C with a short-circuit test. The way the short-circuit is initiated
lifetime of the arrester. The test is performed on MO resistors
(English version) of the relevant standard. (± 15 K) on the MO resistors or pro-rated sections in still air in the arrester depends on its construction. Directly molded
including all material (solid or liquid) in direct contact with them,
medium-voltage arresters are electrically pre-damaged, that
e.g. in air, SF6 gas or molded in silicone. Therefore, MO resistors
2. The thermal recovery part of this test shall be performed on is they are made low-ohmic by applying an increased voltage,
5.2 Type tests (design tests) of directly molded arresters also have to be molded with the
thermally pro-rated sections and afterwards they are connected to the actual test so that
same material during the accelerated ageing test. The test is
the short-circuit develops inside the arrester. This is a form of
The development of an arrester design ends with type tests. passed if the power losses of the MO resistors during the
With station class arresters, the thermal energy Wth is brought overload that looks very much alike the one taking place in
They are the proof that the arrester construction fulfills the 1,000-h test under elevated conditions (115 °C and increased
in within three minutes by one or more long-duration current the arrester under real conditions in service.
applicable standards. These tests need be repeated only if voltage) do not increase above 1.3 time the lowest power
impulses or by unipolar sine half-wave current impulses. Station
changes in the design also cause changes in the properties losses, Pmin, and all measurements of power losses are not
class arresters have to absorb energy that may be stored in the The short-circuit ratings for MO surge arresters are tabled
or characteristics. In such cases, only the affected tests need greater than 1.1 times the power losses at the start of the test,
system in the moment the overvoltage occurs. Line arresters in IEC 60099-4, Ed. 3.0 and must be declared by the
be repeated. Pstart. MO resistors made by Hitachi Energy typically show a
without gaps (NGLAs) may be tested with lightning current manufacturer.
constant decrease in power losses over the whole test time and,
impulses.
The type tests that are to be performed on MO surge arresters therefore, have long-term stability under AC and DC conditions.
with polymer housing are listed and briefly explained in the
With distribution class arresters the thermal charge transfer Qth
following paragraphs. Test to verify the repetitive charge transfer rating, Qrs
is injected with two lightning current impulses of 8/20 μs within
The purpose of this test is to verify the maximum impulse
one minute. Distribution arresters are mainly stressed by light-
Insulation withstand tests charge (and, indirectly, the maximum energy) that can be han-
ning events, meaning that they have to absorb a charge, which
The insulation withstand tests demonstrate the voltage dled by an arrester in an event that may be repeated many times
is why they are tested with lightning current impulses.
withstand capability of the external insulation of the arrester over its lifetime. The charge has been chosen as a test basis for
housing. The withstand values to be proved are calculated the purpose of better comparison between different makes
from the residual voltages of the arrester. The withstand of MO resistors and arresters. Because surge arresters are
values of arresters intended for use on systems of Us ≤ 245 kV subjected to current impulses from lightning and switching
(this means all arresters used in medium-voltage systems) are events, it is necessary to know the capability of the arresters
tested with the lightning impulse voltage (wave shape 1.2/50 μs) in terms of the charge transferred by the arresters during such
under dry conditions, and with a one-minute AC voltage test. events. In addition, the withstand capability of MO resistors is
The AC voltage test is performed under wet conditions for ar- a statistical parameter, and a high-voltage arrester can contain
resters intended for outdoor use; arresters intended for indoor a significant number of MO resistors. If a single MO resistor
use are tested in a dry environment with the AC voltage test. fails, the probability is high that the complete arrester would
Naturally, the tests are performed with arrester housings without fail. Distribution arresters contain only a few MO resistors,
active part inside. but the installed number of distribution arresters is very high.
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Test of the bending moment Residual voltage tests Leakage Current (μA)
This test demonstrates the ability of the arrester to withstand The residual voltage is measured on each MO resistor at a 100
the manufacture’s declared values for bending loads. As a rule, current value of 10 kA with a current rise time of 8 μs, which
an arrester is not designed for torsional loading. If an arrester is is normally a lightning current impulse (or the nominal current). 90
subjected to torsional loads, a specific test may be necessary The residual voltages of the MO resistors inside an arrester
80
by agreement between the manufacturer and the user. can be directly added up, and they represent the total residual
voltage of the arrester. 70
A test in two steps (for Us ≤ 52 kV) shall be performed one after
the other: a thermomechanical test, and a water immersion test. Internal partial discharge test 60

These tests demonstrate the ability of the arrester to resist In case of medium-voltage arresters, the test is normally
50
ingress of moisture after being subjected to mechanical performed on each complete arrester. This test is performed
stresses. at 1.05 × Uc after the rated voltage was applied for 2 to 10 s. 40
The measured value of the internal partial discharges is not
Radio interference voltage (RIV) test allowed to exceed 10 pC according to the IEC. Hitachi Energy’s 30

This test is applicable only for arresters intended for use in internal guidelines require a value less than 5 pC, which means
20
systems with Us ≥ 72.5 kV. For arresters in medium-voltage virtually no partial discharges. During this test, the arrester can
systems this test is performed as a routine test (internal partial be screened off from the external partial discharges. 10
discharge test) on each complete arrester.
0
Tightness test (leakage check)
Testing time [Days]
Test to verify the dielectric withstand of internal This test demonstrates that the construction of the arrester is
components tight. The manufacturer must choose a procedure that is sensi- 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
The purpose of this test is to verify the internal dielectric tive enough. This test is not applicable for arresters that are
Group I Group II Group III
withstand of an arrester even under impulse currents of ampli- completely molded in silicone.
tudes higher than the nominal discharge current. The test is
required only, if the conditioning part of the operating duty Current distribution test 19 Internal leakage currents of MO surge arrester
design principles during a long-term humidity test.
test was not performed on a dielectrical prorated section. If the The current distribution test is to be performed on MO surge
dielectrical prorated section is identical to the thermal prorated arresters with parallel MO resistors or parallel columns of MO
section as used in the operating duty test, this test can be resistors. Arresters with one column only are naturally not to be
omitted. subjected to such a test.

Weather ageing test Proper assembly of disconnectors

5.4 Acceptance tests Temperature cycles
The construction and also the materials used for the MO
This test demonstrates the ability of a polymeric-housed The proper assembly of each disconnector has to be demon-
Standard acceptance tests performed include: surge arresters manufactured by Hitachi Energy in Switzerland
arrester to withstand specific climatic conditions. The test strated by either measurement of resistance/ capacitance or
• Measurement of the reference voltage on the arrester tolerate temperatures up to -60 °C and extreme changes in tem-
consists of two parts: 1,000 h test under salt fog conditions and partial discharges.
• Measurement of the lightning impulse residual voltage on perature between -40 °C and +40 °C without any changes to
a 1,000 h UV test. The former must be performed on the highest
the arrester or arrester unit the mechanical or electrical qualities. The construction of the
electrical unit with the minimum specific creepage distance and
the later on shed and housing materials. As a rule, the largest
Apart from the routine tests considered • Test of internal partial discharges arrester, and especially the surface of the silicone, were not
harmed in any way by ice during cyclic freezing.
arrester is tested with the medium-voltage arresters. as the minimum requirement by the IEC, The acceptance tests are to be agreed upon when the
Hitachi Energy performs additional routine products are ordered. The tests are performed on the nearest Humidity tests
5.3 Routine tests tests on MO resistors and arresters to lower whole number to the cube root of the number of arresters The electrical behavior of the arresters directly molded with
to be supplied. silicone were not influenced by humidity during long-duration
Routine tests are performed on each arrester or parts of an ensure high quality. tests that lasted more than two years, and during which the
arrester (for example, on MO resistors). According to the IEC, The proof of the thermal stability of an arrester as part of the arresters were subjected to a relative humidity of more than
at least the following tests must be performed: These include: acceptance test requires additional agreement between manu- 90 percent, and also to regular rain.
• Measurement of the total leakage current on each arrester facturer and purchaser, and it is to be explicitly specified in
Measurement of reference voltage at Uc the order. This is necessary, because proof of thermal stability Figure 19 shows the results of a long-term test at high humidity.
The reference voltage is measured with the reference current • Regular measurement of the power losses on the MO means that part of the operating duty test has to be performed. Design principle Group I (directly molded arresters, see Figure
specified by the manufacturer, and should be within the range resistors and arresters This test is expensive and can be performed only in laboratories 1) behaved best in this test. No significant increase in the inter-
specified. This measurement is performed on each MO • Examination of the energy handling capability of MO that have the necessary equipment, and they have to be booked nal leakage current was observed during the test period of
resistor and on each MO surge arrester. resistors with current impulses in advance. more than two years.
• A reduced accelerating ageing test on some MO resistors
from each production lot Behavior in fire
5.5 Special tests Silicone is a self-extinguishing material. If silicone catches
fire as a result of a flame or an electric arc and the cause of
As part of the development of the arresters, additional tests
the fire is removed or switched off, then the burning silicone
were performed in cooperation with users and research insti-
extinguishes itself in about one minute. Only non-toxic burnt
tutes. These tests were performed to examine the behavior
silicone remains in the burned patch, which is in fact nothing
of MO surge arresters with silicone housings under special
but fine quartz sand. Smoke analyses show no toxic gases
conditions.
occur as a result of fire.
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5.6 Commissioning and on-site tests

Shock and vibration
Surge arresters of type POLIM-I/S/H 36 N were subjected to a 100 per cent factory tests
vibration test according to IEC 61373: 2010, category 1, class B.
Due to the variable installation position of the surge arresters,
All MO surge arresters undergo a routine test (factory test)
before shipping. The routine test report contains all relevant are performed on each MO
testing was performed with the highest long-term test level
(z-direction) and shock test level (x-direction). No significant
results and is delivered together with the MO surge arresters.
No on-site or commissioning test is necessary, and it is not resistor and MO surge arrester
damage was found by visual examination after the vibration
test (lifetime test) and shock test in the z-, y- or x-coordinate
advised.
in automated test stations.
directions. It has to be noted that on-site tests, e.g. insulation tests on
cables or gas-insulated substations (GIS), cannot be correctly
Finally, repeated electrical tests showed no significant changes performed if MO surge arresters are connected to the system
compared to the pre-measurements. under test. This is because MO surge arresters will carry a
current in the mA range and will limit the test voltage. In a worst
The surge arresters of type POLIM-I/S/H 36 N meet the case the MO surge arresters can be destroyed by the applica-
requirements of IEC 61373: 2010. tion of AC withstand voltage for a prolonged time. For this rea-
son, MO surge arresters must be disconnected when on-site
Wind tunnel test tests are performed. If in any doubt, the manufacturer must be
MO surge arresters for application in traction systems on rolling contacted before such tests are performed.
stock, e.g. high-speed trains, may be subjected to very high
wind loads. To ensure the mechanical integrity of the MO surge
arrester and the stiffness of the silicone housing under extreme
wind loads, MO surge arresters of type POLIM-S (class SM) and
POLIM-H (class SH) were subjected to aerodynamic forces in a
wind tunnel test. As a result of the high-speed visualization, it
can be stated that at a wind speed of 100 m/s (360 km/h), one
does not observe oscillations of the sheds. This proves that the
MO surge arresters for application on rolling stock can be used
without restrictions on high-speed trains.
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06 Neutral earthing methods

That is why it always makes sense to set voltage ULE in absence of the fault at the same location in the
system. The earth fault factor only refers to a particular point of
the continuous operating voltage Uc of an a three-phase system, and to a particular system condition.
MO surge arrester somewhat higher than
and determination of Uc
The magnitude of the earth fault factor depends on the way
the neutrals of a system are earthed.
the calculated minimal value that is required.
ULE, f
This “safety margin” contributes to a secure and reliable opera- k=
ULE
tional system. A safety margin of 10 percent is recommended
For correct choice of MO surge arresters, the system preconditions must be known. when choosing the Uc unless there are explicit technical rea-
A system is considered effectively earthed if the earth fault
sons for not doing so. The thermal stability of the surge arrester
The handling of the transformer neutral and the failure conditions in the system determine in the system is always to be preferred over a fully optimized
factor (k) does not have a value higher than 1.4 anywhere in the
system. This is the case in systems that are described as solid
the continuous operating voltage Uc. protection level. The examination of the residual voltage of the
or directly earthed. If the earth fault factor is higher than 1.4
chosen arrester and eventually the examination of the resulting
at any point in the system, then this is considered ineffectively
protection distance is necessary in any case.
earthed. In such systems, the star point is insulated (also
described as open) or compensated.
The earth fault factor k is the ratio of the highest
While choosing the continuous operating voltage Uc, it is
6.1 General considerations necessary to ensure that the arrester will not be overloaded
power-frequency phase to earth voltage ULE,f on a healthy phase
during an earth fault to the power frequency phase to earth
under any circumstances due to the voltage with power
The earthing method of the star point of a transformer has
frequency. In this way, the arrester meets the requirements
a direct influence on the choice of the continuous operating
of the operating system. Therefore, Uc of the arrester is to be
voltage Uc of all MO surge arresters to be installed in the
chosen in such a way that the arrester cannot become unstable
system.
either through the continuous applied voltage coming from the
Trafo i
system, or through temporary overvoltages that may occur. L1 L2
The manner in which the star point is treated affects directly the L1
In selecting the Uc of an arrester in a three-phase system, Mp U LE
height of the current, which occurs in cases of failure with the U LL = U s
the location of the arrester plays the deciding role: between L2
earth connection, on temporary overvoltages with power
conductor and earth, between the transformer neutral and earth
frequency and transient overvoltages. Single-phase-to-earth L3
or between two phases.
faults (earth fault, earth short-circuit) are the most frequent fail-
U LL
ures in medium and high-voltage systems.
The maximum operating voltage at the arrester terminals can U Mp-E = 0 U LE
be calculated with the help of the maximum system voltage Us.
Low currents at the failure point tend to be connected with high
L3
and long existing temporary overvoltages of the sound phases.
As mentioned above, in medium-voltage systems special
This is the case with systems having an insulated star point
attention must be paid to potential temporary overvoltages
or earth fault compensation. The single-phase earth fault is
UTOV. They occur during earth faults, and they depend on the 20 Basic circuit of a medium-voltage
registered and quickly switched off by the system protection transformer with connected lines
treatment of the star point of the transformers and the system (star connection with isolated star point).
in systems with low-ohmic star point earthing.
management.

In Figure 20, the basic circuit of a medium-voltage transformer

Thus, generally the demand for the continuous operating volt-
with a star connection with open star point (Mp) is shown.
age results are as follows:
Specified are the voltages and currents in case of a symmetrical
load, i.e. in an undisturbed service case. All line-to-earth Trafo i
k x Us L1 L2
voltages ULE are equally high. The voltage of the star point UMp-E Uc ≥ L1
T x √3
relative to earth is zero. The voltage triangle is provided on the Mp
L2
right side for better understanding. U L1-E U L2-E
T is the factor given in the TOV curves, supplied by the L3
manufacturer. CK U Mp-E
If a single earth fault occurs in the described system, e.g. line
U LL = U s
L3 touches the earth, an asymmetry occurs, the voltage at L3 U Mp-E = U LE I Ce U=0 U = U s = √3 x U LE
As a rule, in medium-voltage systems the withstand voltage I Ce
becomes almost zero, and the voltage at the sound phases
values of the insulation are rather high in relation to the system
shifts to the voltage ULL, which is the system voltage Us.
voltage (see Table 3). This means that the distance between L3
The consequence is that a failure current ICe flows through the I Ce ≤ 30 A
the lightning impulse withstand voltage (LIWV) and the lightning RE
failure point back into the system. The value of the failure cur-
impulse protection level (Upl ) of an MO surge arrester is in most
rent is determined by the impedance in the current path.
cases sufficient. On the other hand, the system conditions and
Further, a TOV occurs on the sound phases as long as the 21 Situation in a medium-voltage
the maximum system voltage Us are not always clearly known. system with insulated star point and
failure lasts, which the installed equipment (the MO surge single earth fault (line L3).
arresters) has to withstand. Figure 21 reflects this situation.

In the following chapters, different star point treatments are

briefly explained and the choice of the continuous operating
voltage Uc as the most important characteristic for a safe appli-
cation of the MO surge arrester in the system is specified.
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6.2 Systems with insulated star point or 6.3 Systems with high-ohmic insulated In these systems a short-circuit appears in case of a failure. voltage should be chosen according to
In medium-voltage systems the short-circuit current can be
with earth fault compensation neutral and automatic earth fault clearing as high as IK = 20 kA, and consequently, the failure has to be Uc ≥ 1.25 × Us / √3 = 0.72 × Us
cleared in less than 0.5 seconds. However, under worst case
As a rule, systems with an insulated star point are systems of The same voltages occur as described in section 6.2 in the case
conditions, and considering some safety margins, it can be as- for the MO surge arrester between phase and earth.
small extension, auxiliary power systems for power stations or of an earth fault. However, immediate automatic fault clearing
sumed that in medium-voltage systems the clearing time of the
station services. A capacitive earth failure current ICe of about enables a reduction of Uc by the factor T. Naturally, it is decisive
earth fault is t = 3 s at the most. In Figure 18 the described TOV
5 A to 30 A flows in case of failure. The earth fault factor is: to know the level of the possible temporary overvoltage, as well
curve for an MO surge arrester with class SL (e.g. an arrester
6.6 Distribution systems with delta
as the maximum time for the clearing of the earth fault.
k ≈ √3
type MWK) lists T = 1.343 as a result, so that it may be written connection
Making use of the TOV curve, this results in:
K x Us 1.4 x Us 1.05 x Us Transformers in delta connection naturally have no neutral or
In case of intermittent earth faults, the earth fault factor can Uc ≥ = ≈
T x √3 1.343 x √3 √3 star point. In the case of an earth fault of one of the phases in
reach values up to k = 1.9. The duration of the failure lies Us
Uc ≥ such systems, the arresters connected to the sound phases will
between several minutes and several hours. T
for arresters between phase and earth. be stressed with the system voltage Us. An earth fault factor of
k = √3 = 1.732 must be considered. The continuous operating
Systems with earth fault compensation are mostly overhead for the arrester between phase and earth.
This simple equation can be generally used as a rule of thumb voltage should be chosen according to
line systems with system voltages between Us = 10 kV and
for systems with direct earthed neutral.
Us = 110 kV. One or more transformer star points in these sys- Us
Uc ≥ Uc ≥ Us
tems are earthed with high-ohmic Petersen coils. An earth fault T x √3
The voltage of the neutral of the unearthed transformers in the
current of approximately 5 A to 60 A can flow in case of an earth
system reaches a maximum of
fault. The earth fault factor is in this case for the arrester between transformer neutral and earth. 6.7 Arresters between phases
UTOV = 0.4 × Us
k ≈ (1.0 … 1.1) √3 Considerable overvoltages between the phase terminals of
6.4 Systems with direct or low-ohmic transformers or reactors may occur when a reactor or a reactive
This results in:
In both cases, the voltage increases in the “healthy” phases to star point earthing loaded transformer is switched off. The withstand voltage of the
a maximum of Us under earth-fault conditions. This results in: reactor or transformer between the phases may be exceeded
0.4 x Us 0.4 x Us
A system with low-ohmic star point earthing is provided if the Uc ≥ = = 0.3 × Us without operation of the phase-to-earth arresters. If such
T 1.343
Uc ≥ U S star point of one or more transformers are directly earthed or switching overvoltages are expected, surge arresters should
through current limiting impedances. The system protection is be applied between phases in addition to the phase-to-earth
for arresters between transformer neutral and earth.
for the arrester between phase and earth. set up so that even a single line-to-earth fault at any place in arresters.
the system causes an automatic fault clearing. These are typical
6.4.2 Systems with low-ohmic star point earthing
The voltage at transformer neutral can reach a maximum of cable systems in towns with system voltages between 10 kV 6.7.1 Six-arrester arrangement
In case of low-ohmic earthing, one has to distinguish between
Us /√3. This results in: and 110 kV. In the case of a failure, the earth short-circuit cur- In special cases, such as in arc furnace installations, switching
inductive earthing (neutral reactor) and resistive earthing (earth-
rent (Ik) flows, which leads to an immediate automatic clearing overvoltages occur that are insufficiently limited by arresters
ing resistor). The fault current is in the range of 500 A to 2,000
Us of the fault. As a rule, the duration of the failure is limited to between phase and earth. In such cases, it is necessary to
Uc ≥ A. The fault duration is in the range of a few seconds maximum.
√3 tk < 0.5 s. In unfavorable situations, the duration of the failure install additional arresters between the phases. The arresters
The earth fault factor is:
can last up to 3 s in medium-voltage systems. between the phases should have a continuous operating volt-
for the arrester between transformer neutral and earth. age of Uc ≥ 1.05 Us. The continuous operating voltage Uc of the
k = (0.8…1.0) × √3
6.4.1 Systems with direct star point earthing phase-to-earth arresters depends on the earthing of the trans-
In every system, there exist inductances and capacitances “Direct” or “solid” star point earthing (earth conductor) is princi- former neutral. A typical arrangement for systems with insulated
For arresters in the vicinity of low-ohmic earthed transformers,
that produce oscillating circuits. If their resonant frequency is pally used for all systems with system voltages of 220 kV and transformer neutral is given in Figure 22a. In this case all six
an earth fault factor of k ≤ 1.4 is applicable, and the same equa-
close to that of the operating frequency, the voltage between above, but it can also be found in medium-voltage systems. In arresters should have a continuous operating voltage of
tions for Uc as for direct earthed transformers can be chosen,
the phase conductor and earth could basically become higher these types of systems, there are so many transformers with
see 6.4.1.
than that of Us in single-pole earth faults. The system manage- direct neutral earthing that during an earth fault, the phase Uc ≥ 1.05 × Us
ment should avoid the occurrence of such resonances. If this is voltage in the complete system never exceeds 1.4 p.u.
Care is required if the arresters are located just a few kilometers
not possible, then the Uc should be correspondingly increased. The factor 1.05 takes account of possible harmonics in the
from the transformer. In unfavorable earthing conditions, e.g.
In systems with earth fault compensation the earth fault factor Therefore, the earth fault factor is: system voltage Us.
desert regions or mountains, the earthing resistance can be
can reach a value of 1.9 in unfavorable conditions. This is to be
very high, and consequently the earth fault factor higher than
taken into account by increasing the continuous voltage by k = (0.75 …≤ 0.8) × √3, that is k ≤ 1.4 The continuous operating voltage Uc of the phase-to-earth
1.4. In the case of single pole earth faults with resistive current
10 percent. arresters depends on the earthing of the transformer neutral.
limitation, earth fault factors of 2.0 can appear. In such cases
In case of a system with low-ohmic star point earthing (directly
the procedure described in Section 6.3 should be followed.
earthed) of the transformer the continuous operating voltage
can be chosen to
6.5 Four-wire, multi-earthed-wye systems
Uc ≥ (1.05 × Us) / √3
In some countries, a four-wire system is used in special cases.
In this system, a fourth wire is connected to the earthed neutral for the phase-to-earth arresters.
point of the transformer and connected additionally to earth at
several points along the line. In such systems, an earth fault
factor of k = 1.25 can be assumed. The continuous operating
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07 Coordination of insulation and

6.7.2 Neptune design 6.8 Operating voltage with harmonic
A variation of the six-arrester arrangement is the “Neptune”
(or “candle”) design, because of its arrangement of arresters.
oscillation

selection of MO surge arresters

It consists of four similar arresters. Two arresters in series are
Harmonic currents generate harmonic oscillations superim-
fitted between the phases and the earth and also between the
posed upon the power frequency voltage. For this reason, it is
phases, as shown in Figure 22b. This arrangement permits
possible that the peak value of phase-to-phase voltage (Us) can
overvoltage protection both between the phases, and between
be higher than √2 × Us. If this difference is less than 5 percent,
the phases and the earth. This kind of arrangement however,
then a correspondingly higher Uc must be used. On the other
has a fundamental disadvantage in comparison to the six-ar-
rester arrangement. Since the arresters behave in a capacitive
hand, if due to the harmonics the voltage increase is higher Insulation coordination is a balance between stresses from the system vs. strength of the
than 5 percent, the choice of Uc should be discussed with the
manner at continuous operating voltage, if there is an earth
arrester manufacturer. The same applies for forms of voltage
equipment. The MO surge arresters are matched to the system preconditions and the
fault, all four arresters form an asymmetrical system. In the
case where each arrester has identical capacitance (meaning
that can often be seen in the vicinity of thyristor converters: insulation levels of the equipment to be protected.
voltage steps, ignition peaks, and asymmetries in the two half
that the arresters have identical ratings), arresters A1 to A3
cycles. Commutation overshoots with a high repetition rate, or
would be stressed with 0.661 × Us and A4 with 0.433 × Us.
other voltage spikes, which are common in drives and convert-
However, a simple solution is to use four arresters of the same
ers, cannot generally be limited by gapless MO surge arresters.
type and rating. For this case: The continuous operating voltage Uc is to be chosen in such
This is not a typical application for MO surge arresters. In the 7.1 General considerations a way that the arrester can withstand all power frequency volt-
case of commutation overshoots and other superimposed
Uc ≥ 0.661 × Us ages and also temporary overvoltages without being overloaded
voltage spikes, special criteria for the dimensioning of MO surge The principle of insulation coordination for an electricity system
in any possible situation. This means that T × Uc must be
arresters have to be considered. This makes close cooperation is given in the IEC 60071-1 and IEC 60071-2 standards. It is the
The protection level of this arrangement, which has always always higher than the maximum possible temporary
and detailed discussion between the user and manufacturer matching between the dielectrical withstand of the electrical
two arresters in series, is therefore similar to that offered by overvoltages UTOV in the system.
necessary. equipment taking into consideration the ambient conditions and
the arrester with Uc ≥ 1.322 × Us. The residual voltage of this
the possible overvoltages in a system.
arrester combination is therefore also 32 percent higher than NOTE: Ferromagnetic resonances are the exception. They can
that of the six-arrester arrangement. If a lower protection level become so high and exist for so long that they may not be taken
For economic reasons, it is not possible to insulate electrical
is required between phase and earth, a lower continuous oper- into consideration by the dimensioning of the continuous
equipment against all overvoltages that may occur. That is why
ating voltage for arrester A4 may be chosen compared to A1 to voltage if the arrester should still be able to fulfill its protection
surge arresters are installed to limit the overvoltages up to a
A3. Since the arrester capacitance is inversely proportional to function in a meaningful way.
value that is not critical for the electrical equipment. An MO
the arrester Uc, the final steady-state voltages need to be
surge arrester ensures that the maximum voltage that appears
calculated individually for each specific case. If ferromagnetic resonances appear, then this generally means
at the electrical equipment always stays below the guaranteed
that the arrester is overloaded. The system user should take
withstand value of the insulation of an electrical device.
the necessary measures to avoid ferromagnetic resonances.
Therefore, an arrester has to fulfill two fundamental tasks:

An MO surge arrester can fulfill its function of protection

T 1. It has to limit the occurring overvoltage to a value that is not
L1 properly if the lightning impulse protection level Upl lies clearly
critical for the electrical equipment
Uc ≥ 1.05 x US below the lightning impulse withstanding voltage (LIWV) of the
L2
electrical equipment to be protected, the safety factor Ks is also
2. It has to guarantee a safe and reliable service in the system
T
L3
to be taken into consideration.
L1

The choice of the continuous operating voltage Uc is described

L2
A1 A2 A3
in detail in section 6. The following paragraphs briefly deal
L3 with the necessary energy handling capability and the protec-
tion characteristic of MO surge arresters in medium-voltage
systems.
Uc ≥ 1.05 x US
A4 Uc ≥ 0.661 x US

03 Typical values of the lightning impulse withstanding voltage (LIWV) and the lightning impulse protection level Upl = 4 p.u.
21a Six-arrester arrangement with Uc ≥ 1.05 × Us 21b Neptune design. A1, A2, A3 and A4 are
four similar arresters, each with Uc ≥ 0.661 × Us Um in kV rms 3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36
LIWV in kV pv 40 60 75 95 125 170
Upl in kV pv 11.8 23.5 39.2 57.2 78.4 117.6
LIWV/Upl 3.39 2.55 1.91 1.66 1.59 1.45
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The point is to set the voltage-current characteristic of the transfer rating Qrs and the thermal charge transfer rating Qth.
arrester in a way that both requirements are met. Figure 23 The thermal energy rating Wth results from the energy that may
P[%] 7.3 Protection level
shows in a simplified way the principle of insulation coordina- be stored in a loaded transmission line, or in other energy 99.0
The switching impulse protective level Ups is decisive for the
tion. The lightning impulse withstand voltage (withstand voltage sources like capacitor banks etc. Therefore, it is necessary to
90.0 coordination of the insulation in transmission systems of higher
of the insulation) is relatively high compared to the system volt- know the possible energy stores in a system, such as cables,
70.0 system voltages. It is less important in the medium-voltage sys-
age, as can be seen in Figure 23. This automatically results in a capacitors or capacitor banks and inductivities.
50.0 tems discussed here. Of prime importance here is the lightning
large distance between the maximum admissible voltage at the
impulse protection level Upl and, if necessary, the protection
electrical equipment to be protected and the lightning impulse Figure 24 shows a statistical evaluation of all the measured 20.0
10.0 level at steep current impulse, such as when vacuum breakers
protection level; see also Table 3. lightning currents. The curve of the mean value shows the
are in the system.
probability of the occurred lightning current peak values. 2.0

NOTE: The acronym “BIL,” which is often used for “basic The probability of reaching or exceeding 20 kA is 80 percent, 0.2
Generally speaking, the protection level should be as low as
lightning impulse insulation level,” is exclusively to be found whereas lightning currents with peak values of over 100 kA are
0 possible to ensure optimal protection. As previously empha-
in the US standards (IEEE/ANSI standards). It is similar to the very rare. The specified lightning currents and the high current I [kA] sized, the operational safety of the arrester in the system is
“lightning impulse withstand voltage” (LIWV) as used in the IEC impulses are derived from these lightning current statistics.
0 10.0 100.0 always to be preferred to the complete exploitation of the
definition. Assuming that in medium-voltage systems a lightning current
protection level. These opposing requirements are mainly
diverts in the case of a far distance direct stroke, and that
24 Statistical evaluation of lightning measurements all over non-critical in the medium-voltage systems, see Figure 23
As mentioned above, it makes sense to choose a continuous flash-overs between phases and at insulators will occur, one the world. Described is the probability of occurrence above the
lightning current’s peak values (adapted from Cigré survey). and Table 3.
operating voltage Uc higher than was calculated (10 percent). can get a nominal discharge current of In = 5 kA. A wave shape
As a rule, there is enough distance between the maximum of approximately 8/20 μs results for the lightning current if a
The protection ratio Upl/Uc is fundamentally important.
admissible voltage at the electrical equipment and the protec- flashover occurred at one of the insulators. The worst case to
The smaller the ratio, the lower the protection level with the
tion level of the arrester. be considered is a direct stroke in a phase wire in front of a
The nominal discharge current can be chosen according to same Uc, and the better the protection. If a very low protection
substation without an insulator between the point of stroke and
the thunderstorm activity in a region or the expected threat level is technically absolutely necessary in a specific case, it is
the substation. In this case it can be assumed that a lightning
7.2 Selection of nominal discharge current, current of e.g. 20 kA diverts in both directions of the line and
of lightning to a substation. In this way, the requirements for possible to choose an arrester with a better protection ratio.
the arresters can be clearly specified together with the repetitive As a rule, this is an arrester with a higher energy rating, because
charge and energy half of the lightning current (10 kA) travels undamped into the
charge transfer rating Qrs and the thermal charge transfer rating these arresters have MO resistors with a larger diameter as an
substation.
Qth or the thermal energy rating Wth. MO surge arresters with active part. The choice of an MO surge arrester with the same
The lightning current parameters are taken from lightning
In = 10 kA and classification DH are used in applications in Uc but a higher energy rating offers better protection in the
statistics. The expected magnitude and probability of lightning
medium-voltage systems. system, although the operational safety stays the same, and it
discharge currents are correlated to the repetitive charge
also provides a higher energy handling capability. Moreover, an
Higher nominal discharge currents (In = 20 kA) and higher MO surge arrester with a lower protection level always provides
classifications like SL, SM and SH are chosen in special cases a larger protection distance.
in medium-voltage systems, such as:
• Regions with extreme thunderstorm activities and the danger Therefore, the choice of arrester or the comparison of different
of direct lightning strikes products should also take into consideration the protection ratio
10 • Overhead lines at concrete poles or wooden poles and cross Upl/Uc in addition to the nominal discharge current and the
U 9 arms that are not earthed charge or energy handling capability.
p.u. lightning overvoltages • Arresters placed at locations where people are often to be
unprotected, 8
endangered area found (for instance in electrical traction systems) In this context, the temporary overload capability of an MO
7
• Lines that demand exceptional high safety standards for the surge arrester with temporary overvoltages should also be
LIWV 6 working process observed. A high resistance towards temporary overvoltages
KS
5 • For protection of motors, generators and cables generally means that the voltage-current characteristic of an
• Arc furnace protection MO surge arrester was set so high that all power frequent over-
Upl 4
• Capacitors and capacitor banks voltages that occur do not fundamentally exceed the knee point
3
• Very long cables of the U-I characteristic. However, this means that the residual
T x UC 2 • Rotating machines voltage of an MO surge arrester lies correspondingly high,
UC UTOV
1 UL-E which causes an unfavorably high protection level.

Requirements of equipment, related to Um Design parameters of MO arresters System preconditions, related to US

1 p.u. = US x √2 / √3

23 Comparison of the possible occurring voltages in a typical medium

voltage system, the withstand voltages of the electrical equipment and
the parameters of the MO surge arrester. The lightning overvoltages are
decisive in medium-voltage systems. That is why are shown only the
parameters for the lightning overvoltages.
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7.4 Selection of arrester housing

08 Protective distance of
is determined by the voltage-current characteristic curve of the
active part, and the arrester naturally protects its own housing
Silicone or EPDM are almost exclusively used today as housing against overvoltages. The real provable withstand values of the
material for medium-voltage arresters. Silicone is preferred due housing are generally higher than the demanded minimum

MO surge arresters
to its excellent behavior, especially in regard to pollution. The values corresponding to IEC, especially with arresters for lower
choice of the housing for MO surge arresters in medium-voltage voltage levels.
systems is not critical. The flashover distance of the arrester
housing and the creepage distance along the surface of the The behavior of the external insulation under pollution and
housing are to be taken in account. applied operating AC voltage is important and determines the
creepage distance. The pollution classes and the corresponding The place of installation of an MO surge arrester is, besides the correct choice, critical
The minimum flashover distance is determined by the required reference unified specific creepage distances (RUSCD) are
withstand values of the test voltages which have to be applied specified in IEC 60507: 2013 and IEC/ TS 60815-1: 2008, see
for an optimized protection of the equipment. The MO surge arrester must be as close
in the relevant withstand tests, the lightning voltage impulse test Table 4. IEC/TS 60815-3: 2008 refers to polymer insulators for as possible to the equipment to provide best protection.
and the AC withstand test with power frequency for one minute AC systems. For the purpose of standardization, five classes
performed with an empty housing or with the MO resistors of pollution characterizing the site severity are qualitatively
replaced by insulating material. defined.

The height of the test voltage to be applied is related to the It is possible, however, to specify the reductions of the creep- 8.1 General considerations Z=
√L’
protection characteristic of the MO surge arrester. The test age distances for synthetic materials that have a regenerative √C’
voltage during the test with lightning voltage impulse must be hydrophobicity, such as silicone, towards ceramic insulations. The higher its lightning impulse withstand voltage (LIWV) lies
1.3 times the residual voltage of the arrester at In. The housings These reductions (shown in Table 4) are based on general above the residual voltage of the arrester at nominal discharge L’ = Inductivity per unit length in H/km
for 10 kA- and 20 kA station class arresters intended for use in recommendations given in IEC 60815-3, results from tests and current In, the better the equipment is protected against light- C’ = Capacitance per unit length in F/km
systems with Us ≤ 245 kV, must withstand for one minute an AC field experience. ning overvoltages.
voltage test with a peak value of the testing voltage 1.06 times Only the voltage impulses are important when analyzing the
the switching protection level. Housings of distribution class NOTE: The creepage distance for a MO surge arrester is Modern MO surge arresters with a residual voltage of overvoltages.
arresters must withstand a power-frequency voltage with a peak sometimes specified in relation to the continuous operating Ures ≤ 3.33 x Uc at In maintain a value of Upl ≤ 4 p.u., even in
value equal to the lightning impulse protection level multiplied voltage Uc. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the systems with high-ohmic earthed or insulated transformer When a voltage traveling wave on a line reaches a point of
by 0.88 for a duration of one minute. voltage to which the creepage requirements are related. neutrals. The Upl is the lightning impulse protection level of discontinuity, i.e. a change in the surge impedance, part of the
the arrester. A summary of the typical values are given in voltage is “reflected” backward and part is transmitted forward.
The resulting values for the arrester housings are, as a rule, Table 3. This means that voltage decreases and voltage increases
lower than the insulation values for insulation of devices and appear on the connections of the overhead lines to the cable,
installations. This is proper because the voltage at the arrester It should be noted that the specified residual voltages Ures from and at the end of the line. Especially at the end of the line, such
the data sheets apply for the terminals of the arrester, which as at open connections or transformers, reflections appear that
means they are valid only for the place where the arrester is lead to a doubling of the voltage. The height of the voltage for
installed. The voltage at the devices that are to be protected is each moment and for each place on the line is the sum of the
always higher than the voltage that is directly at the arrester ter- respective present values of all voltage waves.
04 Correlation of pollution class and creepage distance minals in view of the reflections of the overvoltages at the end
of lines. Further, inductive voltages drops along the connections In the moment an MO surge arrester is limiting the voltage
Minimum recommended specific Possible reduction of the creepage
Pollution class from line to the arrester terminal and the earth conductor have by conducting the charge to earth, it is very low-ohmic and
creepage distance in mm/kV* distance with silicone insulation
to be considered. Therefore, the overvoltage protection no can be considered a short- circuit. The consequence is that
a – Very light 22.0 30%
longer exists if the arrester is placed too far from the device to the travelling voltage wave is reflected back and forth between
b – Light 27.8 30%
be protected. The protective distance L is understood to be the a very high impedance (positive reflection) and a short-circuit
c – Medium 34.7 20%
maximum distance between the arrester and the equipment at (negative reflection). Further, in the moment the MO surge
d – Heavy 43.3 No reduction recommended which the latter is still sufficiently protected. arrester limits the voltage, all overvoltage is reflected negatively.
e – Very heavy 53.7 No reduction Thus, the MO surge arrester protects in both directions. To sim-
plify matters, a funnel-shaped voltage increase results from the
* The shortest specific creepage distance for insulators between phase and earth.
8.2 Traveling waves arrester, as can be seen in Figure 25.

Voltage and current impulses with a rise time shorter than

Considering that the voltage at the end of an open line (e.g.
the travel time of an electromagnetic wave along the line, travel
transformer) can reach a maximum of twice the residual voltage
along the line as traveling waves. This means that, disregarding
Ures of the arrester, it can clearly be seen that the distance be-
damping, the current and voltage impulse travels along the line
tween the point of installation of the arrester and the equipment
without changing its form. Therefore, it is in another place at a
to be protected should be as short as possible to ensure good
later time.
protection.

Current and voltage are connected to one another because of

As seen in Figure 25, an MO surge arrester installed in position
the surge impedance of the line. The surge impedance results
X A1 will not protect the transformer, because the voltage at the
from the inductivity and capacitance per unit length of the line,
transformer will be higher than the withstand voltage (LIWV) of
disregarding the ohmic resistance per unit length and the
the transformer insulation. If the arrester is installed at position
conductivity of the insulation.
X A2, the voltage at the transformer is well below the LIWV and
provides very good protection.
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8.3 Protective distance given, because it depends on various parameters and statistics. UT
Values between S = 800 kV/μs and S = 1,550 kV/μs are to be
On the overhead line in Figure 26 an overvoltage U travels as a expected in medium-voltage systems, depending on the pole
traveling wave with speed v towards the line end E. At point E is construction and insulators used. As a rule of thumb, a steep-
the equipment to be protected. For the following analysis, it is ness of S = 1,000 kV/μs can be used for rough calculations. U2
considered that the equipment to be protected is highohmic
(transformer, open circuit breaker). When the traveling wave It is certainly to be assumed that the arrester and the equipment
reaches E, it is positively reflected and the voltage increases to to be protected are connected to the same earthing system. LIWV
2 x U. The function of arrester A is to prevent unacceptably high The connections on the high-voltage side and the earth side
voltage values at the equipment to be protected. Under the sim- must be short and straight. Especially connection b should be U2
plified assumption that the front, with wave steepness S, of the as short as possible. In this way, it makes sense to lead the
incoming overvoltage wave is time-constant, the following overhead line first to the arrester, and from there directly to the
relationship applies for the maximum value UE: bushing of the transformer, for example.
Ures

2 × S × (a + b)
UE = Ures +
v
v = 300 m/μs 8.4 Induced voltages
As mentioned above, the connections between the arrester ter- XA1 ZL = 450 Ω XA2 XT
A protection factor Ks is recommended between the LIWV of
minals and the equipment to be protected must be as short and
the equipment and the maximum lightning overvoltage that
straight as possible. This is because inductive voltages appear
occurs (see also Figure 23). This protection factor takes into
at each conductor due to the self-inductivity during the flowing
consideration, among other things, any ageing of the insulation ZT = > ∞
of an impulse current. These induced voltages are considerable
and the statistical uncertainties in defining the lightning impulse
during high rate of changes di/dt, such as when lightning cur-
withstanding voltage of the equipment. For outdoor insulation a
rents occur. The induced voltage is calculated as:
safety factor of Ks = 1.15 is recommended (IEC 60071).
This results in:
Ui = L × di/dt
LIWV 2×S×L
≥ UE = Ures + L=a+b For example: an approximate inductive voltage of Ui = 1.2 kV
Ks v 25 Voltage increase from the point of
per meter connection line results from an inductivity of L = 1 μH arrester installation in both directions.
for a straight wire of 1 meter length and a lightning current of
The required equation for the protection distance is:
10 kA peak value of the wave shape 8/20 μs.
v v
L= X - Ures The specified residual voltages, which are to be found in the
2×S 2×S
data sheets, are always the voltages between the arrester termi-
nals only. Especially in case of steep current impulses (e.g. rise
It should be mentioned that the given approximation for L is
time of 1 μs) the induced voltages have to be considered in a
valid in the strict sense only for b = 0, in practice, however, it
protection concept.
gives sufficiently precise values.

The steepness S of the incoming overvoltage wave must be

known in order to determine the protective distance as it is
S
above described. A general value for the steepness S cannot be U v

a
UE

A Ures

26 Assumption for the calculation of the

voltage at the end of a line and for the
determination of the protective distance L.
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It is always advisable to install arresters

09 Equipment protection
side are capacitive transmitted to the low-voltage side here as
well. Thus, in principle arresters should also be installed on the
low-voltage side of the medium-voltage transformers.
on both sides of all the transformers,
particularly in regions with high
Figure 28 shows in principle the resistive and capacitive
coupling from the medium-voltage to the low-voltage side of
thunderstorm activity.
To reach an optimized protection each equipment needs special attention and must be a distribution transformer.
treated separately.

Overhead line

9.1 General considerations 9.2 Protection of transformers

T T T
To reach an appropriate overvoltage protection in medium-volt- Generally, all transformers that are directly linked to light- C C C
age systems, it is necessary to find the best compromise ning-endangered lines have to be equipped with arresters
between the costs and the benefits of the protection devices between phase and earth.
to be used. An ideal technical-economic balance is to be striven
for. Overvoltage protection that is accurately applied reduces: As described in section 6, the occurring power frequency 1 2 3
• Outages of lines and substations voltages in a power system depend on the system voltage Us
• Interruptions of critical manufacturing processes that demand and the handling of the neutral of the transformers in the sys- Poor connection Good connection Very good connection
The connection leads are too long and the Common earth of MO surge arrester and The MO surge arrester is earthed directly at
high voltage stability tem. It is obvious that the continuous operating voltage Uc transformer and the MO surge arrester do not transformer. The connection leads are the transformer tank. The loop is very short.
• Costs due to interruptions in the energy supply of the MO surge arresters, which have to protect the transform- have the same earthing point. much shorter. In this way the inductance is kept to a
• Costs for the replacement and repair of electrical equipment ers and the neutrals of the transformers, have to be chosen to minimum.

• Ageing of the insulation (e.g. cables) be equal to or higher than the calculated values in section 6.
• Maintenance work
It was explained that all MO surge arresters have a limited 27 Examples of good and poor connection
principles for MO surge arresters in distribution
The aim of overvoltage protection is to guarantee an uninter- protective distance, which has to be considered when choosing systems.
rupted supply of electrical energy with high voltage stability to the place of installation. At distribution levels (Us ≤ 52 kV),
the greatest degree possible. arresters can often be located very close to the equipment to
be protected, e.g. the transformers. In this case, and where
Therefore, the costs for a set of surge arresters are not the possible, the earth terminal of the arrester and the equipment,
primarily consideration, but the costs that may arise on a in this case the transformer, should be bonded with a very
long-term basis if adequate overvoltage protection is not used. short, straight conductor. Figure 27 gives hints for good and
In fact, all electrical equipment and installations in high-voltage poor connection principles. MV LV

and medium-voltage systems need overvoltage protection.

In particular, the following equipment needs protection: Low earth resistance is essential, and it should be as low as
C
• Transformers possible in order to limit the earth potential rise at the earth
• Cables and cable sheaths terminal, and hence mitigate safety hazards and flashover on 0.4 Ures ΔU
• Capacitors and capacitor banks the low-voltage side of the transformer. A value for earth i Ures
• Overhead lines resistance of 10 Ω or less is considered to be sufficient.
• Rotating machines (motors and generators)
• Power electronics If a transformer connects a high-voltage system with a medi- RE ΔU
• Coils and line traps um-voltage system and only the line on the high-voltage side is
• Traction equipment (rolling stock and power supply) lightning-endangered, it is necessary to install an arrester on
AC and DC the medium-voltage side as well. Transient overvoltages can 28 Coupling of a lightning overvoltage
be transmitted up to 40 percent capacitive from the primary through a medium-voltage transformer.
It is sometime insufficient to install only one arrester per line in (high-voltage side) to the medium-voltage side. That is why it
the substation, considering the limited protective distance of the is also necessary to install an arrester on the medium-voltage
arresters and the spatial distance between the equipment in the side, even though the medium-voltage side is not directly
substation. If the various pieces of equipment are installed too endangered by lightning. The situation is similar with transform-
far from one another, it is necessary to consider where to place ers that connect a medium-voltage system to a low-voltage sys-
an additional arrester. tem. The high-frequency overvoltages from the medium-voltage

Some typical cases are described in the following paragraphs.

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9.3 Protection of cables With Ui = 0.3 kV and T = 1.343 for a maximum fault clearing 9.7 Protection of motors If the capacitors are connected in a star, then they are
time of t < 3 s (from TOV curve for the MWK) of the short-circuit discharged by the arrester parallel to bank between conductor
current, the result is: 0.3 High-voltage motors can be over-stressed by multiple restrikes and earth. During the discharge up to the voltage of √2 x Uc,
Disruptive breakdowns in cable insulations lead to grave
resulting from being switched off during the run-up. This is the arresters are loaded in terms of power with:
damage and require expensive repairs. Flashovers along
0.3 especially critical when the cut-off current is less than 600 A.
the cable bushings can damage them and lead to the same UC ≥ × IK × LK = 0.22 × IK × LK in kV
1.343 In order to protect these motors, it is necessary to install surge SK
consequences as insulation breakdowns. It is well known that WC = × [ 3 - (Uc/Us)2 ]
arresters directly at the engine terminals or alternatively at the ω
repeated overvoltage stresses negatively influence the ageing
circuit breaker. The dimensioning of Uc is to be carried out
behavior of the cable insulation, which means that the service 9.5 Arresters in metal-enclosed according to the recommendations in section 6. SK = 3-phase reactive power of the capacitor battery
life of the cable is shortened. Cables must therefore be treated
like station equipment and protected against transient
medium-voltage substations (cubicles) Wc = The discharge energy taken up by the arrester
It is necessary to use an arrester with a residual voltage Ures as
overvoltages (e.g. lightning) with arresters. The arresters are
It is often necessary to install arresters in a metal-enclosed low as possible because of the insulation of the motors, which Assuming that the arrester must carry out this process three
to be placed directly next to the cable bushings here as well.
medium-voltage substation. If a cable connects the substation is generally sensitive to overvoltages, especially if it is aged. times without any cool down phase, it follows with Uc ≥ Us that
The junction lines should be as short as possible. It must be
with a lightning-endangered line, an arrester with a nominal That is why arresters should be chosen with an especially favor- Wc 6 × SK
noted that the earth connection of the arrester is directly at-
current of In = 10 kA should be installed at the cable bushing. able Upl/Uc ratio. Under certain circumstances, it is possible to
tached to the cable sheath.
use the lowest allowable arrester limit of Uc. However, in no case WC 6 × SK
≥
The conditions are different if the arresters must limit switching is Uc allowed to be lower than Us/√3. UC ω × Us
Longer cables require arrester protection at both ends. For
overvoltages instead of lightning overvoltages. The former could
short cable sections, protection on one side can be sufficient.
occur during switching if the inductive current is interrupted Typical arresters used for the protection of electrical motors are The thermal energy rating Wth of the arrester with Uc must thus
This is possible because the protection range of an arrester at
before it reaches its natural zero crossing. In addition, vacuum MWK, or MWD for indoor applications. be adjusted to the reactive power of the battery. The maximum
one end of the cable can still offer sufficient protection at the
breakers can produce high and very steep overvoltages. admissible reactive power values of the parallel capacitor
other end. A cable that connects an overhead line with a sub-
battery for different arrester types can be found in Table 5.
station is often only endangered by lightning on the side of the 9.8 Arresters parallel to a capacitor bank
overhead line. Therefore, the arrester must be installed at the 9.6 Generator connected to a If the reactive power of the parallel capacitor bank for a
junction between the overhead line and the cable. Normally, no overvoltage occurs when a capacitor bank is
lightning-endangered MV line switched off. The circuit breaker interrupts the current in the
certain arrester type exceeds the limiting values from Table 5,
an arrester with higher thermal energy rating must be selected.
natural zero crossing, and the voltage in the capacitors to
9.4 Cable sheath protection If a loaded generator is suddenly disconnected from the system
earth reaches a maximum of 1.5 p.u. As a result of the network
For systems that are not operated with a standard voltage,
(load rejection), its terminal voltage increases until the voltage the limiting values for SK are found in the column with the lower
voltage varying at the power frequency, a voltage across the
The cable sheath of a single-conductor cable in high-voltage regulator readjusts the generator voltage after a few seconds. standard voltage. If the reactive power is very large, arresters
open circuit breaker of 2.5 p.u. is caused.
systems is earthed on one side only for thermal reasons. This The relationship between this temporary overvoltage and the connected parallel are to be chosen. In this case, the manufac-
procedure is increasingly used in medium-voltage cable sys- normal operating voltage is called the load rejection factor δ L. turer has to be informed in order to take the necessary mea-
A high-frequency transient effect takes place between the
tems as well to avoid additional losses in the cable sheath. If the This factor can reach a value of up to 1.5. In the worst case, sures to guarantee a sufficient current distribution between the
capacitor voltage and the operating voltage if the breaker
cable sheath stays open on one side, the sheath can take up to the arrester could be charged with a temporary overvoltage parallel arresters. The manufacturer should also be consulted
re-strikes. During this process, the capacitor is charged with a
50 percent of an incoming overvoltage on the inner conductor of UTOV = δ L x Us, which must be taken into account when when arresters with Uc < Us are being used.
higher voltage. This overvoltage at the capacitor between the
on the non-earthed side. The sheath insulation is not able to choosing Uc.
conductor and the earth reaches a maximum of 3 p.u.
cope with this overvoltage stress. Breakdowns between the
sheath and the earth can occur, which damage the external δL × Us
UC ≥
insulation of the sheath. T

That is why it is necessary to protect the cable sheath against The duration t of UTOV determines T and lies in a range of 3 to 10 05 Arrester parallel to a capacitor bank. Maximum admissible reactive power SK of the capacitor battery for the indicated
arrester type. Three discharges of the battery are allowed without a cool down phase for the arrester. W/Uc: The arrester
overvoltages on the unearthed side with an arrester. The voltage seconds. The high operational safety requirements for genera-
energy absorption capability in relation to Uc.
induced along the cable sheath in case of a short-circuit is tors make it advisable to use arresters with low residual voltage
decisive for the continuous operating voltage Uc. The induced Ures and high energy handling capability W’. That is why the Arrester type POLIM-I
POLIM-D POLIM-K POLIM-S POLIM-H
voltage is dependent on the way the cable is installed and can arresters of the type POLIM-H..N are recommended for genera- Uc ≥ Us MWK/MWD
at most amount to 0.3 kV per kA of short-circuit current and tor protection.
Wth /Uc in kJ/kV 3.6* 5.6 6.25 10.0 15.0
kilometer of cable length. The continuous voltage to be chosen
Us in kV SK in MVA r SK in MVA r SK in MVA r SK in MVA r SK in MVA r
for the arrester which protect the cable sheath results from: With the help of an example the Uc of an arrester for the genera-
3.6 0.68 1.06 1.18 1.88 2.83
tor protection should be determined. With Us = 24 kV, load
Ui 7.2 1.37 2.09 2.38 3.74 5.69
rejection factor δL = 1.5 and t = 10 s results for the type
UC ≥ × IK × LK in kV 12 2.28 3.48 3.96 6.24 9.48
T POLIM-H..N
17.5 3.32 5.07 5.77 9.10 13.8

IK = Maximum 50 Hz short-circuit current per phase in kA 1.5 × 24 kV 24 4.56 6.96 7.92 12.48 18.96
UC ≥ = 27.8 kV
LK = Length of the unearthed cable section in km 1.291 36 6.84 10.44 11.88 18.72 28.44
Ui = Induced voltage occurring along the cable sheath in kV
* Equivalent to Q th = 1.1 C
T = Resistance of the arrester against temporary overvoltages In this way, the type POLIM-H 28 N can be chosen for this case
according to TOV curve (worst case scenario considered).

Generators as important equipment need special attention in

overvoltage protection. Therefore, it is especially important to
place the arresters close to the generator terminals.
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9.9 Line traps (parallel protection) 9.10 Line arresters

Continuous improvement
Line traps are air-core coils that are installed in high-voltage
lines. Their inductivity L is in the range of mH. If no measures
Line arresters are arresters that are installed parallel to insula-
tors on poles along an overhead line. The reason for the use of the products and process
are taken, the lightning current in the conductor must flow
through the line trap. Even relatively small current rates of rise of
of line arresters is the necessity to avoid short interruptions
or outages of the overhead lines due to lightning overvoltages technology require specific
several kA/μs would produce overvoltages on the line amount-
ing to several million volts and would lead to a flashover. Arrest-
or the necessity to reduce the frequency of their occurrence.
As a rule, the line arresters are installed in connection with an test equipment to perform
ers are connected to the line trap to prevent this. These arrest-
ers take over the lightning currents and limit the overvoltage to
earthed shielding wire. In this application the arresters are
called NGLAs (non-gapped line arresters). Line arresters are development tests in house.
its residual voltage Ures. used in regions with high thunderstorm activity and a very poor
earthing situation.
When an earth fault to earth or a short-circuit occurs in a
high-voltage system, the fault current IK flows through the The continuous voltage Uc for MO surge arresters that are used
conductor. This power frequency current would overload the as line arresters is to be determined in exactly the same manner
arrester. Uc must therefore be selected so that the short-circuit as those used for the protection of substations or transformers.
current flows through the line trap. It induces a temporary Since the line arresters should protect especially against the
overvoltage of UTOV = ω x L x IK, which determines Uc at the effects of lightning strokes, it is necessary to dimension them
line trap. according to the lightning parameters of the respective region
(probability, current steepness, charge, footing resistance,
UTOV ω × L × IK a.s.o). As a rule, the line arresters are equipped with disconnec-
UC ≥ =
T T tors, so that an arrester that is overloaded can disconnect itself
from the system and no earth fault appears.
IK = Maximum fault current through the line trap.
L = Inductance of the line trap. A special usage of line arresters is MO surge arresters with
an external series gap. These “EGLAs” (externally gapped line
It may be assumed T = 1.343 for the duration of short-circuit arresters) are to be found in several countries. Figure 29 shows
current of t < 3 s (from TOV curve for the MWK). in principle the arrangement of an EGLA. The challenge is the
coordination of the spark-gap in series with the MO surge
arrester and the spark gap parallel to the insulator to be
protected, and also the residual voltage of the MO surge
arrester used. In IEC 60099-8 and 60099-5 application
principles and test procedures are given in detail.

Earth wire

NGLA EGLA
Phase wire

Insulator with arcing horn Insulator with arcing horn

RE
Tower Tower

MO arrester parallel to an MO arrester with an external

insulator in an overhead line. RE,M spark gap in series parallel to
These so-called NGLAs an insulator in an overhead line
RE,M
(Non Gapped Line Arresters) (EGLA = Externally Gapped
are installed as desired Line Arrester).
with or without disconnector.

29 Possible execution of line

arresters (description in principle).
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10 MO surge arresters
time, the voltage is limited as much as possible. Thus, the In English-speaking countries, the arrester on the pole is
arrester in the station has to discharge only a small part of the described as a “riser pole” arrester. This is not a type descrip-
current, and at the same time protects the transformer against tion for an arrester, but specifies the installation place, which is
overvoltages due to reflections. the place where the cable rises up on the pole and where it is

in parallel connection
connected with the overhead line.
In practice, this principle can be used by choosing two MO
surge arresters of the same type, such as MWK (class SL): the Figure 30 shows an example. The MO surge arrester on the
arrester in the station has a continuous operating voltage Uc of pole directly at the cable bushing is, for example, an MWK 20
about 10 percent higher than the arrester outside on the pole. with Upl = 61.4 kV, and the arrester in the station is, for example,
There are two reasons to connect arresters in parallel: to increase the energy handling The same result is reached if two MO surge arresters with the a POLIM-D 20 with Upl = 70 kV. This coordination of residual
same continuous operating voltage Uc but of different types are voltage and the energy handling capability makes it possible
capability, or optimize protection using MO surge arresters with different U-I characteristics installed, such as a MWK (class SL) on the pole and a POLIM-D that the larger amount of the current is discharged against the
and energy ratings. (class DH) in front of the transformer. Taking into consideration earth on the exterior of the station. In case of an unfavorable
the smaller cross-section of the MO resistors of the POLIM-D ground situation or in extremely lightning-endangered regions,
compared to the MWK, its residual voltage characteristic lies the installation of an earth wire for some span width in front of
automatically higher than the one of the MWK. the station is recommended.

are to be installed close to one another and are to be connected

10.1 General considerations together with short connections of low inductance. If this is not
taken into consideration, then separation effects may appear,
Arresters are generally considered as single devices, i.e. they
which lead to uneven current sharing and consequently to an
fulfill their task in the place in which they are installed according
overstress of one of the arresters.
to their specified data, independent of other nearby devices.
That is why it is possible in principle to install different kinds of
The parallel connection of MO surge arresters has, besides the
arresters close to one another on a phase wire in the system.
sharing of the current over more arresters, the positive effect of Earth wire
However, it is necessary to take into consideration that accord-
a better (i.e. lower) protection level. This is because the current
ing to different ways of functioning, some arresters may
density per arrester becomes lower in view of current sharing,
become useless, while others may become overstressed,
and consequently a lower residual voltage occurs. Phase wire
such as in cases when arresters with spark-gaps and without
spark-gaps are installed in parallel, or when MO surge arresters
It is to be strongly emphasized that it is always better to use a Cable bushing
with different voltage-current characteristics are used in
MO surge arrester with a larger MO resistor diameter than to
parallel.
connect more MO surge arresters in parallel with smaller MO
resistor diameters. Tower Tower Cable
Deliberate parallel connections of MO surge arresters are made Substation
if the energy absorption needs to be increased, the residual
voltage should be reduced, or the energy absorption and the 10.3 Coordination of parallel-connected
RE,M RE,M
residual voltage should be deliberately dimensioned in a
different way.
MO surge arresters RE,S

In some cases, it is necessary or advantageous to use two

10.2 Parallel connections to increase arresters in an installation separated from one another in space,
30 Arrangement of two MO surge arresters
but electrically parallel on the same line. This is, for instance,
the energy handling capability the situation when in view of the distances in a substation, one
to protect a station with cable entry.

of the arresters is installed at the entrance of the station and

Two or more MO surge arresters can be connected in parallel
another arrester is placed directly in front of the transformer,
in order to increase the energy handling capability if during an
at a certain distance. In such a case, two arresters of the same
application the energy occurring cannot be handled by a single
type and with the same continuous voltage may be used.
MO surge arrester. The requirement for equal current sharing,
In case of an incoming voltage, both arresters will discharge a
and consequently even energy sharing, between the arresters
part of the current towards the earth and will provide very good
is the fact that the arresters have to have almost identical volt-
overvoltage protection. However, it is not to be assumed that
age current characteristics. In view of the extreme non-linearity
the energy occurred will be uniformly shared.
of MO resistors, small differences in the residual voltage in the
area of switching current impulses bring big differences in
MO surge arresters of different types or of the same type with
current. With a nonlinearity coefficient of α ≈ 30 in the region
different characteristics that are matched to one another are
of switching current impulses on the voltage- current
used deliberately if uneven sharing of the energy absorption is
characteristic, a difference of 5 percent in the residual voltage
intended. This is the case, for example, in stations in which the
would lead to a current sharing ratio of 1:4 between the surge
transformer is connected through a cable to the overhead line,
arresters. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to perform a cur-
see Figure 30. An arrester is installed on the pole at the junction
rent sharing measurement on all MO surge arresters that are to
of the overhead line to the cable, and this arrester has a higher
be intended to work in parallel. The manufacturer must be in-
energy absorption capability and a lower residual voltage char-
formed when the order is made if the user intends to intention-
acteristic than the arrester in the station in front of the trans-
ally connect more MO surge arresters in parallel. It is also to be
former. The effect of this is that the largest part of the energy is
noted that the arresters
absorbed by the arrester outside on the pole, and at the same
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11 Accessories 12 Monitoring of
To meet worldwide all different installation and performance requirements a large number MO surge arresters
of accessories is available.
The performance of modern MO surge arresters does not change under normal system
conditions over the whole life time, assuming correct application. Monitoring of events,
like surges due to lightning and/or switching, give valuable information about activities
in sub-stations.

Different methods of diagnosis and indicators were discussed Thermal vision cameras can be used to detect the temperature
11.1 Spark prevention unit The earth connection must be flexible, and it is necessary to
and developed in the past for the condition monitoring of MO of MO surge arresters. Here again, the absolute temperature is
have sufficient distance beneath the arrester, so that the dis-
surge arresters. not really important, but for instance differences in temperature
The spark prevention unit (SPU) is a device to avoid wildfire haz- connected earth connection can hang freely and the applied
of arresters in the same sub-station, or a steady increasing
ards caused by thermally overloaded surge arresters. The SPU operating voltage that occurs at the foot of the arrester does
Surge counters can be installed if there is interest in monitoring temperature over time.
is installed in the earth connection of a medium-voltage arrester, not lead to spark-over.
the occurrences of the discharges of an arrester in the system.
as shown in Figure 31.
These surge counters count all discharges above the threshold Besides monitoring the MO surge arresters, the number and
The purpose of disconnectors is to prevent overstressed
value of the surge counter. Some modern products classify the magnitude of counted surges gives valuable information about
The SPU monitors the load and thermal behavior of the surge arresters from leading to a permanent short-circuit resulting
current surges according their height. A milli-ampere-meter the events in a sub-station. It can also provide helpful statistics
arrester and interrupts the current in case of overload. Compar- in the system switching off. It is thus possible to continue to
(mA-meter) can be installed if the continuously flowing leakage for the performance, potential malfunction and stresses seen by
ing to other solutions, e.g. arc rotators, the concept of the SPU supply consumers with electrical energy. This is surely an
current of an MO surge arrester is to be monitored. the system.
prevents the spark production instead of controlling it. In this advantage in inaccessible areas or if the overstressed arrester
way, violent arrester failures and related arcing, sparking or cannot be quickly replaced. The disadvantage is that there is no
If monitoring devices are used, for example, for measuring the In high-voltage applications, especially for GIS arresters
emission of hot particles do not occur. The SPU is approved overvoltage protection as long as the arrester is disconnected.
continuous current that flows through an arrester, it is important monitoring devices like mA meters and surge counters are
for application with classes DH and SL arresters up to 36 kV That is why it is important to replace arresters that are out of
to watch the current tendency. The momentary value cannot frequently installed.
continuous operating voltage and that includes a trip indication order and were disconnected from the system as quickly as
provide enough information about the condition of an arrester.
clearly visible from ground level. possible.
For this, it is necessary to make the first measurement directly
after the arrester installation and to record the conditions during
If high-voltage fuses are installed in the same current path as
the measurement (voltage, ambient temperature, pollution of the
the disconnectors, the response characteristics of both protec-
arrester housing, etc.)
tion devices have to be matched to one another. The disconnec-
tor has to respond in time before the fuse or at the same time
as it. This concept prevents the switching on an existing
short-circuit when a new fuse is installed.

11.3 Indicators
Indicators are devices that clearly indicate an overstressed ar-
rester, i.e. a short-circuited arrester. Such devices are installed
either on the overvoltage side or on the earth side directly at
the arrester. In the event of an overstress, the short-circuit is
permanent and the system is switched off, but the damaged
arrester can clearly be detected and in this way can be quickly
replaced. Indicators are used in lines or stations with arresters
that cannot easily be visually controlled.
31 Medium-voltage arrester of class SL with spark prevention unit.
Left: SPU installed below surge arrester.
Right: SPU tripped after overload of surge arrester. 11.4 Brackets, ground plates and
clamping devices
11.2 Disconnectors A variety of different installation material like brackets (hangers),
ground plates and clamping devices is available.
Disconnectors are used for automatically disconnecting a
surge arrester that has been overstressed. Disconnectors are
generally placed on the earth side directly under the arrester.
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13 Overload and failure analysis 14 Summary and developments

The analysis of failed or overstressed MO surge arresters can give information about the Ongoing research and development in material, design and production technology
reason of the failure. However, the information received from failed arresters is rather vague, of MO surge arresters ensure reliable performance under very different and
because of secondary effects due to arcing. specific applications.

The reliability of modern MO surge arresters is very high. • The existing voltage at the arrester terminals before the Modern MO surge arresters with direct silicone molding are Therefore, it is necessary to continue developing and optimizing
The probability of high-voltage arresters breaking down is breakdown and, if possible, a recording of the voltages to be found in a large number of varieties, covering every neces- MO surge arresters and all other electrical equipment. At the
virtually zero. With medium-voltage arresters, it is approximately • Any earth faults at other points in the affected system sity. In recent decades, they have proved to be very reliable as same time, it is necessary to continuously revise the standards
0.1 percent throughout the world; however, there are consider- • A line diagram of the line or the installation with the position protection elements in the system. and the application guidelines, because the requirements and
able differences regionally. of the arrester before the breakdown the tests are
• Counting data of the surge counter, if any They protect electrical equipment that is much more expensive changing, as well as the field experience is growing.
The sealing system was the weak point in some older products • Ambient conditions at the time of the breakdown than themselves, and thereby guarantee high reliability and a
with porcelain housings. Humidity was able to enter the housing good energy supply. They act as insurance against breakdowns The application of MO surge arresters, MO resistors or MO
after years of operation due to corrosion of the metal parts or If an arrester breaks down in a phase and it is replaced, the in regard to high overvoltages. Integrated solutions are in material in general (e.g. microvaristors) is increasing due to
due to deterioration of the sealing rings, which eventually led other two arresters in the other phases should be also replaced, discussion, and corresponding installations, devices and con- new applications in DC systems, DC circuit breakers, and
to the arrester breaking down. or they should at least be examined to determine if they have cepts are being developed for systems that are becoming more power electronics.
also been damaged. It is thus recommended that all three ar- complicated. At the same time, the available space is shrinking.
For modern MO surge arresters direct-sealed with silicone, resters be sent to the manufacturer for examination. This means that a device has to perform more functions under Questions about lightning and overvoltage protection are
there are only a few reasons for overstress. These include: certain circumstances. Correspondingly, an arrester could dealt with in different committees and working groups in
extreme lightning strokes in the line directly at the arrester It bears mentioning that an MO surge arrester fulfils its perform, in addition to the function of overvoltage protection, IEC (standardization and application recommendations),
or unexpected high power-frequency overvoltages because protection function even in a case of overloading. The voltage the function of a support insulator as well. Cigré and CIRED (field experience and trends).
of earth failures, ferromagnetic resonances, or a short-circuit decreases towards zero due to the fact that an earth or
between two systems with different system voltages. short-circuit is produced, and in this way, the devices
connected in parallel to the arrester are protected against
As a rule, the MO surge arrester builds a permanent earth or excessively high voltages.
short-circuit in case of an overstress.
The protection that takes place in an overload case is deliber-
If an arrester breaks down in the system, it is, in principle possi- ately used in some special cases as the last possibility to
ble to get an idea of the cause of the failure from the failure protect very important and expensive electrical equipment.
mode. However, the information received from overstressed If the aim is to overstress an MO surge arrester at a predeter-
arresters is rather vague, because it is generally not possible to mined point – such as the exterior of a building – this arrester is
differentiate between the cause of the failure and the secondary dimensioned to be deliberately weaker, from the voltage point of
effects due to the arc. If an overload case is to be examined, the view, than the other arresters in the installation. These so-called
following information should be available: “victim” or “sacrificing” arresters can be seen as an electrically
• All the lightning strikes that occurred close to the arrester predetermined breaking point in the system.
before the breakdown and, if possible, also the height of
the lightning current
• All the circuit breaker operations before the affected line
broke down
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Acronyms/Abbreviations Literature
Consult the following literature for further information of the fundamentals of
MO surge arresters and specific applications:

AIS U ps Cigré TB 60: Metal Oxide Arresters in AC Systems, Greuter, F., Perkins, R., Rossinelli,M., Schmückle, F.: IEC 60099-6, Edition 1.0, 2002-08
Air insulated substation MO Arrester switching protective level SIPL, i.e. the maximum April 1991 The metal-oxide resistor – at the heart of modern surge Surge arresters – Part 6: Surge arresters containing both
Metal-oxide residual voltage of the arrester for the switching impulse by WG 06 of SC 33 arresters; Hitachi Energy Technik 1/89 series and parallel gapped structures – Rated 52 kV and
ANSI p.u. discharge current specified for its class. W. Heiss, G. Balzer, O. Schmitt, B. Richter: less
American National Standards Institute Per unit, 1 p.u. = √2 ×Us /√3 Cigré TB 287: Protection of MV and LV Networks Surge Arresters for Cable Sheath Preventing Power
Ur against Lightning. Part 1: Common Topics Losses in M.V. Systems. IEC 60099-8, Edition 1.0, 2011-01
BIL RUSCD Rated voltage of an arrester, i.e. maximum by CIGRE-CIRED JWG C4.402, 2006 CIRED 2001, Amsterdam, 18.-21. June 2001 Surge arresters – Part 8: Metal-oxide surge arresters with
Basic lightning insulation level (peak value). Reference unified specific creepage distance permissible r.m.s. value of power-frequency voltage be- external series gap (EGLA) for overhead transmission and
Similar to the LIVW according to IEC. The term BIL is tween its terminals at which it is designed to operate cor- Cigré TB 440: Use of Surge Arresters for Lightning M. Darveniza, L.R. Tumma, B. Richter, D.A. Roby: distribution lines of a.c. systems above 1 kV
used exclusively in US standards. SC A3 rectly under TOV conditions Protection of Transmission Lines Multipulse Lightning Currents and Metal-Oxide Arresters.
Study committee A3 of Cigré, responsible for high-volt- (t = 10 s). by CIGRE WG C4.301, 2010 IEEE/PES Summer Meeting, 96 SM 398 PWRD, 1996. IEC 60099-9, Edition 1.0, 2014-06
CENELEC age Equipment. ISBN: 978-2-85873-128-2 Surge arresters – Part 9: Metal-oxide surge arresters
European Committee for Electrotechnical U ref W. Schmidt, J. Meppelink, B. Richter, K. Feser, L. without gaps for HVDC converter stations
Standardization SH Reference voltage of an arrester, i.e. the Cigré TB 441: Protection of MV and LV Networks Kehl, D. Qiu:
Station High (arrester class) peak value of power-frequency voltage divided by √2 against Lightning. Part 2: Lightning Protection of Behavior of MO-Surge Arrester Blocks to Fast Transients. IEC 60071-1, Edition 8.1, 2011-03
Cigré which is obtained when the reference current flows Medium Voltage Networks IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No 1, Insulation coordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles
International Council on Large Electric Systems SiC through the arrester. by Cigré WG C4.4.02, 2010 January 1989. and rules
Silicon carbide ISBN. 978-2-85873-129-9
CIRED U res Richter, B., Krause, C. and Meppelink, J.: IEC 60071-2, Edition 3.0, 1996-12
International Conference on Electricity SIWV Residual voltage of an arrester, i.e. the peak Cigré TB 455: Aspects for the Application of Measurement of the U-I characteristic of MO resistors Insulation coordination – Part 2: Application guide
Distribution Standard rated switching impulse withstand value of voltage that appears between the Composite Insulators to High Voltage (≥ 72 kV) at current impulses of different wave shapes and peak
voltage of an equipment or insulation terminals of an arrester during the passage of Apparatus values. IEC 60060-1, Edition 3.0, 2010-09
DH configuration (generally given in kV) discharge current. by CIGRE WG A3.21, 2011 High-voltage test techniques. Part 1: General definitions
Distribution High (arrester class) ISBN: 978-2-85873-144-2 Fifth Int. Sym. on High Voltage Engineering, Paper 82.03, and test requirements
SL Us Braunschweig (Germany), 1987
DL Station Low (arrester class) Highest voltage of a system, i.e. highest value Cigré TB 544: MO Surge Arresters Stresses and IEC 60507, Edition 3.0, 2013-12
Distribution Low (arrester class) of the phase-to-phase operating voltage (r.m.s. value) that Test Procedures W. Schmidt, B. Richter, G. Schett: Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage ceramic and glass
SM occurs under normal operating conditions in the system. by CIGRE WG A3.17, 2013 Metal oxide surge arresters for gas-insulated substations insulators to be used on a.c. systems
DM Station Medium (arrester class) ISBN: 978-2-85873-239-5 (GIS) – Design requirements and applications;
Distribution Medium (arrester class) Varistor IEC/TS 60815-1, Edition 1.0, 2008-10
SPU Variable resistor Cigré TB 549: Lightning Parameters for Engineering CIGRE Paris Session 1992, Report 33-203 Selection and dimensioning of high-voltage insulators
GIS Spark Prevention Unit Applications intended for use in polluted conditions – Part 1:
Gas insulated substation ZnO by CIGRE WG C4.407, 2013 L. Gebhardt, B. Richter: Definitions, information and general principles
TC 37 Zinc-oxide ISBN: 978-2-85873-244-9 Surge arrester application of MV-Capacitor banks to
IEC Technical Committee 37 in IEC, responsible for surge ar- mitigate problems of switching restrike; IEC/TS 60815-2, Edition 1.0, 2008-10
International Electrotechnical Commission resters Cigré TB 550: Protection of MV and LV Networks 19 th International Conference on Electricity Distribution Selection and dimensioning of high-voltage insulators
against Lightning. Part 3: Lightning Protection of (CIRED), Paper 0639, Vienna, 21-24 May 2007. intended for use in polluted conditions – Part 2: Ceramic
IEEE TOV Low Voltage Networks and glass insulators for a.c. systems
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Temporary overvoltage with power frequency of limited by CIGRE WG C4.408, 2013 B. Richter
time duration ISBN: 978-2-85873-245-6 New Test Requirements for Distribution Arresters; IEC/TS 60815-3, Edition 1.0, 2008-10
In 32nd International Conference on Lightning Protection Selection and dimensioning of high-voltage insulators
Nominal discharge current of an arrester, i.e. the peak Uc Cigré TB 696: MO Surge Arresters – Metal Oxide (ICLP), Shanghai, China intended for use in polluted conditions – Part 3: Polymer
value of lightning current impulse which is used to clas- Continuous operating voltage of an arrester, Resistors and Surge Arresters for Emerging System 13th – 17th Oct. 2014 insulators for a.c. systems
sify an arrester. i.e. the designated permissible r.m.s. value of power-fre- Conditions
quency voltage that may be applied continuously be- by CIGRE WG A3.25, 2017 T. Christen, L. Donzel, and F. Greuter: IEC 60038, Edition 7.0, 2009-06
k tween the arrester terminals. ISBN: 978-2-85873-399-6 “Nonlinear resistive electric field grading part 1: Theory IEC standard voltages
Earth fault factor, k × Us /√3 is the maximum and simulation,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol.26, no. 6, pp.
voltage between phase and earth in case of an earth fault Um Hinrichsen, Reinhard, Richter 48-60, Nov./Dec. 2010.
Highest voltage for equipment, i.e. highest value of the (on behalf of Cigré WG A3.17) US standards relevant to MO surge
Lightning current impulse phase-to-phase voltage (r.m.s. value) for which the equip- Energy Handling Capability of High-Voltage L. Donzel, F. Greuter, and T. Christen: arresters
8/20 current impulse with rise time of 8 μs and time to ment is designed in respect of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters – Part 1: A Critical “Nonlinear resistive electric field grading part 2: Materials
half-value of 20 μs. its insulation. Review of the Standards and applications,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol.27, no.2, IEEE C62.11 – 2012
pp.18-29, March/April 2011. IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
LIWV Un Cigré SC A3 Technical Colloquium, Rio de Janeiro, AC Power Circuits (> 1 kV)
Standard rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of an Nominal voltage of a system, i.e. a suitable September 12/12, 2007 IEC standards relevant for MO surge arresters
equipment or insulation configuration (generally given in approximate value of voltage used to identify The selection describes the current state of the most IEEE C62-22 – 2009
kV). a system. Reinhard, Hinrichsen, Richter, Greuter important IEC standards on MO surge arresters and IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge
(on behalf of Cigré A3.17) associated topics. Arresters for Alternating Current systems
MCOV U pl Energy Handling Capability of High-Voltage Metal-Oxide
Maximum continuous operating voltage (= Uc). Defined Arrester lightning impulse protective level LIPL, i.e. the Surge Arresters – Part 2: Results of a Research Test IEC 60099-4, Edition 3.0, 2014-06
and used in US standards. maximum residual voltage of the arrester at the nominal Program Surge arresters – Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters
discharge current In. Cigré Session 2008, Paris, Report A3-309 without gaps for a.c. systems

Richter, Schmidt, Kannus, Lahti, Hinrichsen, IEC 60099-5, Edition 3.0, 2018-01
Neumann, Petrusch, Steinfeld Surge arresters – Part 5: Selection and application
Long Term Performance of Polymer Housed MO surge recommendations
arresters
Cigré Session 2004, Paris, Report A3-110
58 | M E TA L- OX I D E S U R G E A R R E S T E R S I N M E D I U M -V O LTAG E S Y S T E M S A P P L I C AT I O N G U I D E L I N E S

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