PHY 306 - Fluid Mechanics

Sébastien Michelin
[email protected]

Lecture #3

Forces in a viscous uid

(an introduction to viscous forces)

Recommended reading: Chapters 1 & 2 of Understanding fluid flow » by G. Worster — available on Moodle
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 Forces in a viscous uid
Let’s start with some intuitive observations….

Drag

➡ The uid closest to the ball “sticks” to it and is entrained in its fall
➡ The uid resists motion and slows down the falling ball
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fl
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 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

1. No-slip condition & Drag

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fl
fi
 No-slip condition

A viscous uid “sticks” to a bounding solid surface Solid boundary

⌦
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➡ Fluid is entrained by the moving wall

➡ Velocity is continuous Fluid- uid interface
➡ Faster (outer) layers pull slower (inner) layers

No-slip condition
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u=U (solid boundary)

u1 = u2 (fluid-fluid boundary)
fl
fl
 Viscous drag
D?
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4d

d Fg =
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⇢ Vg
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Steady fall D(U ) ⇠ Fg no acceleration

a1 ≈ 2a2
A viscous uid resists to motion (drag)
U1 ≈ 4U2

U ⇠ a2
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Observation
D ⇠ ⌘aU
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3
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Fg ⇠ a
Viscosity (units: Nm-2.s or Pa.s)

Origin: velocity gradients (layers of uid with different velocities “pull” on each other)
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 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

2. Viscous forces in a simple shear ow

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 Viscous force in a shear flow
S
Moving plate
U
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u(y)
h

Fixed plate
Ffluid! plate
➡ Fluid is entrained by the moving (top) wall and sticks to the xed bottom wall
➡ Velocity is continuous but non-uniform
➡ A viscous force is applied on the bottom plate

Experimental observations
Viscosity
Ffluid!plate U
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(This de nes the

Viscous stress ⌧s = =⌘ viscosity η)
S h
fi
fi
 Viscous force in a shear flow
S
Moving plate
U
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u(y)
h

Fixed plate
Ffluid!plate
<latexit sha1_base64="HWqX6RQj37+JpWmB5Gp6x3JrO2Y=">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</latexit>

⌧s =
S
Viscous forces are contact forces
No remote interaction ⟹ it should only depend on local quantities

Viscous forces arise from relative uid motion

No viscous force in a uid at rest / uniform ow ⟹ it should only depend on
velocity gradients
<latexit sha1_base64="hn7nwOt5y52We4r37OTVzH2HleM=">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</latexit>

U @u
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⌧s = ⌘ ⌧s = ⌘
h @y y=0
Non-local
fl
fl
fl
 Viscous stress in a shear flow
Stress = « Force per unit of contact area »
y
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⌧2!1 = ⌧s
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Fluid 2
Y
⌧1!2 =
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⌧s
Fluid 1

∂u
τ2→1 = τs = η Viscous stress exerted by the upper uid (y>Y)
∂y onto the lower uid (y<Y).
y=Y

∂u
τ1→2 = − τs = − η Viscous stress exerted by the lower uid (y>Y)
∂y onto the upper uid (y<Y).
y=Y
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

3. Viscosity & momentum diffusion

fl
fl
fi
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
Local effects Velocity gradients

Viscous force: Contact force between touching uid particles with different velocities
Resistance to relative motion ⟹ momentum homogenisation
Drag/dissipation Diffusion process

Simple gas model Fluid particle

1. A uid particle contains many molecules
v⇤
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(density n) with velocity uj

v⇤
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<latexit sha1_base64="/xhCd5PPTaVcWQNgv/nTBwxJvBM=">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</latexit>

2. Each molecule keeps a constant velocity u(x, t)

⇤
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between t and t+t* (no molecular interactions). v

V
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3. Molecule agitation limited to the three main Individual

axes (oversimpli ed!) Fluid particle
molecule velocity (mean)
velocity
uj = u(x, t) ± v ⇤ ex,y,z
<latexit sha1_base64="HVGwWUHV3wToVwt7YwvHvPErtXo=">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</latexit>

4. At t+t*, their mean velocity is adjusted to that

of their neighbours (collisions)
Agitation velocity
⇤ ⇤ ⇤ (equiprobability along
l =v t
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5. Mean-free path between collisions 6 orthogonal directions)

fl
fi
fl
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
ey <latexit sha1_base64="wH+/JFr1bIezkT8GUtoJrxX9i/U=">AAAEGXicbVNNb9MwGPYWPkb52uDIJaJC4lBFSTVGuU3iwnEIulVqosl2nM6aPyLbYass/wmu489wQ1w58Vu44KTZlKZ9pUjv+3w4rx/JqGRUmzj+u7Mb3Lv/4OHeo8HjJ0+fPd8/eHGqZaUwmWLJpJohqAmjgkwNNYzMSkUgR4ycocuPNX/2jShNpfhqliXJOFwIWlAMjYdmaU6YgeGX8/1hHMVNhZtN0jZD0NbJ+cHuvzSXuOJEGMyg1vMkLk1moTIUM+IGaaVJCfElXJC5bwXkRGe2WdiFbzySh4VU/hMmbNCuw0Ku9ZKjEeJezKG50H26Brdx88oUk8xSUVaGCLz6V1Gx0MiwDiDMqSLYsKVvIFbUrxviC6ggNj6mgQ+k8FE2G1m+XChChLNqgZyNR9G7Uez6EqTk1Z0kOhpF45EPLtnQSQXFgtwJPzSnRfHECwW5wpJzKHKbllDlbj7ObFr4nZrZUMjCYeI6w9j1bEaaNVudi+I2dytjZ9ywKuKdSWZtulq1nmtXT4ZYRdZ0DbBFeJtaV3uLbZW3yazrW3CLIc+7F+qRFWpJVNhq46YdUvXJ6w553SdFhxTO+eeS9B/HZnM6jpKjKPl8ODyetA9nD7wCr8FbkID34Bh8AidgCjBg4Du4AT+Cm+Bn8Cv4vZLu7rSel2Ctgj//Aa7OZ7U=</latexit>

S
u(y + l⇤ )
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u = u(y)ex
⇤ Molecules crossing
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v ⇤ v ey
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u = u(y)ex l ⇤ y=Y downward

⇤ between 2 collisions
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v <latexit sha1_base64="i5bvfZfoxqLNZZwKVbe+s+13IXE=">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</latexit>

V+
v⇤
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Molecules crossing
y=Y upward between
l⇤ +v ⇤ ey
ex 2 collisions
V
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l⇤ )
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u(y
Between t and t + t* ⇤
nl S
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1. N- molecules cross y=Y upward with momentum m*u(y-l*) ±

N =
6
l ⇤ = v ⇤ t⇤
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2. N+ molecules cross y=Y downward with momentum m*u(y+l*)

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3. Change in x-momentum for lower layer ( V-) @u

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@u ⌧s = ⌘
px = N m u(y + l ) + ⇤ ⇤
N m u(y ⇤ ⇤
l ) ⇡ 2 Nm l ⇤ ⇤ @y Y
@y Y
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1 ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ @u
1 ⇤ ⇤
px = nm
|{z} l v t⇤ S = ⌧s t⇤ S ⌘ = ⇢l v
3 @y Y 3
⇢
shear stress (force / surface)
𝛿
𝛿
𝛿
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity
1 ⇤ ⇤
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⌘ 1 ⇤ ⇤
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⌘ = ⇢l v ⌫= = l v
3 ⇢ 3
➡ Units: Pa.s ➡ Units: m2s−1(diffusivity)
➡ Measure of the viscous force ➡ Measure of momentum diffusion

Some remarks
✓ The approach can be generalised to account for more complex/realistic gas model
✓ For a gas, viscosity increases with molecular agitation (temperature).
✓ The approach is NOT valid for a liquid (stronger & attractive molecular interactions)

Orders of magnitude (to know!)

✓ Water ηw ∼ 10−3 Pa . s νw ∼ 10−6 m2 . s−1
✓ Air ηa ∼ 10−5 Pa . s νa ∼ 10−5 m2 . s−1

⌫a > ⌫w : Momentum di↵uses faster in the air

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⌘w > ⌘a : Water o↵ers more viscous resistance than air

 III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

Parallel ows
- the ow velocity direction is the same everywhere (e.g. horizontal)
- the ow magnitude only varies transversally (e.g. along the vertical)

u = u(y, t)ex

Examples: ow in pipes, above long at surfaces, etc…

fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

1. Momentum balance on a uid particle

fl
fl
fl
 Momentum balance on a fluid particle
( 2)
δy Newton’s law for the moving
p x, y +
u = u(y, t)ex
δV uid particle

( 2)
δy
∑
τs x, y + δma = δF
Du
( 2 )
δx
Inertia: δma = ρ δV
( 2 )
δx
p x − ,y ρg p x + ,y
Dt
Gravity: δFg = ρg δV
( 2)
δy
−τs x, y −
Pressure forces: δFp = − ∇p δV
δy
( 2)
δy
p x, y −

δx

[ ( 2) ( 2 )]
δy δy ∂τs
Viscous forces: δFv = τs x, y + − τs x, y − exδxδz ≈ δV ex
∂y

Du ∂
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η (τsex)
Dt ∂y
fl
 Momentum balance on a fluid particle
Du ∂
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η (τsex)
Dt ∂y

Here, for a simple parallel ow u = u(y)ex

∂u
τs = η
∂y

( ∂t ∂x )
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= + (u ⋅ ∇)u = +u ex =
Dt ∂t ∂t
=0
(geometry)

Evolution equation for the ∂u ∂ 2u

ρ = ρg − ∇p + η 2
shear velocity distribution ∂t ∂y
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

2. Boundary conditions

fl
fl
 Boundary conditions
No-slip condition
✓ This is a kinematic condition (= constraint on the velocity)
✓ There is no velocity discontinuity in a viscous uid

✓ At a rigid boundary,
u(x, t) = U(x, t) U: known surface velocity

✓ At the interface between two viscous uids

u1(x, t) = u2(x, t)
fl
fl
 Boundary conditions
Continuity of uid stress at a uid- uid interface
✓ This is a dynamic condition ( = force balance)
✓ Extra condition to determine the unknown uid- uid surface velocity
✓ The interface has no mass: there is no net uid force imposed on the interface

Fluid 2
p1 dS
Normal forces (pressure) p1 = p2
τ1→2 dS
∂u1 ∂u2
τ2→1 dS Tangential forces (viscous) η1 = η2
∂y ∂y
p2 dS
Fluid 1
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
IV. Examples - Steady ow
∂u ∂ 2u
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η 2
∂t ∂y

∂u ∂ 2u
=0 ⟹ η 2 = ∇p ( − ρg)
∂t ∂y
1. Couette ow 2. Poiseuille ow
ΔP = Pin − Pout ≠ 0
Utop ≠ 0 Ubottom = 0

u(y)? Pin Pout

Ubottom = 0 Ubottom = 0
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
IV. Examples - Steady ow
1. Couette ow 2. Poiseuille ow
ΔP = Pin − Pout
Utop = Uex Ubottom = 0

Pin Pout

Ubottom = 0 Ubottom = 0

( h2 )
y(h − y)
(h)
y Parabolic ow u(y) = 4Um
Linear ow u(y) = U
h 2ΔP
Um =
8ηL
ηU h 3ΔP
Uniform stress τs(y) = Total ow rate Q =
h 12ηL
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
Forces in a viscous uid
V. Examples - Unsteady ows

fl
fl
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
1. Setting a uid into motion

Very viscous uid Slightly viscous uid

fl
fl
fl
fl
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
2. Impulsively-started plate (1st Stokes problem)

u=0 for t ≤ 0 u(y, t)?

U ≠ 0 for t > 0
fl
 Impulsively started plate

u = u(y, t)ex

Invariant
Uex in x
∂u ∂2u ∂p ∂u ∂ 2u
Momentum balance (horizontal): ρ =η 2 − ⟶ =ν 2
∂t ∂y ∂x ∂t ∂y

No-slip condition (on moving plate): u(y = 0, t > 0) = U

Far- eld condition ( uid at rest): u(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0

Initial condition ( uid at rest): u(y > 0, t = 0) = 0

Observation #1: the problem is linear in U ⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t)

(with f independent of U)
fi
fl
fl
 Impulsively started plate
⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t) with f the unique solution of:
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1
2
∂f ∂f
u = u(y, t)ex =ν 2 f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∂t ∂y
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0
Uex
Observation #2: f is a mathematical function → It has dimensionless arguments
⟹ f = f(ỹ, t̃ ) with ỹ = y/L, t̃ = t/T and L, T a reference length and time
 Impulsively started plate
⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t) with f the unique solution of:
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1
2
∂f ∂f
u = u(y, t)ex =ν 2 f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∂t ∂y
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0
Uex ⟹ f = f(y/L, t/T )

NO externally-imposed length (e.g. size of a container) or

What are L and T here?
time (e.g. duration of the acceleration phase) scales

Looking at the equations satis ed by f, we observe that f only depends on (t, y, ν).

The only possible dimensionless variable for f is therefore

y
ξ= ⟶ u(y, t) = Ug(ξ)
νt
This is called a self-similar process: the solution remains identical/scaled to itself at all times!
fi
 Impulsively started plate
∂f ∂ξ ξ
= g′(ξ) = − g′(ξ)
What is the problem satis ed by g(ξ) = f(y, t) ? ∂t ∂t 2t
y ∂f ∂ξ 1
g(ξ) = f(y, t), ξ= = g′(ξ) = g′(ξ)
νt ∂y ∂y νt
∂ 2f 1
= g′′(ξ)
∂y 2 νt
∂f ∂ 2f ξ ν
=ν 2 ⇒ − g′(ξ) = g′′(ξ)
∂t ∂y 2t νt
ξ
⟹ g′′ + ξg′ = 0
∫0
t2
−2
ξ2
⟹ g(ξ) = A e dt + B
−
⟹ g′(ξ) = Ae 2

∫∞
2
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0 − t2
⟹ g(ξ → ∞) = 0 ⟹ g(ξ) = A e dt
f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∞ − t2
∫ξ e 2 dt
( )
ξ
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1 ⟹ g(0) = 1 ⟹ g(ξ) = ∞ t2 = erfc
−
∫0 e dt
2 2













fi
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
2. Impulsively-started plate (1st Stokes problem)

( 2 νt )
y
u(y, t) = Uerfc
t↗
∞
2
π ∫x
2
erfc(x) = e−t dt

U≠0 for t > 0

As time progresses:
‣ The uid is progressively entrained horizontally
‣ The velocity pro le remains similar to itself
‣ Momentum diffuses laterally under the effect of viscous forces
fl
fi
fl
VI. Reynolds number
Viscous & inertial transport of momentum
Flux of momentum Scaling
@u
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Viscous transport ⌧s = ⌘ ⌘U/L

@y

⇢U 2
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⇢u(u · n)
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Inertial transport

Inertial transport ⇢U L
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Reynolds number ⇠ Re =
Viscous transport ⌘

Re ⌧ 1 Inertia is negligible
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Re 1 Viscosity is negligible
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Example: flows over a rigid cylinder
Re = 0.16 Re = 26
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Re = 200 Re = 8 000
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<latexit sha1_base64="Va4FC6mfYint0ma7l3mD1UXCv/E=">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</latexit>
Example: flow over a square cylinder
Kinematic reversibility
 A few orders of magnitude…

12
Re ⇠ 109
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Re ⇠ 10

5
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Re ⇠ 1
<latexit sha1_base64="BB1PBwDJ6wNhplmYmSNFLdD/Ljo=">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</latexit>

10 Re ⇠ 10