PHY 306 - Fluid Mechanics

Sébastien Michelin
[email protected]
 Organisation

Gabriel Amselem Sébastien Michelin Valentin Bonnet

(TD Group A) PHY306 Coordinator (TD Group B)
(Lectures)
✓Instructors:
- S. Michelin (LadHyX, lectures) [email protected]
-G. Amselem (LadHyX, TD Gr. A) [email protected]
- V. Bonnet (LadHyX, TD Gr. B) [email protected]

✓Material:
- Course Moodle website: https://moodle.polytechnique.fr/course/view.php?id=17622
- Ressources: lecture notes, slides, TDs & corrections,…
- Assignments: Homeworks, …
- Synapses: class schedule, rooms
 Organisation

✓Lectures:
- Beforehand: read/study the lecture notes provided
- Lectures: on Tuesdays 10.15am-12.15pm in BEM 1024005
- Afterwards: Self-study of material
- Anytime: Post questions on forum, by emails, to your classmates and instructors… do not wait!

✓TDs:
- Beforehand: prepare the questions indicated by your instructor
- Organisation: on Wednesdays (Gr. A: 2.15pm-4.15pm / Gr. B: 4.30pm-6.30pm) (rooms on
Synapses) — except May 1st (moved on Tuesday afternoon).
- Afterwards: Prepare the assignment problems and turn-in by the following Tuesday (Moodle)

✓Course grade:
- Final Exam (45%): Week of June 17th-21st
- Homework/Bonus problems (30%): 5 out of 8 best assignments
- Quizzes (15%): on lecture material (April 30th, June 6th).
- Participation (10%): TDs, lectures, …
 Organisation

✓Outline:
- Lecture #1: Describing a fluid’s motion (Chapter I)
- Lecture #2: Describing a fluid’s motion (Chapter I) + Forces in a fluid at rest (Chapter II)
- Lecture #3: An introduction to viscous forces in a moving fluid (Chapter II)
- Lecture #4: Conservation laws in fluid mechanics (Chapter III)
- Lecture #5: Fundamental equations of fluid motion (Chapter IV)
- Lecture #6: Weakly-non-parallel flows (Chapter V)
- Lecture #7: Inviscid & potential flows (Chapter VI)
- Lecture #8: Inviscid & potential flows (Chapter VI)
- Lecture #9: Boundary layers (Chapter VII)
 Lecture #1

Describing a fluid’s motion

(Kinematics I)
“How does a fluid move ?”

Introduction: what is a fluid?

Examples of fluid flows
Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics I)

I. Description of the fluid medium

 A continuous medium

At the scale of observation, the molecular structure of a fluid is not visible

Description of the motion of individual molecules/particles is not convenient / tractable.
Continuum mechanics: mesoscopic description of the fluid in terms of continuous variables

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Xi (t), ui (t)
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u(x, t), ⇢(x, t), . . .

Molecular description Continuous description
 Liquids & Gases
Three intuitive states of matter Fluids
Solid Liquid Gas

Maintains a given shape No intrinsic shape, spreads… Occupies available volume

Resists external forces Resists compression forces. Resists compression forces.

(normal & tangential) Deforms under shear Deforms under shear

In practice, many complex/intermediate states

Plasma Liquid crystal Foams Complex fluids

 Leçon 2 – La représentation du fluide 2.1 Milieu continu et échelle macroscopiques
Fluid particles
@ MEC432 - Mécanique des Fluides - Laurent Jacquin - 2019 - 2020 - Polytechnique
! « particule de fluide » : définition
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Fluid particle properties
"
u (t)
molécules j (average)
. " distance intermoléculaire
+ Fluid particle velocity
A “blob” of fluid .. " masse u(x, t) = huj i
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Fig. 2.2
" masse volumique Individual molecule velocity
uj = u(x, t) + u0j
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Microscopic/ (fluctuation)
molecular valeur stabilisée
Averaged velocity
fluctuations de la masseof
independent
volumique
averaging window size

Size of a fluid particle

(averaging window) variationvariations
Macroscopic due à la
variation de la masse distribution spatiale
of the fluid velocity
de la masse volumique
volumique sur l’échelle d
l⇠d d⌧l⌧L l⇠L Averaging size
l
échelle caractéristique
Mesoscopic
Fig. 2.3description: the fluid particlemésoéchelles
size should be de l’écoulement
➡ Much larger than the scale of molecular fluctuations
➡ Much smaller than the scale of global motion
 Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics I)

II. Lagrangian & Eulerian descriptions

 Lagrangian & Eulerian frameworks

Lagrangian point of view

Description of the fluid’s motion via the motion of given material points
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We track a given fluid particle x = f (X, t)

(its position changes in time) Current Ref./Initial
position position

Eulerian point of view

Description of the fluid’s property at a fixed geometric point
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The velocity is measured at a fixed point u(x, t)

Geometric
(the corresponding fluid particle is changing
point
in time)
 Characterising an evolution in time
Example: temperature field
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Eulerian framework: ⇥(x, t) Temperature at a fixed point x

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@⇥ Change in temperature observed at a

Local derivative
@t x given position x

(NOT the same particle at all times)

Fluid Mechanics approach

Temperature of a moving fluid

Ti (t) = ⇥(Xi (t), t)
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Lagrangian framework: particle of trajectory Xi(t)

dTi Change in temperature seen by a moving

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Material derivative fluid particle

dt (same fluid particle at all time)
Quantity needed for applying the laws of physics
(Reminder: they are valid for material systems)

Can we compute material derivatives from the Eulerian fields?

 Local vs. material derivatives
Définition: rate of change of a physical quantity associated with a given fluid particle

Here, the temperature field varies both in space AND time:

what is the rate of change seen by a moving fluid particle?

Temperature of a fluid particle moving along a trajectory X(t):

T (t) = ⇥(X(t), t) = ⇥(X(t), Y (t), Z(t), t)
<latexit sha1_base64="P90Ka/ZR+7czFIs/VAY3Dgshe54=">AAACt3icdZHfatswFMZlb/2zdO2y7HI3ZmGQQgh2WbvmYtBuN7vsIGnTxSHI8nEiKsuudDwIQm+0F+p77AEmuymsbXZA8PE7n3TEd5JScI1heOf5L15ube/svmrtvd4/eNN+27nURaUYjFkhCjVJqAbBJYyRo4BJqYDmiYCr5OZb3b/6BUrzQo5wVcIspwvJM84oOjRv/zZx84hRkNo4p7hkVJiRtT08/PLQS0QFNh4tAantNaYkM5Pa0v+fa9J7wPlqoQCkRXvYv95If26kG9i83Q0HYVPBcxGtRZes62Le/hOnBatykMgE1XoahSXODFXImQDbiisNJWU3dAFTJyXNQc9MM9cGHx1Jg6xQ7kgMGvrvDUNzrVd54px1JPppr4abetMKs9OZ4bKsECS7H5RVIsAiqFcUpFwBQ7FygjLF3V8DtqSKMnSLbMUpZG7Zj8MxapFYE/YHx/3Qupiip6E8F5dHg+hkEP341D0brgPbJe/JB9IjEflMzsh3ckHGhHkd79Q79776Q3/uZ/7y3up76zvvyKPyb/8C6WTcgA==</latexit>

Time appears in 4 different places!

Let’s take the time derivative of both sides of the previous equation
dT @⇥ @⇥ @⇥ @⇥
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Temperature
Material derivative = + Ẋ(t) + Ẏ (t) + Ż(t)
(temperature change for dt @t @x @y @z gradient
the moving particle)
Local change Particle velocity
 Local vs. material derivatives
dT @⇥ @⇥ @⇥ @⇥
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= + Ẋ(t) + Ẏ (t) + Ż(t)

dt @t @x @y @z

Particle
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✓ ◆ velocity
Material derivative dT @⇥
(temperature change for = + Ẋ(t) · r⇥(x, t)
the moving particle)
dt @t x Temperature
Local
gradient
derivative

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Definition of the Eulerian velocity u(X(t), t) = Ẋ(t)

Velocity of the fluid particle passing by that point

Local
derivative Eulerian Temperature
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✓ ◆ velocity gradient
Material derivative dT @⇥ D⇥
(temperature change for = + u(x, t) · r⇥(x, t) ⌘
the moving particle) dt @t x Dt
| {z }
Eulerian quantities only!
Material derivative
of the Eulerian field
 Local vs. material derivatives
Définition: rate of change of a physical quantity associated with a given fluid particle

Here, the temperature field varies both in space AND time:

what is the rate of change seen by a moving fluid particle?

✓
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◆
@⇥
Local derivative Change in temperature at a fixed point x
@t x

Local derivative
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✓ ◆
D⇥ @⇥ Convective derivative
Material derivative = + u · r⇥ (associated with the motion of the
Dt @t x particle in the non-uniform field)
Change in temperature following
the moving fluid particle
 Fluid particle acceleration

Acceleration: rate of change of velocity

Acceleration of a fluid particle: material derivative of the Eulerian velocity u

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✓ ◆
Du Dux Duy Duz
a(x, t) = (x, t) = , ,
Dt Dt Dt Dt

Local acceleration
@u
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a(x, t) = + (u · r)u Convective acceleration

@t (due to velocity gradients)

The acceleration of fluid particles may

@u
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Steady flows () =0 still be non-zero! (non-uniform flows)

@t
a = (u ⋅ ∇)u ≠ 0
 Description of a fluid’s motion
Trajectory (Lagrange)
Successive positions of a given fluid particle as time progresses
(fixed) (varies)
(bouncing ping pong ball)

@x
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= u(x, t), x(t = 0) = X.

@t

Streaklines (Lagrange)
Instantaneous positions of fluid particles that have passed through a particular
observation point at a prior instant
emission
time
@x
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= u(x, t), x(t = t0 < tf ) = X.

@t
observation
time
 Characterisation of the fluid motion
Streamlines (Euler)
At a fixed instant, streamlines are the set of lines that are tangent to the velocity vector
everywhere.

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u(x, t)

@x
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⇥ u(x, t) = 0.
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Local Flow
tangent velocity

Steady flows: for permanent (= steady) flows, all three families are identical.
 Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics I)

III. Transport & deformation of fluid particles

 III. Transport & deformation of fluid particles
1. Transport of a material volume - an example
What happens to a fluid particle in a non-uniform fluid flow?

Stretching/
Translation deformation

Rotation
 Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics I)

III. Transport & deformation of fluid particles

2. Two-dimensional flows
 Simple elongation (1D)
y
A A′ B B′
u(x)δt
δly ⟹ u = u(x)ex
u(x + δlx)δt
D D′ C C′
δlx Accelerating flow
x
Obervations:
- Segments ∥ to the flow are stretched: u(A) < u(B) ⇒ lAB ↗
- Segments ⊥ to the flow remain unchanged: u(A) = u(D) ⇒ lAB = const .

How can we quantify a change in a material vector? And a change in length?

d d ∂u
E.g.: (AB) = (rB − rA) = u(B) − u(A) ≈ δlx
dt dt ∂x
2 ·
δlx = AB ⋅ AB ⟶ δlxδlx = (u(B) − u(A)) ⋅ AB ·
⟶ δlx = (u(B) − u(A)) ⋅ ex
A change in velocity along the flow direction stretches/compresses dimensions
 Velocity gradient
Material vectors / lengths are modified by velocity gradients (spatial derivatives)

Velocity gradient matrix ∂ux ∂ux

⟶ Line vector: ∇ux
∂x ∂y
∇u =
∂uy ∂uy
Matrix
∂x ∂y
(2D array)
∂u
Column vector:
∂x

General transport of a material vector

B d A close to B
uBδt (δl) = uB − uA ≈ ( ∇ux ⋅ δl)ex + ( ∇uy ⋅ δl)ey
uAδt dt
δl(t + δt)
δl(t) d
(δl) = ∇u ⋅ δl
A dt
δl = rB − rA
 Velocity gradient

d
(δl) ≈ ∇u ⋅ δl
dt

Velocity gradient matrix ∂ux ∂ux A A′ B B′

∂x ∂y u(x)δt
∇u = u(x + δlx)δt
∂uy ∂uy D D′ C C′
∂x ∂y Accelerating flow

Stretching /
compression of
fluid particles
 Velocity gradient

d
(δl) ≈ ∇u ⋅ δl
dt

Velocity gradient matrix ∂ux ∂ux

∂x ∂y
∇u =
∂uy ∂uy
∂x ∂y

Interpretation of the off-

diagonal components?
 Simple shear flow (2D)
y A A′ B B′
u(y + δly)δt α
δly Shear flow
u(y)δt
D D′ C C′ ⟹ u = u(y)ex
δlx
Obervations: x ∂ux
- Segments ∥ to the flow remain unchanged: u(A) = u(B)
0
∇u = ∂y
- Segments ⊥ to the flow are rotated: u(A) > u(D) ⇒ α>0
0 0

ux(D) − ux(A) ∂ux

Can we quantify the rotation? α ≈ tan α ≈ − δt ≈ − δt
δly ∂y
Off-diagonal components of ∇u result in the rotation of material vectors.
= 0 if δl ∥ ex

(0 0)
d 0 γ·
Rotation is different depending on δl : (δl) = ⋅ δl = ∇u ⋅ δl
dt
≠ 0 if δl ∥ ey
 General 2D flow

We can always decompose ∇u into its symmetric/antisymmetric parts:

1 1
∇u = ( ∇u + ∇u ) + ( ∇u − ∇uT)
T
2 2

d: Strain rate W: Antisymmetric matrix

(Ω 0 )
Local 0 −Ω
W=
stretching/compression
∀x, W ⋅ x = Ω × x
Local rotation rate Ω = Ωez

Note: the strain rate matrix d is symmetric

⟶ in a well-chosen normal basis (x̃, ỹ), it is diagonal (pure compression/stretching)

dx̃x̃ 0
( 0 dỹỹ)
dx̃x̃: stretching/compression along x̃
d=
dỹỹ: stretching/compression along ỹ
 Vorticity

Definition: vorticity is the curl of the velocity field ω=∇×u

∂uy∂ux
For a 2D flow, ω = ωzez with ωz = −
∂x ∂y

(1 0 ) 2
1 0 −1 ωz
Rotation matrix W: W = ( ∇u − ∇u ) =
T
2
ω
⟹ ∀x, W ⋅ x = × x
2

Vorticity quantifies the local rotation of fluid particles on themselves.

The rotation rate is equal to half of the vorticity.
 Generalization to 3D flows
(All of this is easily generalized to 3D — see class notes on Moodle!)

∂ux ∂ux ∂ux

⟶ ∇ux ωz ωy
∂x ∂y ∂z 0 − 2 2
∂uy ∂uy ∂uy ωz ωx
∇u = ⟶ ∇uy W= 2
0 − 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
ωy ωx
∂uz ∂uz ∂uz − 0
⟶ ∇uz 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
ω
W⋅x= ×x
2
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
 Volume change
z
δly
δlx
·
δlz y δ𝒱 = δlx × δly × δlz ⟶ 𝒱?

x
· ∂ux · ∂uy · ∂uz
Remember! δlx = δlx, δly = δly, δlz = δlz
∂x ∂y ∂z
· · · ·
δ 𝒱 δl x δl y δl z ∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
= + + = + + ,
δ𝒱 δlx δly δlz ∂x ∂y ∂z

·
δ𝒱
=∇⋅u ∇⋅u quantifies changes in volume of the fluid particles.
δ𝒱
If ∇ ⋅ u = 0, there is NO volume change (incompressible flows).
Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics I)

IV. Conservation of mass

 Conservation of mass

1. Mass flux

(Σ) δV: location of the fluid particles

u(x, t) crossing the elementary surface dS
uδt between t and t + δt?
n
δV = (uδt) ⋅ (ndS)
dS
δm = (ρu) ⋅ dS δt
δV
j = ρu : Mass flux vector
 Conservation of mass
2. Impermeable surface
j = ρu : Mass flux vector

Fixed surface: No mass flux ⟺ δm = j ⋅ dSδt = 0 ⟺ u⋅n=0

Impermeability condition

Moving surface: what matters is the relative velocity u(x, t)−U(x, t) Local surface
velocity

No mass flux ⟺ (u − U) ⋅ n = 0 ⟺ u⋅n=U⋅n

Impermeability condition
 Conservation of mass
3. Mass conservation
Consider a material volume (fluid particle) δV of (constant) mass

Mass of fluid particle: δm = ρ δV = constant

1 d
Volume change: (δV ) = ∇ ⋅ u
δV dt
· d dρ
δm = 0 ⟺ 0 = ρ (δV ) + δV
dt dt
Change of density following a given fluid particle
Dρ
⟹ Material derivative
Dt

Dρ ∂ρ
+ ρ( ∇ ⋅ u) = 0 ⟺ + ∇ ⋅ (ρu) = 0
Dt ∂t
Local mass conservation equation
 Conservation of mass
4. Incompressible flows

A flow is incompressible if the fluid particles do not change in volume (or density)

Dρ
⟹ =0 ⟺ ∇⋅u=0
Dt
Equation of continuity

U fluid velocity
Validity: M ≪ 1 with M= =
c Sound velocity
 Description a fluid’s motion
(Kinematics II)

V. Incompressible flows, streamlines & streamfunctions

 Streamlines & streamtubes
𝒮lat Streamlines
n u⋅n=0
n
𝒮out u
u 𝒱
𝒮lat Incompressibility
𝒮in
n ∫𝒱 ∮𝒮
∇⋅u=0 ⟹ ∇ ⋅ u dV = 0 = u ⋅ n dS
n

∫𝒮 ∫𝒮
On streamlines u ⋅ n = 0 on 𝒮lat ⟹ u ⋅ n dS + u ⋅ n dS = 0
in out

𝒬in = 𝒬out =−𝒬in =𝒬out

For incompressible flows, the volume flux of a streamtube is independent

∫𝒮
of the cross-section considered 𝒬= u ⋅ n dS
Streamfunctions (2D incompressible flows)
For 2D flows, u = ux(x, y)ex + uy(x, y)ey

∂ux ∂uy
∇⋅u=0 ⟺ + =0 ux and uy are not independent!
∂x ∂y
∂ψ ∂ψ
⟺ ux = , uy = −
∂y ∂x

Property: the streamfunction ψ(x, y) is constant along a streamline

(e.g. impermeable surface)
Proof: u = ez × ∇ψ ⟹ u ⋅ ∇ψ = 0
⟹ ψ is constant along the direction of u

Examples: i) ψ = Uy ⟹ u = Uex Uniform flow

· 2
γy
ii) ψ = ⟹ ·
u = γye x Pure shear flow
2