UNIT

1 Electrical Heating

CONTENTS
Part-1: Advantages of Electrical Heating.......1.20 to 1-4C
Part-2 : Methods of Electrical Heating 1-4C to 1-4C

Part-3 : Resistance Heating 1-4C to 1-10C

Part-4 : Electric Arc Heating 1-10C to 1-17C

Part-5 : Induction Heating 1-17Cto 1-28C

Part-6 : Dielectric Heating ....1-28C to 1-33C

1-1C (EN-Sem-7)
1-2 C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating

PART-1

Electrical Heating.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What are the purposes of electrical heating ?

Answer
1. Domestic purposes :
i. Hot plates for cooking
Room heaters
ii. Immersion heaters for water heating
iv. Electric irons
V. Electric toasters.
2. Industrial purposes :
Melting of metals
Heat treatment processes
i. Moulding of glass
iv. Making of insulators
V. Enamelling of copper wires.
Que 1.2. What are the advantages of electrical heating?

Answer
Advantages :
1 The electric heating system is free from dirt. It is a clean system requiring
minimum cost of cleaning.
2. The system does not produce any flue gas. Since no flue gases are
produced in electric heating, no provision has to be made for their exit.
3. Simple and accurate temperature control can be made either by manual
or fully automatic switches.
4. Electric heating is economical as electric furnaces are cheaper in initial
cost as wellin maintenance cost.
5. Automatic protection against overcurrents or overheating can be
provided through suitable switchgears.
6. Special type of heating can be done very accurately by electric heating
system.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-3C (EN-Sem-7)

Que 1.3. Describe the modes of heat transfer.

OR
Explain
i.
briefly the following modes of heat transfer :
Conduction
ii. Convection
iii. Radiation.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
OR
What are different methods of heat transfer and
under what
conditions heat transfer by radiation is efficient.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
OR
What are the various methods of heat transfer and
what are the
advantages of electrically produced heat over the other methods ?
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
A Heat transfer: It is defined as the transmission of energy from one
region to another as a result of temperature gradient takes place by the
following three modes:
Conduction : Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a
substance to another part of the same substance, or from one substance
toanother in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement
of molecules forming the substance.
b. Convection :
1 Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion
of the fluid with another.
2 Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with
the transport of a fluid moving in space cause the heat exchange.
Ce Radiation:
1. Radiation is the transfer of heat through space or matter by means
other than conduction or convection.
2. Radiation heat is same as that of electromagnetic waves.
3. Condition :

i. Heat dissipation, H=5.67 x npad e W/m' ..(1.3.1)

100
where, T, = Temperature of source
T, = Temperature of substance
M,ad = Radiant efficiency
e= Emissivity.
14C (EN-Sem-7)
Electrical Heating
of
ii.From Eq. (1.3.1), the radiant heat is proportional to the difference
fourth power of the temperature. So at high temperature it is very
efficient heating.
1-2C, Unit-1.
B. Advantage of electrical heating:Refer Q. 1.2, Page
PART-2

Methods of Electrical Heating.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 14. Name various methods of electrical heating.

Answer
A. Power frequency heating :
1. Resistance heating :
Direct resistance heating
b Indirect resistance heating
2. Arc heating :
a. Direct arc heating
b. Indirect arc heating
B. High frequency heating:
1 Dielectric heating
2 Infrared heating
3. Induction heating:
Coreless type induction heating
b. Direct core-type induction heating:
Direct core
Vertical core
ii. Indirect core
iv. TAMA furnace

PART-3

Resistance Heating.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-5C (EN-Sem-7)

Que 1.5. What isresistance heating ? Explain any one type.

Answer
A. Resistance heating: This method of heating is based upon TR effect
and has wide applications such as heat treatment of metals (e.g.,
annealing, normalising, hardening, tempering etc.), drying and baking
of potteries, domestic cooking etc.
B. Following are the two methods of heating:
a.
Indirect resistance heating.
b. Direct resistance
heating:
In this method the material or charge to be heated is treated as a
and current is passed through it. resistance
ii. The charge may be in the
form of powder, small solid pieces or
The electrodes are inserted in the charge and connected to eitherliquid.
AC or
DC supply.
ii. In case ofDCor
single-phase AC supply two electrodes will be
while in case of 3-phase supply three electrodes will be used. required,
iv. When the charge is in the form of small pieces, a
powder ofhigh resistivity
material is sprinkled over the surface of the charge to avoid short circuit.
Heat is produced when current passes through it.
V. This method of heating has high efficiency because the heat is
in the charge itself. produced
vi. This heating method is employed in :
a.
Resistance welding
b. Electrode boiler for heating water.
C. Salt bath furnaces.

Que 1.6. Explain indirect resistance heating.

Answer
1 In this method the current is passed
through a high resistance wire
known as heating element.
2 The heat produced due to TR loss in the element is
transmitted to the
body to be heated by one or more modes ofheat transfer viz. conduction,
convection and radiation.
3. This method of heating is used in:
i. Room heaters.
Bimetallic strips used in starters.
ii. Immersion water heaters.
iv. Various types of resistance ovens used in
domestic and commercial
cooking.
V. For industrial purposes, where a large amount of charge is to be
heated.
1-6C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating

Que 1.7. What are the properties of good heating elements ? And
also give the factors responsible for its failure.
OR
State and explain advantages of electrically produced heat. What
elements ?
are the essential properties of resistance heating
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Advantages of electrically produced heat : Refer
Q. 1.2, Page 1-2C,
Unit-1.
B. Properties of a good heating element :
1. High specific resistance.
2. High melting temperature.
3. Low temperature coefficient of resistance.
4. High oxidising temperature.
5. Positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
6. High ductility and flexibility.
7. High mechanical strength.
C. Every heating element, with passage of time, breaks open and becomes
unserviceable. Some of the factors responsible for this failure are:
1. Formation of hot spots which shine brighter during operation.
2. Oxidation.
3. Corrosion.
4. Mechanical failure.
Que 1.8. Which materials are used for heating elements ?

Answer
1. The materials commonly employed for low and medium temperature
services are:
Alloy of nickel and chromium (Ni = 80 %, Cr = 20 %)
or, Alloy of nickel, chromium and iron (Ni = 65 %; Cr = 15 %,
Fe = 20%).
2. For operating temperatures above 1150 °C resistors are made of silicon
carbide, molybdenum, tungsten and graphite.
i Silicon carbide is the basis of a resistor material for operating in air for
temperatures upto about 1500 °C.
ü. Molybdenum resistors are suitable for temperatures upto 1650 °C.
ii. Tungsten resistors can be employed for temperatures upto 2000 °C.
iv. Graphite resistors are suitable for any temperature that can be used.
Que 1.9. Explain designing of heating elements.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-7C (EN-Sem-7)
Answer
1. The
heating elements are normally made of wires of
section or rectangular circular cross
2.
Under steady-state conducting ribbons.
heat from its surfaceconditions,
a heating element
as it receives the power from
dissipates as much
the
3 IfP is
the power input and H is the heat electric supply.
P=Hunder steady-state conditions. dissipated by radiation, then
4. Heat radiated by a body, as per
Stefan's law of radiation, is given by
4 4
H- 5.67 nrad e W/ m2 .(1.9.1)
100 100,
where, n. = Radiating efficiency,
e= Emissivity,
T= Temperature of hot body, K
T, = Temperature of cold body (or cold
surroundings), K.
5. Now, R= pl pl4pl
4

As, P=
R

P=
4pl 4pl ..(1.9.2)

4pP ...(1.9.3)
6 IfHis the heat dissipated by radiation per second per unit surface area
of the wire, then,
Heat radiated per second = (rd) x lx H-P ...(1.9.4)
7. From eq. (1.9.2) and (1.9.4), we get

-= (d) x lxH
4pl
d 4pH
..(1.9.5)
2 y2
8. From eq. (1.9.3) and (1.9.5), we can find the values of l and d.
Que 1.10. Six resistance each of 502 are used in aresistance oven.
How much power is drawn if supply is 400 VAC single phase and the
connections are :
i. Six groups are in parallel, each of one resistance unit,
ii Three groups in parallel, each of two resistance units in series.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
 Electrical Heating
1-8C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
(400)2 =3200 W
i Power by each resistor = VR = 50
For six resistor in parallel,
P= 6x 3200 = 19200 W
(400) = 1600 W
in series = V/2R =
i. Power for two resistor 2 x 50

For three unit, P= 1600 x 3 = 4800 W

A resistance oven employing nichrome wire is to be

Que 1.11. kW.
from 220 V single phase supply and is to be rated at 16 and
operated limited to 1170 °C
the temperature of the element is to be diameter and
If charge is 500 °C, find the
average temperature of the 0.57,
the element wire. Radiating efficiency
length of nichrome = 1.09 x 10 --m.
Emissivity = 0.9, Specific resistance of
Answer
273+ 1170 = 1443 K;
Given : V= 220 V;P= 16 kW; T, =
= 0.9; p= 1.09 x 106 2-m.
T= 273+ 500 = 773 K; n..= 0.57; e
To Find :l, d.
nX 2202
1. We know that,
4pP 4 x 1.09 x 10- x (16 x 10).
= 2179660
...(1.11.1)

2. Now, H= 5.67 nrad 100

4
1443 773
5.67 x 0.57x 0.9
100 100
= 115729 W/m?
3. Now,total heat dissipated/sec =Electrical power input
(Trd) x lx 115729 = 16000 ...(1.11.2)
dl = 0.044
d = 0.001936 ...(1.11.3)

4. Multiplying eq. (1.11.1) and (1.11.3),we have

1 = 2179660 x 0.001936
l= 16.16 m.
5. Putting value in eq. (1.11.2),
0.044 = 2.723x 10 - m = 2.723 mm
d=
16.16
 Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction
1-9C (EN-Sem-7)
Que 1.12. Six resistances, each of 60
ohms, are used in a resistance
oven how much power is drawn for the
a. Supply is 400 V, AC and following connections :
in delta fashion. three-phase supply, they are connected
Two resistance units in parallel in each branch.
ii. Two resistance units in series in each
b. Supply is 400V and three-phase while phase.
the connection is a star
combination of :
i. Two resistance elements in
ii. TwO resistance elements in series each phase.
in
C. If the supply is a 25 %
parallel in each phase.
tapping with an auto-transformer, then
what will be the output of the oven with
conditions ? respect to above
Answer
a Since in delta fashion, line voltage = Phase voltage = 400 V:
i. The power consumed by the each branch
y² (400
P= =5,333.34 W.
R 30
The power consumed by the three units is
P=3x 5,333.34 =16,000 W
ii. The power consumed by the each unit, when they are connected in
series is
(400)2
P= = 1,333.34 W
R 60 + 60
The power consumed by the three units is
P= 1333.34 x 3 = 4,000 W
b. For the star connection, V, = J3 V, :
400
V,
ph =
-=230.94 V
V3
i. The power consumed by the two resistors in series is
P=
y² (230.94)
R 60 + 60
P= 444.44 W
The power consumed by the three units is
P= 444.44 x 3 = 1,333.33 W
ii. The power consumed by the two resistors in parallel is
(230.94)²
P=
30
P= 1,777.77 W
The power consumed by the three units in series is
P=3x1,777.77 = 5,333.32 W
1-10C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating

C. The power is proportional to the square of the voltage. Hence, the

voltage is 25 %so that, the power loss will be /16th of the values obtained
as above.

Que 1.13. A 27 kW, 3-phase, 400 V resistance oven is to employ

nickel chrome strip 0.25 mm thick for the three star connected heating
elements. If the temperature of the strip is to be 1000° C and that of
Assume
the charge be 600 °C, estimate a suitable width for the strip. of
emissivity = 0.9 and radiating efficiency to be 0.5 and resistivity
the strip material is 1.016 x 10 -6 Q-m.
Answer

400
Given : P =
27 =9kW: V, =231 V;t=0.25 mm =0.25 x 10-3 m
ph
3 V3
T, =273+ 1000 = 1273 K; T, = 273 + 600 = 873 K; e = 0.9; n., = 0.5;
p= 1.016 x 10 -6 2-m.
To Find:w.
1. IfR isthe resistance of the strip, then
(231)²
R= ph - =5.93 S
P 9x103

2. Resistance of the strip, R = 5.93 = pl_pl

wt
5.93 x (0.25 x 10) = 1467.8 ...(1.13.1)
1.01 x 10 -6
3 Heat dissipated from surface of the strip,
4

H= 5.67 nad e T,
100 100.

1273) 873
= 5.67 x 0.5 x 0.9
100 100
= 52185 W/m²
4. Surface area of the strip = 2 wl
Total heat dissipated = 2 wl x 52185 = 9 x 109
wl = 0.0862 ...(1.13.2)
5. Inserting the value of l(= 1467.8 w) in eq. (1.13.2) from eq. (1.13.1), we
get
wx 1467.8 w= 0.0862
w=7.66 x 10 - m or 7.66 mm

PART-4

Electric Are Heating.

 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-11C(EN-Sem-7)

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions

Que 1.14. Explain electric arc

heating.
Answer
1. On the application of high voltage across an air
gets ionized under the influence of gap, the air in the gap
electrostatic forces and becomes
2.
conducting medium.
Current flows in the form of a continuous spark, called
electrodes are made of carbon/graphite, the temperaturethe arc. When
obtained
is in
the range of 3000 °Cto 3500 °C.
3 The high voltage required for striking an arccan be
step-up transformer fed from a variable AC supply. obtained by using a
4. An arc can also be obtained by using low
voltage across two electrodes
initially in contact with each other.
5. The low voltage required for this purpose can be
step-down transformer. obtained by using a
6 Initially, the low voltage is applied, when the two electrodes are in
contact with each other.
7 Further, when the two electrodes are gradually separated from each
other, an is
arc established between the two.
Que 1.15. Explain the types of electrodes used in arc
furnace.
Answer
A. Carbon electrodes:
1 These electrodes are used with
small furnaces for manufacture of ferro
alloys, aluminium, calcium carbide,
phosphorus et.
2. These are made of anthracite coal and coke.
3. These are very cheap and cost less than one half as much for
same
weight as graphite electrod:s.
4. The large area of carbon lectrodes allows for more
uniform heating.
B. Graphite electrodes:
1. These electrodes are obte
ined by heating the carbon electrodes to a very
high temperature.
2. Owing to lower resistivity of graphite (one fourth that of
is required halfin size for the same current resulting in carbon), graphite
3
easy replacement.
Graphite begins to oxidize at about 600 °C whereas carbon at about
400 °C. Under average conditions the consumption of graphiteelectrodes
is about one half that of carbon electrodes.
1-12 C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating

C. Self-baking electrodes:
1. These electrodes are employed in ferro-alloys and electro-chemical
furnaces and in electrolytic production of aluminium.
2 These electrodes are made of special paste, whose composition depends
upon the types of process for which it is used, contained in thin steel
cylinder. The flow of current produces heat and the paste is baked and
formed into an electrode.
Que 1.16. Name the types of arc furnaces and explain any one.

Answer
Types of arc furnace :
Indirect arc furnace
i Submerged arc furnace
iüi. Direct arc furnace:
and the
1. In this type offurnace arc is formed between the two electrodes
charge in such a way that electric current passes through the body of
the charge. Such furnaces produce very high temperatures.
2. Fig. l.16.1 shows 1-phase direct arc furnace. Fig. 1.16.2 shows a 3-phase
direct arc type furnace.
Electrodes

Arc

Heating
Charge:: chamber

Fig. 1.16.1. 1-phase direct arc furnace.

3. Both of them consist of a circular steel casting lined inside with refractory
material. The roof is removable and a spare is usually kept for rapid
replacement.
4. The roof in 3¢direct arc furnace is provided with three holes through
which electrodes are passed. The electrodes may be of graphite or
amorphous carbon.
5. The graphite has double the conductivity and will carry 2.5 times the
current.
6 Hence, the graphite electrodes are usually about two third the diameter
of amorphous carbon electrodes.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-13 C (EN-Sem-7)

Electrodes

Charging door
Arc

Fig. 1.16.2. 3-phase direct arc furnace.

7. To maintain a desired length of arc the electrodes are raised and lowered
individually by electric motors operated by automatic regulators.
8. The voltage between steel and elecirodes may be 40-145 volts; the longer
the arc, higher the voltage required a.i the less the input of heat to the
furnace.
9. Electric power is supplied in bulk in the form of three-phas alternating
current at 6.6 or 10 kV.

10. Atransformer set up close to the furnace reduces the voltage down to
that required for the arcs and its primary windings having tappings to
allow for adjustments to the arc voltage.
11. As the power supply is a three phase circuit, three electrodes are arranged
in an equilateral triangle over the metal.
12. Owing to low voltage required by the arc, the current must be very high
to obtain the desired output. It operates at a power about 0.8 lagging.
Que 1.17. Discuss indirect arcfurnace.
Answer
1. In an indirect arc furnace arc is formed between two electrodes above
the charge and heat is transmitted to the charge by radiation.
2. Fig. 1.17.1 shows a single-phase indirect arc furnace which is cylindrical
in shape.
3. The arc is struck by short-circuiting the electrodes manually or
automatically for a moment and then, withdrawing them apart.
4. The heat from the arc and the hot refractory lining is transferred to the
top layer of the charge by radiation.
1-14C (EN-Sem-7)
Electrical Heating
Steel
shell
Arc

Electrode Electrode
Charge
Supply

Rocking
wheels
Fig. 1.17.1. Indirect arc furnace.
5. The heat from the hot top layer of the charge is further transferred to
other parts by conduction.
6 In this type of furnace, since no current passes through the body of the
charge, there is no inherent stirring action due to electromagnetic forces
setup by the current.
7. Hence such furnaces have to be rocked continuously in order to distribute
heat uniformly by exposing different layers of the charge to the heat of
the arc.
8. An electric motor is employed tooperate suitable grinders and rollers to
impart rocking motion to the furnace.
9. Rocking motion provides not only thorough mixing of the charge, it also
increases the furnace efficiency in addition to increasing the life of the
refractory lining material.
Que 1.18. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of direct and
indirect electric arc furnaces. AKTU2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
A. Advantages of indirect arc furnace :
1. Lower overall production cost per tonne of molten metal.
2 Sound castings in thin and intricate designs can be produced.
3. Metal losses due to oxidation and volatilization are quite low.
4. Flexible in operation.
B. Disadvantage of indirect arc furnace:
1. Charge can be heated by radiation only.
2. Its temperature is lower than that obtainable in a direct arc furnace.
C. Advantage of direct arc furnace: Purer product is obtained and
composition can be exactly controlled during refining process.
D. Disadvantage of direct arc furnace : This furnace is employed for
melting and refining but due to higher cost its use is restricted to refining
than melting.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-15 C (EN-Sem-7)

Que 1.19. What is submerged arc furnace?

Answer
1. Asubmerged arc furnace is a
cylindrical
between the carbon electrodes (from thefurnace
in which arc is formed
top) and hearth electrodes.
2. The hearth lining is of magnetite which
electrical conductor when hot. becomes comparatively good
3. It is also mixed with coke or graphite.
used as electrode. Sometimes a conducting hearth is
4. The number of electrodes taken from the roof
depends on the type of
supply.
5. One for 1-phase, two or four for 2-phase and three for
bottom conductor being connected to the neutral. 3-phase supply,
6. The current from the top electrode passes through the arc to
and returns through the electrode at the bottom of the the charge
7. charge.
Power is controlled by varying distance between electrodes or by
the voltage applied to the electrodes. varying
8. In this type of furnace better distributed heating is
behaves as the resistance. obtained since charge
9. Similarly, better mixing of charge takes place. The current under short
circuit is limited due tocharge, which otherwise in indirect furnace is
very high.
10. The power factor is about 0.8 lagging.
11. These furnaces are used for the manufacture of
ferro-alloy like
ferrochrome and ferro-manganese.
Que 1.20. The following data relate to a 4-phase electricarc furnace:
Current drawn= 4000 A
Arc voltage = 60 V
Resistance of transformer referred to secondary = 0.0025 2
Reactance of transformer referred to secondary = 0.0050Q
i. Caleulate the power factor and kW drawn from the supply.
ii. Ifthe overall efficiency of the furnace is 70 percent, find the time
required to melt 2.5 tonnes of steel if latent heat of steel
=37.2 kJ/ kg, specific heat of steel =0.5 kJ /kg K, melting point
of steel= 1370° Cand initial temperature of steel = 15 °C.

Answer
1 Voltage drop due to transformer resistance =4000 x 0.0025 = 10V
2 Voltage drop due to transformer reactance = 4000 x 0.0050 = 20 V
3. Since arc voltage drop is resistive in nature, it is vectorially added to the
transformer reactance drop.
4 Open circuit transformer secondary voltage/phase
= J(60 +10) + 202 =72.8 V
1-16 C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating
i. Power factor and kW drawn by supply :
(60 + 10)
1. Power factor of supply = =0.9615
72.8
2. Power drawn / phase by the secondary = 4000 x 72.8 x 0.9615
= 2799.88 W 280 kW
3. Total power drawn =3 x 280 = 840 kW
ii. Energy required to melt 2.5 tonnes of steel:
1 Energy required to melt 2.5 tonnes of steel
where, c and L are specific heat
= m xcx (t, -t,) + mL and latent heat of steel respectively
= (2,5 x 1000) × 0.5 x (1370 - 15) + (2.5 x 1000) × 37.2
= 1786750kJ or 496.32 kWh
2 Power actually utilized = 840 x n = 840 x 0.7 588 kW
496.32
3. Time required for melting steel = 588 =0.844 h or 50 min, 38 sec.

Que 121. If a 3-phase arc furnace is to melt 10 tonnes of steel in

2hours, estimate the average input to the furnace, if overall
efficiency is 50 percent. If the current input is 9000 A with the above
kW input and the resistance and reactance of furnace leads
(incuding transformer) are 0.003 9 and 0.005 l respectively, estimate
the arc voltage and total kVA taken from the supply.
Specific heat of steel = 0.444 kJ /kg°C;
Latent heat of fusion of steel =37.25 kJ/ kg
Melting point of steel = 1370 °C.
Assume initial temperature of steel = 20°C.

Answer

Given : m =10 tonnes = 10000 kg; Time =2 hours; n =50 %; I= 9000 A;

R= 0.0039, X= 0.005 2; c = 0.444 kJ/kg °C; L= 37.25 kJ/kg; Melting
point =1370 °C;Initial temperature of steel =20 °C.
To Find:Average input, are voltage and total KVA.
Average input to thefurnace:
1. Energy required to melt 10 tonnes of steel
= m xc x (t, -t,) + mL
=m [c (t, - t,) +L]
= 10000 [0.444 (1370 - 20)+ 37.25] =6366500 kJ = 1768.5 kWh
Total energy in kWh 1768.5
2. Average output = Time of melting in hours = 884.25 kW
2
Output 884.25
.:. Average input = = 1768.5 kW
0.5
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-17C (EN-Sem-7)
3. Voltage drop due to resistance of furnace leads (including transformer)
=9000 x 0.003 = 27 V
4. Voltage drop due to reactance of furnace leads (including transformer)
= 9000 x 0.005 = 45 V
5. Let the arc drop be V,A volts, resistive in
nature.
V

45 V

V
A 27V
Fig. 1.21.1.
6. In Fig. 1.21.1, open circuit phase voltage of transformer seeondary
/V, +27) +(45)²
7. Power factor, cos V, +27
=
V(V, +27 +(45)
8. Total power input =3x Power drawn per phase
=3x Current drawn per phase x Secondary phase voltage x pf
1768.5 x 1000 = 3 x 9000 x Jv, +27) +(45) x (V,A +27)
VV, +27) +(45)²
1768.5 x 1000
V,A +27 = 3 x 900 = 65.5 V

:. Arc voltage, V, = 65.5- 27 =38.5 V

9. Open circuit phase voltage (secondary)
=J(V, + 27) +(45)² =J(38.5 +27)' + (45) =79.5 V
10. Total kVA taken from the supply
= 3 x 79.5 x 9000 × 10 -3= 2146.5kVA.

PART-5
Induction Heating.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

 Electrical Heating
1-18C(EN-Sem-7)

Que 1.22. Explain induction heating.

OR
advantages.
What is induction heating ? Define its applications and
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Induction heating :
the currents induced by
1 The process of induction heating makes use of heated.
the electromagnetic action in the charge to be
2. Induction heating, in fact, is based on the
principle of transformer
working.
3. The primary winding which is supplied from
an ACsource is magnetically
secondary of a
coupled to the charge which acts as a short-circuited
single turn.
induces voltage in the
4. When AC voltage is applied to the primary, it
secondary i.e., charge.
5. The secondary current heats up the charge in the
same way as any
electric does while passing through a resistance.
6. If V is the voltage induced in the charge and R is
the resistance of the
charge, then heat produced= V2T/R.
of the
7. So to develop heat sufficient to melt the charge, the resistancevoltage
charge must be low, which is possible only with metals, and
must be higher, which is obtained by employing higher flux and higher
frequency.
Magnetic materials, therefore, can be easly treated than non-magnetic
8.
materials because of their higher permeability.
B. Advantages :
1. Fast and simple operation
2 Simple control
3. High efficiency
4. High power factor.
C. Applications :
1. Steel production
2 Melting of non-ferrous material
3 Casting.
Que 1.23. What are the types of induction furnace ? Explain any
one.

Answer
Types of induction furnaces :
A Coreless type furnace.
B. Core type or low freguency induction furnace :
1. TAMA furnace
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-19 C (EN-Sem-7)
.
ii.
Vertical core type
Indirect core type
iv. Direct core type:
1. Adirect core type induction
furnace is
a transformer in which charge to shown in Fig.1.23.1. It consists of
be heated forms a single-turn
short-circuited secondary and is magnetically coupled to the primary by
iron core.
2. The furnace consists of a circular hearth
be melted in the form of an which contains the charge to
3 annular ring.
When there is no molten metal in the ring, the
secondary
becomesto
open-circuited thereby cutting off the secondary current. Hence,
start the furnace, molten metal has to be poured in the
4. annular.
Since the magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very
poor, it results in high leakage and low power factor.
5 In order tonullify the effect of increased leakage
frequency of the order of 10 Hz or so is used.
reactance, low primary
6 This type of furnace has the following drawbacks :
i. Leakage reactance is high and consequently the power factor is low on
account of poor magnetic coupling.
Low frequencies have to be employed as normal frequency causes
turbulence of the charge.
ii. The crucible for the charge is of odd shape and not convenient from the
metallurgical point of view.
Iron core

-Charge
Primary
winding

Fig. 1.23.1. Direct core type induction furnace.

Que 1.24. Discuss vertical core type induction furnace. Also give
its advantages.
OR
Explain with neat sketch the working of Ajax Wyatt Furnace.
AKTU2013-14, Marks 05
OR
Describe the constructional feature and working principle of Ajax
Wyatt furnaces. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
 Electrical Heating
1-20 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
A Ajax Wyatt furnace:
known as Ajax Wyatt furnace.
1. Vertical core type induction furnace is also instead ofa horizontal one
crucible
2. This furnace makes use of vertical
for the charge as shown in Fig. 1.24.1.
is closed by an insulated
3. The shellof the furnace is of heavy steel. The top
cover which can be removed for charging. V-shaped channel by
4. Molten metal is kept circulated around the narrow that even a
convection currents. The V-shaped channel is so
smallquantity of charge keeps the secondary circuit closed.
5. The output of the furnace depends upon the form and dimension of the
rectangular
channel. Apart from V-shaped channel, U-shaped and
channels are also employed.

Charge

Outer Central iron

iron core Core

Core

Primary
winding - Refractory lining

Fig. 1.24.1. Vertical core type furnace.

6. The tendency of the secondary circuit to rupture due to pinch effect is
counteracted by the weight of the charge in the crucible.
7. Type of lining depends on the type of charge. For yellow brass clay is
used, for red brass and bronze mixture of magnesia and alumina or
corundum which has high alumina content is employed.
8 Tilting of the furnace for pouring out the metal is done by hydraulic
means.
9 This furnace is suitable for continuous operation. With normal supply
frequency itsefficiency is about 75 %.
10. Its standard size varies from 60-300 kW, all single-phase. The furnace is
widely used for melting and refining of brass and other non-ferrous
metals.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-21C (EN-Sem-7)
B. Advantages :
1. Consistent performance and simple control.
2. Accurate temperature control, uniform castings, reduced metal losses
and reduction of rejects.
3. Highly efficient heat, low operating costs and improved production.
4. High power factor (0.8-0.85) comparatively.
5. Local working conditions in a cool atmosphere with no dirt, noise or
fuel.

Que 1.25. A 100 kW Ajax Wyatt furnace works at a secondary

voltage of 12 Vat power factor 0.6 when fully charged. If the reactance
presented by the charge remains constant but the resistance varies
inverse as the charge depth in the furnace; caleulate the charge
depth that produces maximum heating effect when the furnace is
fully charged.
Answer
Given : P=100 kW, V= 12, pf =0.6
To Find:H,
1. Secondary power, P = V, cos
P 100 x 10
1, = V, xcos 12 x 0.6
= 13.88 kA.

2. When the crucible is fully charged, then the secondary impedance is

V,2 12
Z, = 13.88 x10 = 0.864 m.
3. cos = RJ2,
R, =2, cos
=0.864x 10- x 0.6
R, = 0.5184 m)2
4. The secondary reactance, X,= (2, -(R,
=
J0.864 x 10 - (0.5184 x 10 = 0.69 m2
5. Let H be the height of the crucible when the crucible is full of charge and
H_ be the height of the charge at which maximum heating effect is
possible.
H =h
H
6 Given that the height of the charge is inversely proportional to the
resistance. Let Rin the maximum resistance at which maximum heating
effect will be possible.
7. At R =X,, the heat produced will be maximum.
 Electrical Heating
1-22 C (EN-Sem-7)
1 1
Hm & H«
H R R
Hm =h
H X
0.5184 x 10 -3
h= 0.69 x10-30.75

H, = 0.75
8. H
H = 0.75 H

Que 1.26. Describe indirect core type induction furnace.

Answer
1
heated by induction which,
In this type of furnace,a suitable element isradiation. Fig. 1.26.1 shows
in turn, transfers the heat to the charge by
an indirect core type induction furnace.
forms the walls of
2 The secondary consists of a metal container which
to this
the furnace. The primary winding is magnetically coupled
secondary by iron core.
Primary
winding

-Secondary
Secondarywinding M winding

RCorel
Fig. 1.26.1. Indirect core type induction furnace.
3 When primary winding is connected to AC supply, secondary current is
induced in the metal container by transformer action which heats up
the container.
4. The metal container transfers this heat to the charge. It is advantageous
external control
in respect of temperature control without the use of
equipment. chamber
5 The part LM of the magnetic circuit situated inside the oven
consists of a special alloy which loses its magnetic properties at a
particular temperature but regains them when cooled back tothe same
temperature.
6. As soon as the chamber attains the critical temperature, reluctance
of
the magnetic circuit increases manifold there by cutting off the supply
of heat.
7.
The bar LM is detachable and can be replaced by other bars having
different critical temperature (between 400°C and 1000 °C).
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-23 C (EN-Sem-7)
8 This furnace, from the mode of
competition with resistance oven; transmission of heat, is directly in
but it has comparatively poor power
factor (0.8 approx).
Que 1.27. Differentiate the function of Ajax Wyatt furnace and
TAMA furnace. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
OR
Explain the working of TAMA furnace.
Answer
A. TAMA Furnace:
1. The main drawback of Ajax Wyatt furnace is that it cannot be
used for
melting aluminium and its alloys. This is mainly because of tendency of
adherence, of any aluminium oxide formed, to the walls of V-channel.
2 This makes the operation offurnace impossible any longer. This
difficulty,
however, can be overcome by using a ring type furnace, known as the
TAMA furnace.
3 In this furnace inductor channels are built
vertical which facilitates
removal of the deposits with a simple and cheap type cleaning tool.
4 Vertical channels can be cleaned without emptying the furnace and
without taking long time. The horizontal channel through the ivase of
furnace does not require frequent cleaning.
5. No doubt, it needs emptying of furnace before removal of drain plug but
the operation is speedy.
6 The pf of the TAMA furnace is reduced because of its straight sided
channels and therefore installation of additional capacitors is required
which makes the TAMA furnace costlier than the Ajax Wyatt furnace.
7. Stirring action is also set up due to electromagnetic forces in this furnace
like Ajax Wyatt furnace.
B. Difference:

S. No. Ajax Wyatt furnace TAMA furnace

1. Shape of Ajax Wyatt furnace| The shape of TAMA furnace is ring
is V-shaped. type.
2. It cannot be used for melting It can be used for melting
aluminium and its alloys aluminium and its alloys
3. Power factor is high Power factor is comparatively low.
4. It does not require additional It requires additional capacitor to
capacitor toimprove power improve power factor.
factor.

Que 1.28. What is coreless type induction furnace ? Also give its
applications and advantages.
 Electrical Heating
1-24C (EN-Sem-7)

OR
describe coreless type
Explain the method of induction heating and
of induction furnace. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
1-18C, Unit-1.
Method of induction heating: Refer Q. 1.22, Page
Coreless type of induction furnace :
A. Construction :
Fig. 1.28.1 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a coreless type
1. three main parts:
induction furnace. It essentially consists of
Primary coil, secondary
Ceramiccrucible containing charge which forms the
Frame which includes supports and tilting mechanism.
contains no heavy iron
2 The distinctive feature of this furnace is that it
for the magnetic flux.
core with the result there is no continuous pathconstruction and can be
3 The crucible and the coil are relatively light in
conveniently tilted for pouring.
Ceramic crucible

Primary
winding

ECharge

Fig. 1.28.1. Coreless induction furnace.

B. Working :
1. The charge is put into the crucible and primary
winding coil is connected
to high frequency AC supply. in the charge
2 The flux created by primary winding sets up eddy currents
inductor.
which tend to flow concentrically with those in the
3 These eddy currents heat up the charge to its melting point
and also set
essential
up electromagnetic forces producing stirring action which is
for obtaining uniform quality of metal.
4. Since flux density is low (due to the absence of the magnetic core) high
frequency supply has to be used because eddy current loss, P « Bf.
5. However this high frequency increases the resistance of the primary
winding due to skin effect, thereby increasing primary copper losses.
6 He-ce the primary winding is not made of copper wire but consists of
hollow copper tubes which are cooled by water circulating through them.
7. As the magnetic coupling cap between the primary and secondary
windings is low, the furnace power factor lies between 0.1 and 0.3.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-25 C (EN-Sem-7)
8 Static capacitors are, therefore, invariably employed in
such a furnace in order to improve the power parallel with
9. factor.
Since in this type of furnace the power factor does not remain
so capacitance in the circuit during heat cycle is constant,
varied to maintain
approximately unity power factor.
C. Applications :
1. Steel production (Energy consumption is 600 to 1000
steel).
kWh per tonne of
2. Melting non-ferrous metals like brass, bronze,copper and aluminium
etc, along with various alloys of these elements.
3. Vacuum melting.
4. Melting in controlled atmosphere.
5 Melting for precision casting.
D. Advantages :
1. Fast in operation.
2. Low erection cost.
3. Low operating cost.
Que 1.29. Explain high frequency eddy current heating. Also give
its advantages, disadvantages and applications.
Answer
A. Eddy current heating :
1. In order to heat an article by eddy currents, it is placed
inside a high
frequency AC current-carrying coil as shown in Fig. 1.29.1.
Charge or load

High frequency Heater coil

ACsupply or work coil

Fig. 1.29.1. High frequency eddy current heating.

2. The alternating magnetic field produced by the coil sets up eddy currents
in the article, which consequently,gets heated up.
3 Such a coilis known as heater coil or work coil and the material to be
heated is known as charge or load.
4. Primarily, it is the eddy-current loss which is responsible for the
production of heat although hysteresis loss also contributes to some
extent in the case of magnetic materials.
5. As the eddy current loss P. « Bf", this loss can be controlled by controlling
flux density B and the supply frequency f.
 Electrical Heating
1-26 C (EN-Sem-7)
material but decreases as we
6. This loss is greatest on the surface of the
go deep inside.
the charge is given by
7. The depth of penetration (d) of eddy currents into
1 px109
d= cm
2r H, f
where, p = Resistivity of the molten metal,
f= Supply frequency
H = Relative permeability.
,therefore, eddy current heating can be restricted
1
8 Thus, since d
byjudicious selection of
toany desired depth of the material to be heated employed
frequency of the heating. The supply frequency is usually
between 10000 and 40000 Hz.
B. Advantages of eddy current heating :
1 Temperature control is very easy.
2. The heat can be made to penetrate into
the metal surface to any desired
depth. convenient.
3. This heating method is quick, clean and
4. Very less wastage of heat.
:
C. Disadvantages of eddy current heating
1 The generation of heat is costly.
2. Efficiency of equipment is quite low
(less than 50 %).
3. Initial cost of the equipment is high.
heating :
D. Applications of eddy current
1. Surface hardening
2 Annealing
3 Soldering.
frequency induction
Que 1.30. Calculate the efficiency of ahigh
of aluminium. The
furnace which takes 10 minutes to melt 1.8 kg temperature 15 °C.
initial
input to the furnace being 4.8 kW and
°C; melting point of
Specific heat of aluminium = 0.88 kJ /kgaluminium = 32 kJ /kg:
aluminium = 660 °C; latent heat of fusion of
1 kJ =2.78 x 10-4 kWh.
Answer
kW; t, =15 °C; t, =660 °C,
Given :m =1.8 kg; Input to the furnace= 4.8 10 -4 kWh.
c= 0.88 kJ/kg °C;L=32 kJ/kg; 1 kJ =2.78x
To Find:n.
1. Heat required tomelt 1.8 kg of aluminium
= m xcx (t, - t,) + mxL
= m [c x (t, -t,) + L]
=1.8 [0.88 (660 - 15) + 32]= 1079.28 kJ
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-27 C (EN-Sem-7)
= 1079.28 x 2.78x 10-4 = 0.3 kWh
2. 10
Energy input = 4.8 x
=0.8 kWh
60

3.
n =
Output 0.3 = 0.375 or 37.5 %
Input 0.8
Que 1.31l. Alow frequency induction furnace
operating at 12 V in
secondary circuit takes 480 kW at 0.5 pf when hearth is full. If the
secondary voltage be maintained at 12 V, estimate the power factor
and the power absorbed when hearth is
half-full. Assume the
resistance of the secondary circuit to be thereby halved and the
reactance to remain the same.
Answer
Given : Secondary voltage = 12 V; Power drawn when hearth is full
= 480 kW; pf = 0.5;
To Find: Power factor and power.

1. Secondary current, I = 480 x 1000 = 80000A

12 x 0.5
2. Impedance of the secondary circuit when hearth is full,
V 12
Z= = 1.5 x 10 -Q
I 80000
3. Resistance of the secondary circuit when
hearth is full,
R= Zcos = 1.5 x 10 -4 x 0.5 = 0.75 x 10-4Q
4 Reactance of the secondary circuit when
hearth is full,
X=Z sin o= 1.5 x 10 - sin (cos-! 0.5) = 1.3 x 10 -4 Q
5 Resistance of the secondary circuit when hearth is half full,
1 1
R'= R= x 0.75 x 10 -4= 0.375 x 10 -4 Q
2
6 Reactance of the secondary circuit when hearth is half full,
X=X= 1.3 x 10 -4= 1.3 x 104 2
7. Impedance of the secondary circuit when hearth is half full,
Z= JRy +(X"}
J0.375 x10 -4) +(1.3 x 104)
= 1.353x 10 -4
8. .:. Power factor when hearth is half full
R' 0.375 x 10 -4
= 0.277
Z' 1.353 x 10 -4

12
9. Secondary current, I = 1.353 x 10-4 = 88691.8 A
 Electrical Heating
1-28 C (EN-Sem-7)

10. .. Power drawn, P= (I)2R' = (88691.8) x 0.375 x 10 -4

= 294984 W= 294.984 kW
the depth of
Que 1.32. In the case hardening of a steel pulley,
penetration required is 1.4 mm. The relative permeability is unity
-7 Q-m. Determine the
and the specific resistivity of steel is 5 x 10
frequency required.
Answer

Given: Depth of penetration, d = 1.4 mm = 0.14 cm; , = 1;

p=5x 10 -7 Q-m.
To Find :f

1 px 109
1. d=

2. Squaring both sides and simplifying, we have

px109
f=
x41 x,
(5x 10 x100) x10
= 64618 Hz
(0.14) x41 x1

PART-6

Dielectric Heating.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.33. Explain dielectric heating.

OR
Derive an expression for the heat produced in a dielectric material.
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Dielectric heating : Dielectric heating (also sometimes called High
frequency capacitive heating) is employed for heating insulators like
wood, plastics and ceramics etc. which cannot be heated easily and
uniformly by other methods.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 1-29 C (EN-Sem-7)
B. Principle of
1. dielectric heating:
When capacitor is subjected to a
a
by it is never leading the sinusoidal voltage, the current drawn
2 voltage by
The angle between the current andexactly 90°.
result that there is a small in-phase voltage is slightly less with the
produces power loss in the dielectric ofcomponent
the
of the current which
capacitor.

Charge
(slab to be
Metal heated)
plate
terminals
Fig. 1.33.1. Parallel-plate capacitor
3.
dielectric heating.
At ordinary frequency of 50 Hz such
loss may be small enough to be
negligible but at high frequencies the loss becomes large enough to heat
the dielectric. It is the loss that is
4. The insulating material to be heated isutilized in heating the dielectric.
placed between two conducting
plates in order to form a parallel-plate capacitor
5. The vector diagram of the capacitor is as shown in Fig. 1.33.1.
shown Fig. 1.33.2.
in

Iç= Charging current

Ip = In-phase component,
supplying the losses
Fig. 1.33.2. Vector diagra mof the
6. Power drawn from supply = VI cos parallel-plate capacitor.
Now, I,=I=
X¢ 1/2n fC = 2r fCV.
P=I (2r fCV) cos = 2r fCV' cos
7. Now, o = (90°- 8), cos= cos (90° - 8) = sin § =tan J = 8
where &is very small and is expressed in radians
8. P= 2r fCV² Swatts
Here, C= 06, A
1-30 C (EN-Sem-7) Electrical Heating

where t and Aare the thickness and area of the dielectric slab respectively;
e, is the relative permittivity of dielectric and , is the absolute
permittivity of vacuum (=8.854 x 10-12 F/m).
9 This power is converted into heat. Since for a given insulation material
Cand 8are constant, the dielectric loss a Vf That is why high-frequency
voltage is used in dielectric heating.
Que 1.34. What are the advantages and disadvantages of dielectric
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
heating ?
OR

What are the advantages of dielectric keating ? Discuss about its

applications. AKTU2015-16, Marks 05

Answer
A. Advantages of dielectric heating:
1. Heating is uniform since heat is generated within the dielectric medium
itself.
2 With the increase in frequency the heating becomes faster.
3. Only method for heating bad conductors of heat.
4 In this method of heating, heating is fastest.
5. Heating can be stopped immediately as and when desired.
6. As no naked flame appears in the process, inflammable articles like
plastics and wooden products etc. can be safely heated.
B. Disadvantages of dielectric heating :
1. Only those materials can be heated which have the high dielectric loss.
2. The cost of equipment required for dielectric heating is so high that it is
employed only where other methods are impracticable.
3. The overallefficiency of dielectric heating is very low (about 50 %).
4. High frequencies may cause radio interferance.
C. Applications of dielectricheating:
1. Drying and gluing of wood.
2. Drying of rayon cakes in textile manufacture.
Dehydration of foods.
4. Gluing of laminated glass.
5. Rubber vulcanizing.

Que 1.35. Discuss the following applicationin dielectric heating:

i. Heating of raw plastics
i. Gluing of wood
iii. Food processing AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 1-31C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
i. Heating of raw plastics :
1 The raw material in the form of tablets or biscuits, commonly called
plastic preforms, is required to be heated uniformly before putting them
into the hot moulds so that whole mass becomes fluid at a time.
2 Otherwise if the raw material is put directly into the moulds, usually
heated by steam, the outer skin of the preforms will become hot and
start curing while the core of the material has not reached fluid
temperature resulting in unequal hardening of the plastic and improper
filling of moulds corners.
3. Difficulty arises due to the fact that plastic raw material once cured
cannot be softened again satisfactorily.
4. Any method of heating depending upon conduction of heat from surface
to the core would miserably fail because plastic is bad conductor of heat.
5. Dielectric heating is the only method which can be used for preheating
of plastic preforms to proper temperature uniformly.
ii. Gluing of wood:
1 Dielectric heating is most commonly used for gluing of wooden sheets
or boards as in this method of gluing the moisture contents of the
wooden sheets remain unaltered.
2. It is due to the fact that heat can be applied to the desired surface. Main
difficulty in using animal glues is of long curing time and that parts to be
joined are to be kept under mechanical pressure after application of
glue for a period of about 24 hours.
3. Mechanical pressure may be applied in gluing of wood by dielectric
heating in order to secure better adhesion.
4. Because ofhigher loss factor of glue as compared to that of wood most
of the heat developed goes into the glue and very little heat is wasted.

Wood

Fig. 1.35.1.
5. High frequency dielectric heating is very economical for obtaining curved
wood sections such as furniture. The curves obtained by this method
are stable.
iii. Food processing :
1 The use of dielectric heating for food processing is one of the most
modern methods.
2 It has brought many advantages for the food processing industry and
has set forth such processes which are outside the realm of cooking.
 Electrical Heating
1-32 C (EN-Sem-7)

insulating material 130 cm² in area and 1 cm

Que 1.36. A slab of
be heated by dielectric heating. The power required is
thick is to a relative permittivity of 5 and pf of
380 W at 30 MHz. Material has Determine the
= 8.854 x 10 - 12 F/m.
0.05. Absolute permittivity
|AKTU2013-14, Marks 05
necessary voltage.
AKTU2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
30 MHz,
Given : e, = 5, t= 10 - m, A= 130 x 10- cm,P=380 W, f=
pf= 0.05.
To Find:V.

C=
EgE, A
1.

8.854 x 10- " x5 x 130 x 10-4

10-2
= 57.55x 10 -12F
2.
P= 2nfC V cos
0.05
380 = 2n x 30 x 10® x 57.55 x 10-12 y² x
380
Or
2x x 30 x 10 x 57.55 x 10 -12 x 0.05
= 700950
V= 837.23 V

to be heated by
Que 1.37. A piece of an insulating material is
cm x 3 cm. A
dielectric heating. The size of the piece is 10 cm x 10 absorbed is
frequency of 20 megacycles is used and the power
and the
400 watts. Calculate the voltage necessary for heating
has a relative
current that follows in the material. The material
permittivity of 5 and a power factor of 0.05.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05

Answer

Given :8 =5, t=3 cm =0.03 m, A= 10 x 10 x 10 -4 = 10 - m²

f= 20 x 106 Hz, P= 400 W, cos = 0.05.
To Find:V
1. The capacitance of the parallel plate condenser that the material forms
is given by
Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 133 C (EN-Sem-7)

C=

8.854 x 10-12 x 5 x 102

3 x 102 = 14.75 x 10-12 F
2,. The condenser may be regarded to be place in
all the power loss occurring in the resistance.parallel with a resistance,
3 The equivalent circuit and the phasor
S is the dielectric loss angle and cos isdiagram are shown in Fig. 1.37.1.
the power factor.

Fig. 1.37.1. Equivalent circuit.

3. X = Reactance of the condenser
1 1
oC 2 fC
1
ohms
Z T x 20 x 10° x 14 75v1o-12 = 540
4. cos = 0.05 .. ¢ = 87.1°
So, tan = 19.74

tan = I V/X
V/R X
Or R= Xtan ),
R=540 x 19.74 ohms
5. Power
R
V= J540 x 19.74 x 400= 2065 V
6.
2065
I= I,= -=3.82 A
X, 540

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as wellas
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
 2
UNIT
Electric Welding

CONTENTS
Part-1: Electric Arc Welding 2-2C to 2-11C
Part-2: Electric Resistance Welding 2-11C to 2-17C
Part-3: Electronic Resistance Control ........
.2.-17C to 2-23C
Part-4 : Electrolyte Process : Laws of .2-23C to 2-24C
Electrolysis
Part-5 : Applications of Electrolysis : -......2-24C to 2-27C
Principle of Electro-deposition

2-1C (EN-Sem-7)
 Electric Welding
2-2 C (EN-Sem-7)

PART- 1

Electric Arc Welding.

Questions-Answers
Type Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer

welding? Give its various

Que 2.1. What do you mean by electric
procedures. Explain arc welding.
Answer
A. Definition ofelectric welding: It is the process of joining two pieces
of metal or non-metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by the application
material may be used to effect the
of heat or pressure or both. Filler
union.

B. Various procedures of electric welding:

i. Resistance welding
ii. Arc welding:
heat electricity is conducted in the
1. In this method of producing localizedbetween the two metallic surfaces.
form of an arc which is established
separated by some
2. When the supply is given across the conductors two conductors gets
distance apart, the air gap present between the
of the arc path
ionized, as the arc welding is in progress, the ionization
and its surrounding area increases.
resistance of the path. Thus,
3. This increase in ionization decreases the
voltage of arc. This V-I
current increases with the decrease in
characteristics of an arc is shown in Fig. 2.1.1(b), it also known as negative
resistance characteristics of an arc.
V
50
Electrode 40
holder 30
20+
Deposited 10
metal
Welding rod
20 4060 80100
+Base metal
(a) (b)
Fig.2.1.1. Arrangement of electric welding equipment.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-3C (EN-Sem-7)
4. Thus, it will be seen that this decrease in
current does not remain the arc steadily. resistance with increase in
5. This difficulty can be avoided, with the
the increase in the current so that any supply, should fall rapidly with
it
restricted.
further increase in the current is
C. It can be done with the
following methods:
1. Metallic arc welding.
2. Carbon arc welding.
3. Atomic hydrogen welding.
4. Shielded arc welding.
5. Submerged arc welding.

Que 2.2. Explain metallic are welding.

Answer
1. In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the
fller
metal electrode. The intense heat of the arc forms molten pool in the
metal being welded, and at the same time melts the tip ofthe electrode.
2 As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the electrode tip is
transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the molten base metal.
Flux-coated electrode
Electrode holder

Deposited
weld metal -Flame
Lead clamped
to the work

Crater

Leads of generator
Fig. 2.2.1. or transformer
3. Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current. Petrol or diesel
driven generators are widely used for welding in open, where a normal
electricity supply may not be available.
4. DCmay also be obtained from electricity mains through the
instrumentality of a transformer and rectifier. Asimple transformer is,
however widely employed for AC arc welding.
24C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding

5.The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no maintenance

cost as there are no moving parts.
6 With arc system, the covered or coated electrodes are used, where as
with DC system for cast iron and non-ferrous metal, base electrodes can
be used.
7. In order to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between
60 to 70 volts is required.
8. For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary; the current
required for welding however varies from 10 amp to 500 amp depending
upon the class of work to be welded.
9. The great disadvantage entailed by DC welding is the presence of arc
blow (distortion of arc stream from the intended path owing to magnetic
forces ofa non-uniform magneticfield).
10. With AC arc blow is considerably reduced and use of higher currents
and large electrodes may be restored to enhance the rate of weld
production.
Que 2.3. Discuss carbon arc welding. Also give its advantages,
disadvantages and applications.
Answer

A. Carbon arc welding :

1. Carbon arc welding differs from common metal arc welding in that it
uses non-consumable carbon-graphite electrodes instead of consumable
flux-coated electrodes.

Carbon
electrode
Filler
rod -Arc flame
Pool of
molten
|metal

Fig. 2.3.1.
2. In Fig. 2.3.1 the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or
electrode connected to the positive of the electric circuit.
3. Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire
into the arc by allowing the current to jump over it as it produces a
porous and brittle weld because of inclusion of carbon particles in the
molten metal.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-5C (EN-Sem-7)
4. It is therefore used for
filling blow
subjected to any of the stresses. holes in the casting which are not
5. The voltage required for striking an arc
30 volts (AC) and 40volts with carbon electrodes is about
(DC).
B. Advantages :
1
The temperature of the molten pool can be
varying the arc length. easily controlled by simply
2. Can be easily adapted to inert gas
shielding of the weld.
3. Can be used as an excellent heat source for
soldering etc. brazing, braze welding and
4. Easily adaptable to automation.
C. Disadvantages :
1
Approximately twice the current is required to raise the work to welding
temperature compared with metal electrode, while a carbon electrode
can only be used economically as DC supply.
2. Aseparate filler rod has to be used if any filler
material is required.
3. Blow holes occur due to magnetic arc blow especially when
near edges of the workpiece. welding
4 Since arc serves only as a heat source it does not transfer any metal to
help reinforce the weld joint.
D. Applications :
1. Suitable for galvanised sheets using
filler metal. copper-silicon manganese alloy
2. It is adapted for automation particularly where amount of weld deposit
is large and materials to be fabricated are of simple geometrical shapes
such as water tanks.
3. Useful for welding thin high-nickel alloys.
4. Can be employed for welding stainless steel of thinner gauges with
excellent results.
5. With this process, monel metal can be easily welded by using a suitable
coated filler rod.

Que 2.4.Compare AC and DC system of metallic arc welding.

 Electric Welding
2-6C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
DC welding
AC welding
S. No. Aspects
Power consumption Low
High
1 Arc stable
Arc unstable
2. Arc stability
More
Less
3. Cost
Heavy
Weight Light
4.
Low
5. Efficiency High
Noiseless Noisy
6 Operation
for both
Non-ferrous metal Suitable
ferrous and non
7. Suitability cannot be joined ferrous metal
Bare electrodes are
Electrode used Only coated
also used preferred
Preferred
9. Welding of thin Not preferred
sections
welding processes used
Que 2.5. Describe the various types of arc
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
in industry.
OR
Explain shielded arc welding.
Answer
Q. 2.2, Page 2--3C, Unit-2.
A. Metallic arc welding : Refer
Q. 2.3, Page 2-4C, Unit-2.
B. Carbon arc welding: Refer
C. Shielded arc welding:
protected fromn the action of
1 In this system molten weld metal is inert gas.
atmosphere by an envelope of chemically reducing or
nitrogen, it will, ifexposed
2 As molten steel has an affinity for oxygen and these gases forming
tothe atmosphere, enter into combination with
oxides and nitrides.
becomes weak, brittle
3. Due to this injurious chemical combination metal
been
and corrosion resistance. Thus several methods of shielding have
developed.
which in
4. The simplest is the use of a flux coating on the electrode
addition to producing a slag which floats on the top of the molten metal
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction
2-7C (EN-Sem-7)
and protects if forms
atmosphere, has organic constituents which turn
away and produce an envelope of inert gas around the arc and
the weld.
Flux coating
Slag
coating -Electrode
Weld
metal
Gaseous shield
-Arc stream
Base
metal

Pool of
molten metal
Fig. 2.5.1. Shielding arc welding.
Que 2.6. Explain submerged arc welding.
Answer
1. The submerged arc process (which may be
automatically)creates an arc column between a basedone manually or
metallic electrode
and the workpiece.
2 The arc, the end of the electrode, and the
molten weld pool are
submerged in a finely divided granulated powder
appropriate deoxidizers, cleansers and any other fluxingthat contains
elements.
3 The fluxing powder is fed from a hopper that is
head. The tube from the hopper spreads the carried on the welding
mount in front of the electrode along the line ofpowder in continuous
the weld.

Flux To power
hopper supply

To wire
Trigger feed
electrode mechanism

Nozzle
Fig. 2.6.1, Apparatus used in manual submerged arc welding.
2-8C(EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding

4. This flux mound is of sufficient depth to submerge completely the arc

column so that there is no splatter or smoke, and the weld is shielded
from all effects at atmospheric gases.
5. As a result of this unique protection, the weld beads are exceptionally
smooth. The flux adjacent to the arc column melts and floats to the
surface of the molten pool; then it solidifies to form aslag on the top of
the welded metal.
6 The rest of the flux is simply an insulator that can be reclaimed easily.
The slag that is formed by the molten flux solidifies and is easy to
remove. In fact, in many applications, the slag will crack off by itself as
it cools.
7. The unused flux is removed and placed back into the original hopper
for use the next time. Granulated flux is a complex, metallic silicate
that can be used over wide range of metals.

Que 2.7. Discuss TIG and MIG welding.

Answer

TIG (Tungsten inert gas) welding :

1. In this process the heat necessary tomelt the metal is provided by a
very intense electric arc which is struck between a virtually
non-consumable tungsten electrode and metal workpiece. The
electrode does not melt and become a part of the weld.
2. On joints where filler metal is required, a welding rod is fed into the
weld zone and melted with base metal in thesame manner as that
used with oxyacetylene welding.
3. The weld zone is shielded from the atmosphere by an inert-gas (a gas
which does not combine chemically with the metal being welded) which
is ducted directly to the weld zone where it surrounds the tungsten.
The major inert gases that are used are argon and helium.
Tungsten
electrode

Power
Source
Arc
column Shelding
gas

Puddle

Base metal
Fig. 2.7.1. Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric
Traction 2-9C (EN-Sem-7)
MIG (Metal inert gas)
1. The inert-gas welding:
consumable electrode process, or the MIG process is
refinement of the a
TIG process, however, in this
electrode has been replaced with a process, the tungsten
2 The electrode is driven consumable electrode.
through the same type of collet that holds a
tungsten electrode by a set of drive wheels. The consumable electrode
in MIG process acts as the
source for the arc column as well as the
supply for the filler material.
3 This process can deposit large
speed. quantities of weld metal at a fast welding
4. This process is easily adaptable to
operations. semi-automatic or fully-automatic
Consumable -Driving wheels
electrode

Power
Arc SOurce
column Shelding
gas

Puddle

Base metal
Fig. 2.7.2. Metal inert-gas (MIG) welding.
Que 2.8. Explain hydrogen are welding.
Answer
1. In atomic hydrogen arc
welding, shown in Fig. 2.8.1, the heat for the
welding process is produced from an electric arc struck between two
tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
Phase
AC supply Tungsten
Neutral electrodes

Filler Hydrogen
gas
rod
-Arc
Pool
or molten
metal -Base metal
Fig. 2.8.1. Atomic hydrogen are welding.
 Electric Welding
2-10 C (EN-Sem-7)
protective
hydrogen serves mainly two functions; one act as a glowing
2. Here, as a cooling agent for the
screen for the arc and the other act
tungsten electrode tips.
passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules are
3 As hydrogen gas glowing tungsten electrodes
atoms absorbs heat from the
broken up into
so that these are cooled.
atoms of hydrogen recombine intomolecules outside
4 But, when the
heat is liberated.
the arc, a large amount of
heat is added to the intense heat of arc, which produces a
5 This extra sufficient to melt the surfaces to
temperature of about 4,000 °C that is used.
filler rod if
be welded together with the
and some other gases that might
Moreover hydrogen includes oxygenforms
6. oxides and other impurities.
combine with the molten metal and surface of workpiece.
Hydrogen also removes oxides from the
producing strong, uniform, smooth,
7. Thus, this process is capable of
and ductile welds.

and due to ground

Que 2.9. Explain arc blow effect at the edges
advantages of using coated welding
currents. What are the
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
electrodes ?

Answer

A. Arc blow effect :

weld point is called arc blow.
1. The deflection of the arc from the
DCwelding sets and is especially
2. This condition is encountered only with It is experienced most
noticeable when welding with bare electrodes.
below 40 A.
when using currents above 200A or
arc blow, heat penetration in the required area is low which
3. Due to apart from excessive weld
leads to incomplete fusion and bead porosity
spatter.
blow can be avoided by using AC rather than DC welding machines
4. Arc
leads produce magnetic
because reversing currents in the weldingeliminating the arc blow.
fields which canceleach other out thereby
electrodes :
B. Advantage of coated
1. Arc is stabilized (since the
coating contains compounds ofsodium and
potassium).
welding are fluxed away.
2. The impurities present on the surface being
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction
2-11C(EN-Sem-7)
3. Slag is formed over the weld which
protects it from
contamination, makes it cool uniformly thereby reducingatmospheric
the changes
of brittleness and provides a
smoother
caused by the welding operation. surface by reducing 'ripples'
4. Sputtering of metal during welding is prevented.
5. Welding operation becomes faster due to increased melting rate.

PART-2
Electric Resistance Welding.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.10. What do you mean by electrie welding? Explain

different
procedure of electric welding. AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
OR
What do you understand by resistance welding? Discuss
of welding time of resistance welding on the the effect
quality of the weld.
AKTU2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Electric welding: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-2C, Unit-2.
B. Various procedures:
i. Arc welding: Refer Q. 2.1,
Page 2-2C, Unit-2.
ii. Resistance welding:
1. In this method current is
passed through the inherent resistance of the
joint to be welded thereby generating the heat as per the equation
PRtkilojoules.
2, In this process of welding, the heat developed at the contact area
the pieces to be welded reduces the metal to plasticstate or liquid between
then the pieces are pressed under high mechanical pressure to completestate,
the weld.
3. The electrical voltage input to the welding varies in between
4 and 12 Vdepending upon area, thickness, composition, etc. and
power ranges from about 60 to 180 Wfor each sq. mm of area. usually
 Electric Welding
2-12 C (EN-Sem-7)
Secondary Primary
Movable
arm

Mechanica
frame

Electrodes Phase

AC supply
Fixed
arm
HHNeutral
Stepdown Contactor
welding
transformer
Fig. 2.10.1. Electric circuit for resistance welding.
Some important resistance welding processes are :
1. Butt welding.
2. Flash welding.
3. Spot welding.
4. Seam welding.
5. Projection welding.
Effect of time:These is an effect of time on energy input to the welding
process, welding strength (quality), and welding current as they vary
with welding time. This effect is shown in Fig. 2.10.2.
Welding
strength
Energy
input
Welding Energy
strength input
Welding Welding
current
current

t, tg
Welding time
Fig. 2.10.2. Performance characteristics of electrie welding.
Que 2.11. Explain flash welding.
OR
Name various types of resistance welding processes. And explain
any one.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-13C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
A. Some important
resistance welding processes are:Refer Q. 2.10,
Page 2-11C, Unit-2.
B. Flash welding :
1. In this
process, the parts to be welded are clamped to the electrode
fixtures but the voltage is applied before the parts are butted together.
2 As the parts touch
each other, an arc is established which continues as
long as the parts advance at the correct speed.
3 This arc bursts
away a portion of the material from
the welding temperature is reached, the speed of traveleach piece. When
is increased, the
power switched OFF and weld is upset.
Electrode
clamps
Workpiece. -Workpiece

Fixed
Movable
Plate
-Arc plate

To
transformer
(a)

Before welding
After welding
(b)
Fig. 2.11.1.
C. Advantages :
1. Power consumed is less once the arc creates more heat with a given
current.
2. The weld is made in clean virgin metal as the surfaces are burned away.
3. More quicker.
D. Applications:
1. It is widely used in automobile construction on the body, axles, wheels,
frames and other parts.
2. It is also employed in welding motor frames, transformer tanks and
many types of sheet steel containers such as at barrels and floats.
2-14 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding

Que 2.12. Draw a neat sketch of a spot welding machine and

describe its construction and working in detail.
|AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

1. Steel, brass, copper and light alloys can be joined by this method, which
forms a cheap and satisfactory substitute for riveting.
2. The area of fusion at each spot weld, in fact, is approximately equal to
the cross-sectional area of the rivet which would be employed for a
similar gauge of material.

Water cooled
electrode

Plates to
Main /OO000 h be welded
supply

Transformer -Clamp Spot weld

Fig. 2.12.1.
3. Spot welding, as the name implies, is carried out by overlapping the
edges of two sheets of metal and fusing them together between copper
electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of a heavy electrical
current.
4. The resistance offered to the current as it passes through the metal raises
the temperature of the metal between the electrodes to welding heat.
5. The current is cut-off and mechanical pressure is then applied by the
electrodes to forge the weld. Finally the electrodes open.
6. When sheets of unequal thickness are joined, the current and pressure
setting for the thinner sheets are used.
7. Spot welding is used for galvanized, tinned and lead-coated sheets and
mild steel sheet work.
This technique is also applied to non-ferrous metals such as brass,
aluminium, nickel and bronze etc.
Que 2.13. Discuss butt welding with relevant diagram.

Answer
1 In this type of welding which is employed to join bars and plates together
end to end, one bar is held in a fixed clamp in the butt welding machine
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-15 C (EN-Sem-7)
and the other bar in a movable clamp, the
insulated, the one from the other, and being clamp being electrically
connected to a source of
current.
2. When the two ends to be joined are brought into
contact and current is
switched ON, the resistance at the joint causes the
welding temperature. ends to heat up to
3 Current is then switched OFF and the movable clamp
a weld is made. forced up, so that
4. The voltage applied across the clamps is a low one,
the current is usually from 2to 6volts, and
5. If the bars being joinedalternating.
are different in
project from their clamps may have to cross-section, the amounts they
be adjusted so as to modify the
heat losses and ensure both bars beings
brought to the welding
temperature simultaneously.
-Clamping pressure
Moving plate
Fixed
plate Direction
of welding
and
forging
pressure

Fig. 2.13.1. Butt welding.

Que 2.14. With necessary figure explain the process of seam

welding. AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
OR
Describe with relevant diagrams, the three different
types of
resistance welding. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A Spot welding: Refer Q. 2.12, Page 2-14C,
B. Butt welding: Refer Q. 2.13, Page
Unit-2.
C. Seam welding: 2-14C, Unit-2.
1 Seam welding is analogous to spot welding with the
difference that the
electrodes are in the form of rollers: and the work moves in direction
perpendicular to roller axis.
2. The current is interrupted 300 to 1500 times a
minute to give a series
of
overlapping spot welds.
 Electric Welding
2-16 C (EN-Sem-7)
water to keep the heating of the
3 The welding is usually done underminimum, and thus to give lower
welding rollers and the work to a
distortion of the work.
roller maintenance and less
Supply leads -Roller
Plates to
be welded
ACmain supply
through
transformer

-Clam
Seam weld

Fig. 2.14.1.
in thickness
4. Seam welding is confined to welding ofthin materials ranging
from 2 mm to 5 mm.
rating such as
5 It is also restricted to metals having low hardenability tested by
hot-rolled grades of low-alloy steels. Seam welds are usually
pillow test.
6 It is employed on many type of pressure (light or leak proof) tanks, for
condensers,
oil switches, transformers, refrigerators, evaporators and
aircraft tanks, paint and varnish containers etc.
Que 2.15. Compare resistance and arc welding process.
OR
Discuss the principle of arc welding and the difference between
carbon and metallic arc welding and their relative merits. Compare
AC and DCsystem of metallic arc welding.
AKTU2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

A Principle of arc welding: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-20, Unit-2.

B. Difference between carbon and metallic arc welding:
S.No. Carbon arc welding Metallic arc welding
1 Carbon-graphite electrodes Metallic electrodes are used.
are used.

2 Filler metal required. Filler metal is not required.

3. Electrodes are non Electrodes are consumable.
consumable.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-17 C (EN-Sem-7)
C. Difference between resistance and arc welding:
S. No.
Resistance welding Are welding
1. The source of supply is AC|The source of
only. supply is either AC
(1-¢ or 3-o) or DC.
2 The heat developed is mainlyThe heat
due to the flow of contact to the developed is mainly due
resistance. striking of arc between
electrodes or an electrode and the
workpiece.
3
External pressure is required. No external pressureis required.
4. Filler metal is not required. Filler metal is
necessary.
D. Compare AC and DC system of metallic arc welding:Refer Q. 2.4,
Page 2-5C, Unit-2.

PART-3
Electronic Resistance Control.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.16. Give the types of electronic resistance control. Explain

any two.

Answer
A. Types of electronic resistance control :
1. Ignitron contactor
2. ACtimer circuit
3. Heat control unit :
It is an electronic circuit which helps the delay in the firing of the
F:
E:
ignitrons by a definite, predetermined angle in each cycle and operates
in conjunction with the line contactor.
Atypical circuit employed for the heat control is shown in Fig. 2.16.1.
iüi. This is essentially a phase shift control circuit and delays the firing of the
ignitrons, thus reducing the magnitude of welding current as per
requirements.
 Electric Welding
2-18 C (EN-Sem-7)
AC
supply

O00
Ignitron

QO00-O00
O0001 -0000)

Fig.2.16.1. Heat control unit.

4. Energy storage welding processes:
very high conductivity metals
i. To meet the demand of heavy current of storage welding circuits are
such as aluminium and magnesium energy
used. Welding
transformer
supply
AC 3-Phase
gridcontrolled OO000
Capacitor
O0000
3-Phase rectifier bank

DC

Fig. 2.16.2. Capacitor discharge welding cireuit.

electrostatically stored
i. There are basically two such circuits namely
energy circuits and electromagnetically stored energy circuits.
Que 2.17. Explain the role of ignitron contactor in welding
switches ?
process. What are its advantages over mechanical
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. A
simple contactor using two ignitrons is shown in Fig. 2.17.1.
2. If the switch S is closed at the instant the line l is positive, current will
rush through the primary of welding transformer, rectifier a, switch S,
rectifier b, the ignitron I, and back to the line 2.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-19 C (EN-Sem-7)
3. The current will strike an arc in
Now voltage drops across I, to aignitronI, and the tube starts
low value, causing a voltage conducting.
4
ignitron circuit. drop in the
5.
Therefore, the ignitron will conduct just long enough to
Similarly, during next half cycle, the line 2 will be strikean arc.
current will flow from line 2 through positive and the
rectifier switch S, rectifier d to
c,
ignitron I,.
6. During this half cycle, as
the anode of ignitron I, becomes
stops conducting. negative, it
7.
Metallic rectifiers are used in this circuit. They
proper direction, thus, preventing the conduct the current in
the electrodes and saving the application of negative voltages to
8. A ignitrons from inverse current damages.
solenoid is used to apply suitable pressure
electrode. through the upper movable
9. Manual
control of the contactor switch is possible only ifthe
long duration. welds are of
1o Q0000
Solenoid
AC power to control
supply mechanical
2 transformerpressure
Welding Moveable
OO000 electrode
Workpiece

Fixed
electrode

d h

Fig. 2.17.1.
Advantage: In this heat can be controlled by
controlling current.
Que 2.18. Explain AC timer circuit.

Answer
1. When the
condenser C is discharged through a resistor R the voltage
across the condenser falls exponentially as given by the expression :
U= Ve -t/CR
2-20 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding

t= RC log. Vlu ...(2.18.1)

2 From eq. (2.18.1) it is clear that greater the capacity of condenser and
value of resistor, greater will be the time required for voltage to fall by
given amount.
3 In all timer circuits provision is, therefore, made for charging a condenser
to a particular value of voltage and then discharge by short circuiting
switch tillcondenseris discharged to aparticular value when relay will
operate and particular
WWMW contact will open or close.
4 Typical ACtimer circuit is shown in Fig. 2.18.1.
Relay Thyratron
1
R, tube
AC W
power a
supply
20

W
Switch, S
Fig. 2.18.1. AC timer circuit.
5. Such a timer circuit is used to control the number of cycles for which
power may be supplied into the weld.
6 The action of such a timer circuit is explained as when switch S is open
and supply terminallis positive w.r.t. terminal 2, the cathode and anode
ofthyratron are at the same potential, and grid is negative w.r.t. cathode,
and, therefore no current flow between cathode and grid.
7 When terminal l is negative w.r.t. terminal 2, the potential at a is positive,
grid becomes positive w.r.t. cathode and anode and electronic current
flows through R,, R, from grid to cathode, through R, and to terminal 1.
8 In a few cycles the capacitor C, will get charged to the maximum voltage
between aand 1.
9 This is due to the large value of time constant. The capacitor does not
discharge much during the negative half cycle of the grid voltage.
10. Resistance R, limits the grid-cathode circuit current to a safe value and
also determines the number of cycles in which C, will be fully charged.
11. So long switch Sremains open, capacitor C, remains charged by the grid
rectification action.
12. As soon as switch S is closed, the grid becomes very much negative w.r.t.
cathode and there is no capacitor charging current through grid
rectification.
13. Capacitor will, therefore, start discharging throgh R, and negative bias
of the grid will gradually decrease depending upon the time constant
R,C, of the discharge circuit.
14. Conduction in thyratron tube will start during positive half cycle of
anode voltage when the grid voltage instantaneously rises to eritical
grid voltage.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-21 C(EN-Sem-7)
15. Current through relay coil is rectified half
waves. As such to avoid relay
terminals chatter, a capacitor C, is connected across relay coil.
Que 2.19. Write short notes on the
i.
following:
Rebuilding
ii. Hard facing
ii. Defects in welding
iv. Under water welding. AKTU2013-14, Marks 10
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
i.
1.
Rebuilding:
Welding is used not only for fabrication of new parts but is used
considerably for rebuilding of worn out parts, repair of broken or cracked
parts also.
2. The worn out parts can be build up by use of proper electrodes.
3. Where the high temperature required for welding might change the
composition of the parent metal, low temperature electrodes may be
used.
4. After building up sufficient material the part can be re-machined to
desired dimensions. This is done for shafts, housings etc.
5. Repair of cracked parts is also possible. The cracked castings, bearing
housings, broken gears etc. can be repaired this way.
6. There is no difficulty of welding cracked mild steel, cast steel, manganese
steel spares.
7. However, cast iron and aluminium spares are difficult to weld. These
require pre-heating and post-heating so that the welding stresses do not
weaken the repaired parts.
8. Thermit welding requires a special mould to be built up. Awax pattern
is made around the gap and sand/clay mould is rammed outside it.
9. A magnesite crucible contains charge and is mounted above the weld.
After igniting crucible, the reaction takes about 30 seconds for completion.
10. Metal is poured into the joint by removal of thetapping pin at the bottom
of the crucible.
ii. Hard facing :
1. Welding is considerably used to reduce the wear on parts subjected to
heavy abrasion, such as jaws of stone crushers, digging teeth of shovels,
surfaces of rollers etc.
2. Ifaustenitic steels are used for manufacturing, then the difficulty arises
when any machining is required. Further these steels may not have
sufficient shock absorbing capacity.
3. To obtain it, the usual practice is to hard the face of mild steel with
harder deposits. These may be machinable or may be completely
unmachinable.
2-22 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding
steel
4. This hard facing may be even used for austenitic manganese
These layers
wearing parts used in cement or stone crushing industries.
should not be thick and must not be used for building up.
have to be
5. If the hard facing is to be done on worn out parts, these may
built up by ordinary electrodes, before hard facing is done.
6. This is carried out in layers and a good pining (hammering out) should
are
be carried out before second layer is built up. Many electrodes
available in the market, by which longitudinal joints are welded in uniform
fashion. This is called seam welding and is valuable in pipe
manufacturing. Water cooling is used to keep the electrodes cool.
iüi. Defects in welding :
Some important welding defects are:
1. Cracked welds as shown in Fig. 2.19.1(i)
2 Porous welds as shown in Fig. 2.19.1(i)

(i) Cracked welds (ii)Porous welds (ii) Porous welds

(iv) Non-uniform uneven weld (v) Warping

ig. 2.19.1 Welding defects.
3 Insufficient penetration as shown in Fig. 2.19.1(ii)
4. Non-uniform uneven weld as shown in Fig. 2.19.1(iv)
5. Warping as shown in Fig. 2.19.1(v)
6. Cracks such as these Fig. 2.19.1(a) in castings or in fabricated jobs can
be repaired by gauging and welding as shown in Fig. 2.19.2.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.19.2. Welding defects.
iv. Under-water welding:
1. Occasionally, welding has to be carried out under water and this is
known as "submerged welding".
2. Obviously gas welding is not possible as the heat necessary for fusion
cannot be generated under water by gas welding.
3. However, submerged welding is possible by electric arc. Heat generated
by an electric arc is much lower than in open air welding hence special
electrodes are used which have low fusion points and are not affected
under water.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-23 C (EN-Sem-7)
4.
Under-water electric welding may be done by arc' method or by
'resistance' method.

PART-4
Electrolyte Process :Laws of Electrolysis.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.20. State Faraday's laws of electrolysis and explain them

clearly. AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
A Faraday's first law :
1 The mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.
2. That is ma Q
a lt
m = ZIt ...(2.20.1)
where, Z= Constant called the electrochemical equivalent,
I= The steady current in amperes
t= Time (second) for which current Iflows through
the electrolyte.
B. Faraday's second law:
1. When the same quantity of electricity is passed through several
electrolytes, the masses of the substance deposited are proportional to
their respective chemical equivalentsor equivalent weights.
2. From this law it follows that the constant of proportional ity Z in
eq. (2.20.1) is proportional to the chemical equivalent.
Que 2.21. Explain various terms related to electrolytic process.
OR
Explain the following terms used in electrolytic processes :
i. Current efficiency
ii. Energy efficiency. AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
A Current efficiency:
1. Due to impurities which cause secondary reactions, the quantity of the
substance(s) liberated is slightly less than calculated from Faraday's
laws.
2-24 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding
2 This is taken into account by employing a factor, called the current
efficiency.
3. The current efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity of
substance liberated or deposited to the theoretical quantity, as caleulated
from Faraday's laws.
i.e., Current efficiency
Actual quantity of substance liberated or deposited
Theoretical quantity of substance liberated or deposited
4 The value of current efficiency lies between 90 to 98 percent.
5. In certain cases this efficiency is very low. For example in chromium
plating it is 12 to 15 %(approx).
B. Voltage :
1. The voltage that is essentially required to pass the current through an
electrolyte depends upon the potential drops at the electrodes and in
the electrolyte.
2, It is, therefore, desirable that these drops are made as small as possible.
3 This can be achieved, in many cases, by adding special conducting
agents to the electrolyte to make it a good conductor.
4 For example dilute sulphuric acid is added to copper sulphate bath in
copper plating.
5. The normal voltage required to pass current through most electrolyte
is 1 to 2 V.
C. Energy efficiency :
1. Owing to secondary reactions, the voltage actually required for the
deposition or liberation of metal is higher than the theoretical value
which increases the actual energy required.
2. Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of theoretical energy required
to the actual energy required for deposition of a given quantity of
metal.
Theoretical energy required
i.e., Energy efficiency = Actual energy required
PART-5

Applications of Electrolysis : Principle of Electro-deposition.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.22. Give various applications of electrolysis.

Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-25 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
The major applications of electrolysis are as under:
1.
Electro-deposition
Electroplating
ii. Electro-metallisation
ii. Electro-deposition of rubber
iv. Electro-facing
V.
2.
Electro-forming
Manufacture of chemicals
vi. Electro-typing
3.
4.
Anodizing
Electropolishing
5.
6.
Electro-cleaning or pickling
Electro-parting or electro-stripping
7. Electro-metallurgy :
Electro-extraction i. Electro-refining
Que 2.23. Explain the basic laws which govern
electro-deposition.
AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
OR
What is electro-deposition ? Explain in detail various factors which
have effect on the appearance and quality of the deposited surface.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
OR
Describe the principle of electro-deposition in electrolyte process.
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Electro-deposition :
1. The process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or
non-metal electrically is called the electro-deposition.
2 It is used for protective, decorative and functional purpose and includes
such processes as electro-plating, electro-forming, electro-typing, electro
facing, electro-metallisation etc.
3. In case the ion, after giving off electric charge to electrode, has stable
existence and does not have chemical reaction with electrode material.
4. It will be deposited on the electrode. This is the principle of electro
deposition and electro-extraction.
Factors on which quality of electrodeposition depends :
1. Nature of electrolyte:The electrolyte from which complex ions can
be obtained (e.g., cyanides) provides a smooth deposit.
2. Current density: The deposit of metalwill be uniform and fine-grained
if the current density is used at a rate higher than that at which the
nuclei are formed. The deposit will be strong and porous if the rate of
nuclei formation is very high due to very high current density.
 2-26C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Welding

3. Temperature: Alow temperature of the solution favours formation of

small crystals of metal; and a high temperature, large crystals.
4 Conductivity : The solution of good conductivity provides economy in
power consumption and also reduces the tendency to form trees and
rough deposits.
5. Electrolytic concentration : By increasing the concentration of the
electrolyte, higher current density can be achieved, which is necessary
toobtain uniform and fine-grain deposit.
6. Addition agents: The addition of acid or other substances to the
electrolyte reduces its resistance. Addition agents like glue, gums,
dextrose, dextrin etc. influence the nature of deposit.

Que 2.24.Explain electroplating.

Answer
1. Electroplating : It is an art of depositing a superior or a more noble
metal on an inferior or a base metal by means of electrolysis of an
aqueous solution of a suitable electrolyte.
2. Electroplating is done to aceomplish the following :
To protect the metals against corrosion.
i. To give reflecting properties reflectors.
iii. Togive a shiny appearance to articles.
iv. To replace worn out material.
3. The electrolytic deposits are crystalline in nature. The crystals must be
very fine in order to get firm, coherent and uniform deposits.
4. For this purpose, suitable electrolytes should be used in the electrolytic
bath and current density used should have an appropriate value. The
temperature should also be maintained at a proper level.
5 The articles to be coated with nobler metals should be in as higha state
of purity as possible.
Que 2.25. What do you understand by 'reverse current process' in
electroplating ? Discuss its advantages.
If 18.258 gm of nickel are deposited by 100 amp flowing for 10minutes,
how much copper would be deposited by 50 amp for 6 minutes ?
Atomic weight of nickel = 58.6 and that of copper = 63.18. Valency of
both is 2. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
A Electroplating is similar to electrolysis which is the reverse ofthe process
by which batteries produces current, this why it is called reverse current
process.
B. Advantages:
1. Corrosion resistance.
2. Decoration.
3. Improved mechanical characteristics.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 2-27C (EN-Sem-7)
C. Numerical:

Given :mE= 18.258 x 10 - kg, Iy = 100amp,ty; =10 min, Wt= 58.6,

Wtc = 63.18, I,, = 50 A, to, = 6 min.
To Find:mcu
m 18.258 x 10 -3
1. ECEN =30.4 × 10-8 kg/C
Ixt 100 × 10 x 60
Chemical eg: of Cu
2,
ECEcu Zo = Ni X

Chemical eq.of NI
= 30.4 x 10 -8 X63.18/2
58.6/2
=32.81 x 10 -$ kg/C
3.
mCu ==Zo, xIxt
32.81 x 10 - x 50 x 6 x 60 = 5.9 g
Que 2.26. Aworn out shaft of 10 em diameter and 25 em long is to
be coated with 2 mm thick layer of nickel. Determine the quantity of
electricity required and time taken if current density of
160 amp/ sq meter is adopted. Assume current efficiency of 90 %.
Density of nickel may be taken as 8.9 gm/cc.
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Weight of nickel = 8.9 gm/em?
2. Weight of nickel to be deposited
2
= IX 10x 25 x x 8.9 x 10-3 = 1398 x 10-3 kg
10
3. Electro-chemical equivalent of nickel is 1.0954 kg per 1,000 Ah

1398 x10- x1,000

4. Quantity of electricity required = 1.0954 x 0.9
= 1418.57 Ah

5. Current density = 160 A/m?

1418.57
6. Time taken = = 112 hr 53 min
T.X10 x 25 x 10- x 160

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION
 3
UNIT
Illumination

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Various Definitions 3-2C to 3-4C

Part-2: Laws of Illumination of Good 3-4C to 3-11C

Lighting and Requirement

Part-3: Design of Indoor and Outdoor........-.11C to 3-17C

Lighting System
Part-4 : Refrigeration System 3-17C to 3-18C

Part-5 : Domestic Refrigeration .3-18C to 3-20C

Part-6 : Water Cooler .3-20C to 3-21C

Part-7 : Air-Conditioning : Types .3-21C to 3-25C

3-1C (EN-Sem-7)
 Illumination
3-2C (EN-Sem-7)

PART-1

Various Definitions.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Explain the various terminologies related to

illumination.

Answer
1. Solid angle : It is the angle generated by the surface passing through
denoted by o,
the point in space and the periphery of the area. It is area of the
expressed in steradians and is given by the ratio of the
surface to the square of the distance between the area and the point,
Area A
i.e., ) =
(Radius)²
2. Light: The radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye is called light.
3.
Luminous flux : The total quantity of light energy emitted per second
from a luminous body is called luminous flux.
4. Luminous intensity :
1 Luminous intensity in a given direction is the luminous flux emitted by
the source per unit solid angle.
2. It is denoted by the symbol I and is measured in 'candela' (cd) or
lumens/ steradian (i.e., I = F/o lumens/steradian or candela, where o
is the solid angle).
5. Lumen:It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of
luminous flux given out in a space represented by one unit solid angle by
a source having an intensity of one candle power in all directions.
i.e., Lumens = Candle power (CP) x Solid angle (o)
6. Candle power: It is defined as the number of lumens emitted by a
source in a unit solid angle in a given direction. It is denoted by symbol
CP
Lumens
ie., CP =

7. Illumination : It is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit

area. It is denoted by symbol E and is measured in lumens per square
metre' or lux or 'metre-candle' (i.e., E= FA lumens/m² or lux, where A
is the area of the surface).
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-3C (EN-Sem-7)
8.
Brightness (or luminance) : Brightness of a surface is defined as the
luminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface in the
direction. It is denoted by the symbol L. given
L=
A cos 0 candela/square metre (Cd/m)
9. Mean horizontal candle power (mhcp) :It is defined as
candle power in all directions in the horizontal plane the mean of
source of light. containing the
10. Mean spherical candle power
candle powers in all directions and(mscp):
It is defined as the mean of
in all planes from the source of light.
11. Mean hemi-spherical candle
candle powers in all directions power:It
is defined as the mean of all
above or below the horizontal plane
passing through the source of light.
12. Reduction factor: Reduction
factor of a source of light is the ratio of
its mean spherical candle power to its mean
ie., horizontal candle power,

Reduction factor = mscp

mshp
13. Lamp efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of the
power input.
It
luminous flux tothe
is expressed in lumens per watt.
14. Specific consumption:It is defined as the
ratio of power input to the
average candle power. It is expressed in watts per candle.
15. Space-height ratio : It is defined as the ratio of
horizontal distance
between adjacent lamps and height of their mountings.
16. Utilisation factor (UF) :The ratio of total lumens
plane to total lumens given out by the lamp is calledreaching the working
utilisation factor (or
co-efficient of utilisation).
17. Maintenance factor (MF):It is the ratio of illumination under normal
working conditions to the illumination when the things are perfectly
clean.
18. Depreciation factor :This is merely the reverse of the maintenance
factor and is defined as the ratio of initial metre-candles tothe
maintained metre-candles on the working plane. Its value is more ultimate
unity. than
19. Absorption factor : The ratio of total lumens
available after absorption
to the total lumens emitted by the source of light is called the absorption
factor.
20. Beam factor:The ratio of lumens in the beam of a
lumens given out by lamps is called the beam factor. projector the
to
21. Reflection factor: The ratio of reflected light to
the incident light is
called the reflection factor. It is always less than unity.
 Ilumination
34C (EN-Sem-7)

22. Glare: Glare may be defined as the brightness within the field of vision
of such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference
with vision or eye-fatigue.

PART-2

Laws of Ilumination and Requirement of Good Lighting.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.2. Explain laws of illumination.

Answer
1. Eisdirectly proportional to the luminous intensity () of the source. In
other words, E « I.
2. Inverse square law :
i. The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance of the surface from the source.
E:F:
1
In other words, E a

ii. Consider surface areas A, and A, at distances r, and r, respectively from

the point source S of luminous intensity I and normal to the rays as
shown in Fig. 3.2.1. Let the solid angle subtended be o.

Fig. 3.2.1. Inverse square law.

iv. Total luminous flux radiated = lo lumens
V. Illumination of the surfae of area A,
Io I
E, = = lumeHs per unit area
A, or
vi. Similarly, illumination on the surface of area A,
Utilization of Electrical Energy & ElectricTraction 3-5C (EN-Sem-7)
Io Io I
E, = lumens per unit area
A, or
3. Lambert's cosine law :
i. According to the law, E is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle
made by the normal tothe illuminated surface with the direction of the
incident flux as shown in Fig. 3.2.2.
i. Let-F be the flux incident on the surface of area A when in
position 1.
When this surface is turned back through an angle 0, then flux incident
on it is F cos 0. Hence, illumination of the surface when in
position l is
F F cos
E, = A But when in position 2, E, =
A
E, =E, cos 0
Combining all these factors together, we get
Icos 9
E= lumens per unit area.

1 2

F A

F= Luminous flux
A = Area of the surface
Fig.3.2.2. Lambert's cosine law.

Que 3.3. What is a polarcurve? How is it useful to an illumination

engineer? AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Polar curve :
1. The luminous intensity in most lamps or sources of light is not the same
in all directions, because of their unsymmetrical shape.
2. Often it is necessary to know the distribution oflight in various directions
to ascertain how the candle power of a light source varies in different
directions.
3. The luminous intensity in allthedirections can be represented by polar
curves.
 Illumination
3-6C(EN-Sem-7)
4. Ifthe luminous intensity i.e., candle power is measured in a horizontal
plane about a vertical axis and a curve is plotted between th¹ candle
power and the angular position, a horizontal polar curve or diagram is
obtained.
5. Ifthe candle power is measured at angular position in a vertical plane, a
polar curve in the vertical plane, called vertical polar curve, is obtained.
Fig. 3.3.1 shows typical polar curves for an ordinary lamp.
90° 60° 180° 150°

30° 120°

0° -90°

60
'30°
(a) For horizontal plane (b) For vertical plane
Fig. 3.3.1. Polar curves.

B. The polar curves are used to determine the

following:
1 The mean horizontal candle power (mhcp) and mean spherical candle
power (mscp).
2. The actual illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in
that particular direction as read from the vertical polar curve in
illumination calculations.
3. The mhcp of a lamp can be determined from the horizontal polar curve
direction.
by taking the mean value of the candle power in a horizontal
4. The mscp can be determined from the vertical polar curve by Rousseau's
construction.
Que 3.4. Explain Rousseau's construction.
OR
What do you understand by polar curves ? Explain Rousseau's
construction for calculating mscp of a lamp.
AKTU2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
A. Polar curve : Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3-50, Unit-3.
B. Rousseau's construction: Supp0se the vertical polar curve is in the
form of two lobes symmetrical about YOY axis. The Rousseau's
construction for this polar curve is illustrated in Fig. 3.4.1.
Draw a circle with any convenient radius with centre 0 as the centre.
i. Draw PQ parallel to YOY and equal to the vertical diameter of the
circle.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-7C (EN-Sem-7)
ii. Draw any line OEA meeting the polar curve in E and
the projection be S. the circle in A. Let

Y! P

Polar curve
T
U

Fig. 3.4.1. Rousseau's construction.

iv. At S erect an ordinate ST = OE.
V. By similar construction draw other ordinates. The
curve PSQUTVP
obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau's
mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean curve. The
(mscp).
spherical candle power

The mean ordinate of the curve = Area PSQUTVP

Length of PQ
vi. The area under the curve can either be
by using Simpson's rule.
determined on a graph paper or

Que 3.5.
A lamp having a uniform CP of 300 in all
directions is
provided with a reflector which directs 60 percent of the total light
uniformly on a circular area of 12 m diameter.
The lamp is 5 m above the area. Calculate:
i. The illumination at the centre and edge of
the surface with and
without reflector.
ii. The average illumination over the area without the reflector.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Candle power of the lamp, CP =300
Height of the lamp, h =5m
Efficiency of the reflector =60 %
i. The illumination at the centre without
reflector :
The illumination at the centre
CP 300
= 12 lux
52
3-8C (EN-Sem-7) Illumination

The illumination at the edge of the surface with and without

the reflector:
i. The illumination at the edge of the surface without reflector
3
CP 300 5
-cos= =3.15 lux
5 J5 +62
lamp

h= 5m

6m 6m
B
A
12 m dia.

Fig. 3.5.1.
i. With reflector the illumination at the edge and at the centre will be the
same since the reflector directs the light uniformly on the surface.
ii. Total lumens given out,
F= 4n x CP = 4 X300 = 1200
iv. Total lumens reaching the surface
= 0.6 x F= 0.6 × 1200n = 720r
V. Total surface area = r'= IX 6 =36r m²
vi .. Average illumination with reflector
720
= 20 lux
36 T
ii. Average illumination over the area without the reflector :
Average illumination of the surface without reflector will be found by
first determining the solid angle subtended by the surface at the lamp
and then finding out the luminous flux emitted in that solid angle.
ii. Solid angle subtended by the area at the lamp,
o = 2r 1- cos = 2r (1 - cos 0)
2
5
= 2r = 1.28n steradians
J5² +6*
i. Total flux reaching the surface
= Io = 300 x 1.28r = 3841 lumens
iv. Average illumination
384 T
= 10.67 1lux
IX62
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-9C (EN-Sem-7)

Que 3.6. What are the main faults of a lighting

these are overcome ?
and how system
In a street lighting scheme, lamps
hung at a 6 meters. The distance having uniform CP of 500 are
is 8meters. Find the between consecutive lamp posts
between the lamp posts. illumination under lamp and at centre in
AKTU2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Faults :
1. Glare:
i.
Overbrightness cause glare.
It can be overcome by using low-intensity light fixtures or by using
adjustable lightning brightness control.
2. Improper contrast :
Inadequate colours oflight cause this problem.
It can be overcome by decreasing reflected glare or by
using contrasting
colours.
3. Poorly distributed light:
i. Uneven distribution of lighting causes this problem.
It can be overcome by replacing light fxtures or by
painting/cleaning
B.
ceilings.
Numerical :

Given: Candle power = 500 CP, height = 6 m, distance =8m

To Find:Illumination.
i At centre:
1. E,= Due to lamp-1+ Due to lamp-2
500 500
x cos0+ cos° 0
62 62
2 x 500
= 16 lux
6

10m

7.21 m 6m

4 m 4 m
-8 m
Fig. 3.6.1,
ii. Under lamp:
1. E, = Due to lamp-1+ Due to lamp-2
 Illumination
3-10 C(EN-Sem-7)

500 X cos 0+ 500

6
3
500 = 16.89 lux
6

250 V lamp has a total flux of 1500 lumens and takes a

Que 3.7. A
per watt and mscp per watt.
current of 0.4 A. Calculates lumens
Answer
I=0.4 A
Given: V= 250 volts;F= 1500 lumens;
watt
To Find: Lumens per watt and mscp per
1. Mean spherical candle power of lamp,
F 1500 = 119.4
mscp =
4 T 4 T
1500
Output of lamp in lumens = 15
Lumens per watt = 250 x 0.4
2. Wattage of lamp in watts
mscp of lamp 119.4 = 1.194
mscp per watt
3 Wattage of lamp 250 x 0.4
uniformspherical
Que 3.8. Find the height at which a light having intensity
order that the
distribution should be placed over a floor in
horizontal illumination at a given distance from its vertical line
of
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
may be greatest.

Answer
From to Fig. 3.8.1.

Fig. 3.8.1.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction
3-11C (EN-Sem-7)
1. The intensity of horizontal
from the vertical line SA, illumination at point B, at a given distance d
CP CP
cos =
cos 0
2. But, Cos =
Ja² +d²
CP h
= CP x
(h² + d'2
3. Differentiating I, w.r.t. h, we have
di, = CP[(h + d') - 32x1+ h(-
dh 3/2)(h² + d') - 512 x 2h]
= CP[(h2 + d²) 32 - 3h(h² + d' 5r2]
4 dl,
For maximum dh =0
(h² + d²) -32 =3h(h² + d) - 5/2
(h + d²) = 3h2
2h = d?

h= d
=0.707 d.
2

PART-3
Design of Indoor and Outdoor Lightning System.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.9.Explain types of lightning schemes.

Answer
1. Direct lighting:Fig. 3.9.1(a).
It is most commonly used type of lighting scheme.
In this system more than 90 %of total light flux is made to fall
the working plane with the help of deep reflectors. directly on
iüi. It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor
iv. Drawback : Direct lighting, though most lighting.
efficient, is liable to cause
glare and hard shadows.
2 Semi-direct lighting : Fig. 3.9.1(6).
 Illumination
3-12 C (EN-Sem-7)
light flux is made to fall downwards
In thissystem 60 to 90 %ofthe total remaining light is to be
directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors,
used to illuminate the ceiling and walls.
ceilings where a high
Such a system is best suited torooms with high
desirable.
level of uniformly distributed illumination is
globes which not only
i. Glare in such units is avoided by using diffusing improve the efficiency
improve the brightness towards the eye level but
of the system with reference to the working plane.

(e) General
(a) Direct (b) Semi-direct (c) Semi-indirect (d) Indirect
lighting lighting lighting lighting diffusing
lighting
Fig. 3.9.1. Different types of lighting arrangements.
3. Semi-indirect lighting: Fig. 3.9.1(c).
fall downwards
i. In this system 60 to 90 %of the total light flux is made to
directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors.
i. It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes.
4. Indirect lighting: Fig. 3.9.1(d).
upwards to
In this system more than 90 % of total light flux is thrown
reflectors. In
the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl
such a system the ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare is reduced
to minimum.
ii. This system provides a shadowless illumination which is veryuseful for
drawing offices, composing rooms and in workshops especially where
large machines and other obstructions would cast troublesome shadows
if direct lighting were used.
5. General diffusing lighting: Fig. 3.9.1(e).
i In this lighting system lamps made of diffusing glass are used which give
nearly equal illumination in all directions.
Que 3.10. What do you mean by direct lighting scheme ? What are
the drawbacks of this scheme ? Discuss factors required for good
lighting arrangement ? AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Explain laws of illumination and also describe various factors to be
considered for good lighting. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A Law of illumination : Refer Q. 3.2, Page 3 4C, Unit-3.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy&Electric Traction 3-13 C(EN-Sem-7)
B. Direct lighting system and drawbacks : Refer Q. 3.9,Page 3-11C,
Unit-3.
C. Factor for a good lighting scheme:
1. It should provide adequate illumination.
2. It should provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform
as possible.
3. It should avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.
4. It should provide light of suitable colour.
Que 3.11. What are main objective of outdoor lighting (or street
lighting) ? And give its principles also.
Answer
A. The street lighting entails the following main
1. To make the traffic and objectives :
obstructions on the road clearly promote safety
and convenience.
2. To enhance the community value of the
street.
3. To make the street more attractive.
B. The general principles are emnployed in the design of street
lighting installations :
1. Diffusion principle:
In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are employed. The
reflectors are such that they may direct the light downwards and spread
as uniformly as possible over the surface of the road.
ii. In order to avoid glare the reflectors are made to have a cut-off between
30° to 45° so that the filament is not visible except underneath it.
2. Specular reflection principle:
1. Here, the reflectors are curved upwards so that the light is thrown on
the road at a very large angle of incidence.
i. In this method, the requirement of a pedestrian who requires to see
objects in his immediate neighbourhood, is also fulflled.
Que 3.12. Give the good effects of factory lighting (or indoor
lighting) and its characteristics.
Answer
In an industrial establish nent an adequate amount of light produces
the following good effects:
1 The productivity of labour is inereased.
2 The quality of work is improved.
3. Numbers of work stoppages are reduced.
4 Accidents are reduced.
Afactory lighting installation, in common with indoor equipments, should
.:
provide the following:
i Adequate illumination on the working plane;
Good distribution of light;
3-14 C (EN-Sem-7) llumination

iü. Simple and easily cleanedfittings;

iv. Avoid glare (from the lamp itself as well as from any polished surface,
which may be within the line of vision).

Que 3.13. Explain discharge lamp.

Answer
1. In all discharge lamps, an electric current is passed through a gas or
vapour which renders it luminous. In this process of producing light by
gaseous conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon,
mercury and sodium vapours.
2. The colours (i.e. wavelength) of light produced depends on the nature of
gas or vapour:
i. Neon discharge fields orange-red light.
Mercury-vapour light is always bluish.
Sodium vapour light is orange-yellow.
3. Types of discharge lamps :
a. Type-1:Those lamp in which colour of light is the same as produced by
the discharge through one gas or vapour.
Example:Sodium vapour, mercury vapour and neon gas lamps.
b. Type-2:
i. Those lamps which use the phenomenon of fluorescence; these are
known as fluorescent lamps.
In these lamps, the discharge through the vapour produces ultra-violet
waves which cause fluorescence in certain materials called as phosphor.
ii. The inside of the fluorescent lamp is coated with a phosphor which
absorbs invisible ultra-violet rays and radiate visible rays.
Example :Fluorescent mercury-vapour tube.
4. In general, the discharge lamps are superior to metal filament lamps.
5. They have the following demerits :
1. High initial cost.
Poor power factor.
ii. Starting requires starters/transformers in different cases.
iv. Time is needed to attain full brilliancy.
Que 3.14. What do you understand by discharge lamp ? Explain
the construction and working of high pressure mercury vapour
lamp. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Explain with the help of circuit diagram the working of high
pressure mercury vapour lamp. A 250 V lamp has a total flux of
1500 lumens and takes a current of 0.4 A. Calculates lumens per
watt and mscp per watt. AKTU2014-15, Marks 10
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-15 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
Discharge lamp: Refer Q.3.13, Page 3-140, Unit-3.
High pressure mercury: Fig. 3.14.1 shows a high pressure mercury
vapour lamp.
A. Construction:
1. It consists of two bulbs and an arc-tube containing the electric discharge
and outer bulb which protects the arc-tube from changes in temperature.
2. The inner tube or arc-tube is made of quartz (or hard glass) and the
outer bulb of hard glass.
3. The arc-tube contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas.
4. In addition to two main electrodes, an auxiliary starting electrode
connected through a high resistance (about 50 k2) is also provided.
5. The main electrodes consist of tungsten coils with electron-emitting
coating or elements of thorium metal.
B. Working :
1. When the supply is switched ON, initial discharge for the few seconds is
established in the argon gas between the auxiliary starting electrode
and the neighbouring main electrode and then in argon between the
twomain electrodes.
2. The heat produced due to this discharge through the gas is sufficient to
vaporize mercury.
3. Consequently, pressure inside the arc-tube increases to about one to
two atmospheres and voltage across the main electrodes grows from
about 20 to 150 V, the operation taking about 5 to 7 minutes.
4. During this time, discharge is establi_hed through the mercury vapours
which emit greenish-blue light.
5. The choke is provided to limit the current to a safe value.
0000
Choke

Auxiliary Main
starting electrode
electrode
+R
-Outer bulb
Arc-tube

Main
electrode

Fig. 3.14.1.
 Illumination
3-16 C (EN-Sem-7)

6. This choke lowers the power factor, so a capacitor C is connected across

the circuit to improve the power factor.
7. The efficiency of this type of lamp is 30-40 lumens/watt. use on
8. These lamps are manufactured in 250 W and 400 W ratings for
200-250 VACsupply mains.
9. These lamps are used for general industrial lighting, railway yards,
colour
ports, work areas, shopping centres etc. where greenish-blue
light is not objectionable.
Que 3.15. Explain the working of afluorescent tube with the help
of the circuit diagram giving the function of various parts.
|AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
OR
With the help of circuit diagram explain the working of the following
light sources :
i. High pressure mercury
ii. Fluorescent tube. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
i. High pressure mercury : Refer Q. 3.14, Page 3-14C, Unit-3.
ii. Fluorescent tube:
1. These tubes can be obtained ina variety of lengths, with illumination in
a variety of colours.
2. It is possible to achieve quite high lighting intensities without excessive
temperatures rise and, owing to the nature of light sources, the danger
of glare is minimized.
3. The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens/watt about three
times the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp.
Construction :
1. It is a low pressure mercury vapour lamp. Due to low pressure, the lamp
is in the form of a long tube, coated inside with phosphor.
2 The tube contains a smallamount of mercury and a small quantity of
argon gas at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury.
3. At eachend of the tube the electrodes are of spiral form made oftungsten
and coated with an electron emitting material.
Starer

Long tube
Supply

Choke Switch
Fig. 3.15.1. Fluorescent tube (lamp).
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-17C(EN-Sem-7)
4 A choke is connected in series with the tube
voltage impulse for starting the lamp and acts asfilament. It provides a
ballast later on when
the lamp is running.
5. The filament is connected to a starter switch
which is small cathode
glow lamp with bimetal strip at the electrodes.

Base
Cathode
-Bulb
Steam
Mercury press Exhaust
-Phosphor tube
Lead-in
wires
Gas
Pins
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.15.2. Parts of a fluorescent lamp.
Working:
1. When the starter is cold, the electrodes are open. When supply is given,
full voltage acts on the starter.
2. A glow discharge is set up in the starter which warms the electrodes and
causes the bimetal strip to bend and touch the electrodes. The circuit
becomesa complete series.
3. Current flows and causes emission of free electrons from filaments.
4. At the same time voltage at the starter falls t0 zero and the bimetal strip
cools down.
5. The electrodes of the starter switch then open and interrupt the current
in the circuit.
6. Its effort is to induce high voltage surge of about 1000 volts in the choke.
. 7. This voltage produces the flow of electrons between the lamp electrodes
and the lamp lights up immediately. Then starting contacts are left
open.
8. In order to improve the power factor, usually a condenser of 4 uF capacity
is connected across the supply.

PART-4
Refrigeration System.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
 Illumination
3-18C(EN-Sem-7)

system. AKTæ 2014-15, Marks 05

Que 3.16. Define refrigerated
OR
application.
Explain refrigeration system with
Answer
refrigeration means the cooling or removal of heat from a
1. In simple,
system.
The equipment employed to maintain the the system at a low temperature
2. and system which is kept at lower
is termed as refrigerating system
temperature is called refrigerated system.
3. Elements of refrigeration systems : will flow from the space
which heat
Alow temperature thermal sink" to
to be cooled.
raising the temperature level
i. Means ofextracting energy from the sink, receiver.
heat
of this energy, and delivering it to a from the high temperature
transferred
ii. Areceiver to which heat will be
high pressure refrigerant.
iv. Means of reducing pressure and temperature of the refrigerant as it
returns from the receiver to the "sink".
4 Refrigeration systems :
i. Ice refrigeration
iü. Air-refrigeration system
system
iüi. Vapour compression refrigerationsystem.
iv. Vapour absorption refrigeration
5. Applications of refrigeration :
Ice making
Transportation of foods above and below freezing.
ii. Industrial air-conditioning
iv. Comfort air-conditioning
V.
Chemical and related industries.

PART-5

Domestic Refrigeration.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.17. Draw electronic circuit of arefrigerator and explain its

working. |AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-19 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
Electrical circuit of a refrigerator : Fig. 3.17.1 shows a schematic
diagram of electric circuit of a refrigerator.
Components :
1. Lamp and switch:The arrangement is made in such a way that lamp
remains OFF as the door is closed and becomes ON whenever door is
opened. When the lamp is ON it is easy to trace the commodities placed
in the refrigerator.
2 Thermostat switch : A thermostat switch maintains a requisite
temperature in the refrigerator. Temperature range of parts of the
refrigerator is given below :
i. Freezer:-7°C to 5°Capprox.
ii. Remaining part of the refrigerator: 7°C to 15°C.
3. Thermal overload release: This component is a protective device for
compressor motor unit. It operates when temperature of the compressor
rises beyond a certain value or excessive current flows in the motor;
under such conditions the bimetallic strips disconnect the supply to
motor.
4. Starting relay :A starting relay starts the motor by the putting starting
winding/auxiliary winding of split phase induction motor across the
supply.
5. Electric motor: Electric motor used is single phase induction motor,
split phase type. It is a fractional horse power induction motor; its size
depends upon the capacity of the refrigerator.
Thermal Thermostat
switch
overload
release

Heating
W
resistance

Starting Switch
relay
Contact

Plunger
Main
)Lamp
Motor winding
(for running of motor
compressor)
-OO000
Auxiliary windi.,
of motor
Fig. 3.17.1.
3-20 C (EN-Sem-7) Illunination

Working:
1. When electric supply is given to the refrigerator, current passes through
the thermostat switch, thermal overload release, coil of starting relay
and main winding of the motor.
2 When the motor starts from rest it draws a very heavy current.
3. When this heavy current flow through the coil of the starting relay, the
coil gets energized and it pulls up the plunger, short circuiting the contacts
and putting auxiliary winding also in the circuit.
4. Now since both the main winding and auxiliary winding are energized,
motor starts running.
5 When the motor gains normal speed, the current drawn by the main
winding of motor becomes normal.
6. At normal current plunger in the coil of starting relay cannot remain
pulled and it is released down, opening the contacts, thus auxiliary
winding gets out of circuit.
7. The main function of starting relay is toput auxiliary winding in the
circuit at the time of starting the motor and to disconnect it when the
motor gains normal speed.
8. In case starting relay fails to close, motor will not start. But once it closes
and it fails to open,then either thermal overload shall trip out or fuse
shall be blown OFF.

PART-6

Water Cooler.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.18. Define water cooler. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Water coolers are machines to produce cold water at about 7 to 13 C.
The temperature of water is controlled with the help of a thermostatic
switch.
B. Water cooler may be classified as follows :
a. Instantaneous type water coolers :
i Bottle type cooler.
Pressure type cooler.
i. Self-controlled or remote type cooler.
b. Storage type water coolers:
1. Such types of cooler are used where continuous supply of water is not
available.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-21 C(EN-Sem-7)
2. Fig. 3.18.1 shows a schematic storage type water
3.
cooler.
Here water is filled in the storage tank and level of the water is kept
same by the use of a float valve.
4. The storage tank is surrounded by an evaporator coil through which a
low pressure liquid refrigerant flows which takes away the heat of
water and thus makes it cold.
7. When the water attains desired temperature the thermostat operates
and disconnects the power supply to the motor.
8. The motor used is capacitor start capacitor run single phase induction
motor.

-Insulation
Thermostat
Cooler
body
-Evaporator

Capillary.
tube

Cold water
outlet 4Waste supply
Waste water Suction line
basin Filter -Dischargeline

-Compressor
Condenser
Fig. 3.18.1. Storage type water cooler.

PART-7
Air Conditioning : Types.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.19. Give the classification of air-conditioning system.

 Illumination
3-22 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
arrangement of equipment :
A. According to the i. Zoned systems.
Central systems.
iüi. Unitary systems. iv. Unitary central systems.
B. According to the purpose :
Comfort air-conditioning system.
i. Industrial air-conditioning
system.
year :
C. According to season of the
Winter air-conditioning system.
ii
Summer air-conditioning system.
Year-round air-conditioning system.
ii.
diagram showing therein different
Que 3.20. Draw a complete of
an air-conditioning plant. What is the function
components of
AKTU2013-14, Marks 10
each component ?

Answer defined as
Air-conditioning system :An air-conditioning system is a specified
A. of the system used to produce
an assembly of different parts space of building.
condition of air within a requiredair-conditioning cycle comprises the
An
B. Air-conditioning cycle :
following steps :
intoduct-work which is connected to the openings in
The fan forces air
1
These openings are commonly called outlets or terminals.
the room. Supply outlet
Supply duct

Heating or
cooling coil Fan

Air-conditioned
space
Secondary
filter
(Electrostatic
or fabric type)

Self cleaning
filter Return duct return outlet

Fig. 3.20.1. Air-conditioning eycle.

Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-23 C(EN-Sem-7)
2. The duct-work directs the air to the room
through the outlets.
3. The air enters the room and either heats or
cools as required. Dust
particles from the room enter the air stream and are carried along with it.
4. Air then flows from the room through a second outlet
the return outlet) and enters the return (sometimes called
are removed by a
duct-work, where dust particles
filter.
5. After the air is cleaned, it is either heated or cooled depending upon
the
condition in the room. If cool air is required, the air is passed over the
surface of acooling coil; if warm air required, the air ispassed through
a combustion chamber or over the surface of a
heating coil.
6. Finally the air flows back to the fan, and the cycle is
C. The main parts of the equipment in the
completed.
are: air-conditioning cycle
1. Fan: The primary function of afan is to move air to and from the room.
2. Supply duct : The function of a supply duct is to direct the air from fan
to the room. In order that air may flow freely it should be as
short as
possible and have minimum number of turns.
3. Supply outlets : The function of supply outlets is to distribute the air
evenly in a roonm.
4. Space : It is very important to have an enclosed space (i.e., room) since
ifit does not exist it would be impossible to complete the air cycle since
conditioned air from supply outlets would flow into the atmosphere.
5. Ret arn outlets: These are the openings in the room surface. They are
employed to allow room air to enter the return duct (i.e., return outlets
allow air to pass from the room). They are actually located at opposite
extreme of a wall or room from the supply outlet.
6. Filters: Afilter is primarily used to clean the air by removing dust and
dirt particles. They are usually located at some point in the return air
duct. They are made of any materials from spun glass to composite
plastic. Other types operate on electrostatic principle.
7. Cooling coil and heating coil or combustion chamber: The cooling
coil and heating coil or combustion chamber can be located either ahead
or after the fan, but should always be located after the filter. A filter
ahead of the coil is necessary to prevent the excessive dirt, dust and dirt
particles from covering the coil surface.
Summer operation : The air-conditioning cycle cools the air during
summer operation. Return air from the room passes over the surface of
cooling coil, and the air cooled to the required temperature. If there is
too much moisture present, it is removed automatically as the air is
cooled by the coil.
9 Winter operation: The air-conditioning cycle adds heat to the air
during winter operation. This is achieved by passing the return air from
the room over the surface of a heating coil, etc.
 llumination
3-24 C (EN-Sem-7)

3.21. Describe in detail functioning of windowair-conditioner.

Que
|AKTU2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
parts: outdoor part
1. Window-type air-conditioner is subdivided into two
and indoor part.
sealed motor compressor unit,
2. The outdoor part consists of completelymotor-driven fan, remote bulb,
condenser, motor-driven evaporator, power connector and a
refrigerant control, control panel, an air filter,
tray.
ofinner and outer parts.
3. There is a pipe line that connects the two trays
filter connects the outer condenser
4. Acapillary tube through a refrigerant
to inner part of evaporator.
through a suction
5 Evaporator is connected to a compressor motor
pipeline.
6 All parts of cooler, i.e., front and back of
inner and outer portions, are
fitted with the help of shutters.
7. In this system, the working
substances are the vapours of ammonia,
and condenses.
freon, carbon dioxide etc., which can evaporate
8. When low-pressure vapour from
the evaporator is passed into the
compressor is able to
compressor unit through the suction pipe line, the
deliver the vapour tothe condenser at high pressure.
9 The high-pressurized vapour is condensed
and the heat is removed
from the refrigerant vapour.
it is passed into the
10. Before the vapour flowing back into the evaporator,
cooled liquid refrigerant is
capillary control through filters, thus the
circulating through the evaporator coils.
the
11. Now, the air is drawn in the room of the condensed space through
motor-driven fan and then, the same is allowed pass over the evaporator
coils.
back into the
12. The cooled air from the evaporator coils is then supplied
room or condensed space.
from the air and
13. In this process, the dehumidification of the moisture of the
the moisture from the evaporator coils is collected at the bottom
evaporator into a pan.
outdoor
14. This moisture in the indoor pan or the tray is pumped into the
tray due to the gravity, which helps to cool the compressor and the
condenser.
15. In outdoor part, the fan draw s the atmosphericair and is circulated over
the compressor and the co denser unit.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 3-25 C (EN-Sem-7)

Capillary tube
Control
panel Evaporator Condenser
-Outdoor
case

HFanan
Suction
pipeline Motor
Compressor

Air filter Power: |Motor relay and

supply terminal box
Fig. 3.21.1. Room air-conditioner.
16. The heat of the vapour refrigerant is absorbed by the air during its
passage through the condenser and is cooled into the liquid form.
17. And, the operation of the unit is automatically ON and OFF by a control
valve panel when the desired temperature is reached in the room.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. Explain the various terminologies related to illumination.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.1.

Q.2. What is a polar curve ? How is it useful toan illumination

engineer ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.3.

Q.3. Explain Rousseau's construction.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.4.

Q.4. A lamp having a uniform CP of 300 in all directions is

provided with a reflector which directs 60 percent of the
total light uniformly on a circular area of 12 m diameter.
The lamp is 5 m above the area. Calculate.
 4 UNIT

Electric Traction-I

CONTENTS
Part-1: Types of Electric Traction 4-2C to 4-5C
Part-2: Systems of Track Electrification 4-5C to 4-8C
Part-3: Traction Mechanics 4-8C to 4-10C
Types of Services
Part-4 Speed-Time Curve 4-10C to 4-170
and its Simplification
Part-5 : Tractive Effort
4-17C to 4-19C

Part-6: Specific Energy Consumption 4-19C to 4-24C

Part-7: Coefficient of Adhesion 4-24C to 4-27C
and its Influence

4-1C (EN-Sem-7)
 Electric Traction-I
4-2C (EN-Sem-7)

PART-1

Types of Electric Traction.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1.Explain the types of electric traction.

OR
Discuss the different system of electric traction.

Answer
Different systems of traction :
A. Steam engine drive : Steam engine drive, though losing ground
gradually due tovarious reasons, it is still the amply adopted means of
propulsion of railway work in underdeveloped countries.In this type of
drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the necessary
motive power.
Advantages :
1. Simplicity in design.
2. Simplified maintenance.
3. Easy speed control.
Disadvantages :
1. Low thermal efficiency.
2. It has strictly limited overload capacity.
3. Steam locomotive cannot be put into service at any moment as time is
required for raising of steam.
4. Owing to high centre of gravity of steam locomotive, speed is limited.
B. Internal combustion (IC) engine drive : This drive is widely used
for road transport (buses, trucks, cars etc.). It has an efficiency of about
25 percent when operating at normal speed.
Advantages:
1. Low initial investment.
2. It is self-contained unit and, therefore, it is not tied to any route.
3. Easy speed control.
Disadvantages :
1. Limited overload capacity.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 43C (EN-Sem-7)
2. Agear box is essential for speed
control.
3. Higher running and
maintenance costs.
C. IC engine electric drive: In an IC
engine electric drive the reduction
gear and gear box are eliminated as the diesel engine is to drive the DC
generator coupled to it at a constant speed. This type of drive
considerable favour for railway work and locomotives of thisistype finding
are
being widely used.
Advantages :
1 Low initial investment (since no overhead
and equipment are required).
structure distribution system
2 No modification of existing tracks is required while
steam to diesel electric traction. converting from
3 It can be put into service at any moment.
Disadvantages :
1 Limited overload capacity (since diesel engine cannot be overloaded).
2 High running and maintenance cost.
3 Comparatively costlier than steam or electric locomotives.
D. Petrol-electric traction :
1. This system,due to electric conversion provides a very fine and
control which makes the vehicle capable of moving slowly continuous
at an
imperceptible speed and creeping up the steepest slope without throttling
the engine.
2 Petrol-electric traction is employed in heavy lorries and buses.
E. Battery electric drive :
1 In this system the locomotive carries the secondary batteries
which
supply power to DC motors employed for driving the vehicle.
2. This type of drive is well suited for frequently operated service such as
for local delivery of goods in large towns with maximum daily run of
50 to 60 km, shunting and traction in industrial works and mines.
3 Battery vehicles are started by series-parallel grouping of batteries in
parallel for starting and running at the speed upto half maximum speed
and in series for running at full maximum speed.
Advantages :
1 Battery driven vehicle is easy to control and very convenient to use.
2. Low maintenance cost.
3 Absence of fumes.
Disadvantages :
1 The major disadvantage of this type of drive is the small capacity of
batteries and the necessity for frequent charging.
2, Limited speed range.
 Electric Traction-I
44C(EN-Sem-7)

drive: Here the drive is by means of electric motors which are

F. Electric this type is most
overhead distribution system. The drive of
fed from
widely used.
Advantages : underground
traction is most suited for the
1 As it has no smoke, electric
and tube railways.
locomotive is ready to start at moment's notice against about
2 An electric locomotive to heat up.
two hours required for steam
curves at higher speeds quite safely,
3. An electric locomotive can negotiatecomparison to a steam locomotive.
since its centre of gravity is low in
of that of
4 The maintenance cost of
an electric locomotive is 50 percent
much less comparatively.
steam locomotive, its maintenance time is also
Disadvantages :
electric supply system. Unless the
1. High initial cost oflying out overhead becomes uneconomical.
trafficto be handled is heavy, electric traction
traffic dislocation for hours.
2. Power failure for a few minutes can cause
electrified routes.
3. The electric traction system is tied up to only
ideal traction
Que 4.2. State the main requirements for an
systems. Give merits and
system. Name the different traction
traction.
demerits of electric traction over steam engine
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Requirement:
so that it can run
1. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained
on any route.
2. Minimum wear on the track.

3. It should be possible tooverload the equipment for short periods.

4. The equipment required should be minimum, ofhigh efficiency and low
initial and maintenance cost.
5. It should be pollution free.
6. Speed control should be easy.
B. Traction system : Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4-2C, Unit-4.
Que 4.3. Explain the factors that determine the choice of supply
system for main line traction and give voltage and frequency of the
supply as adopted by Indian Railways. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-5C (EN-Sem-7)
Answer
A. Factors :
1. High voltage.
2 Number of sub-stations.
3 The initial, maintenance and operating costs of
4. For main
ACsubstations.
line railway service single-phase AC system is
B. Voltage and preferred.
frequency:
S.No. System Voltage Frequency
1 DC system 600 V, 1500 V,
or 3000V

2. 162
Single-phase 15 25 kV is stepped
3
Hz and 25 Hz
AC system down to 300 400 V

3. 162
Three-phase 1525 kV is stepped Hz and 50 Hz
3
ACsystem down to 3,300 -3,600 V

PART-2
Systems of Track Electrification.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.4.What are different systems of track electrification ? Why

3-phase traction system emp'oying induction motors is now
obsolete ? Give reasons. AKTU2013-14, Marks 10 |
OR
What are different systems of track electrification ? Explain DC
system and composite system of track electrification.

AKTU2014-15, Marks 10
 Electric Traction-I
46C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
A. DC System :
motors employed for getting
1 In this system of traction, the electricselected in such a way that they
necessary propelling torque should be
should be able to operate on DCsupply.
tramways
2, Examples for such vehicles operating based on DC system are
and trolley buses.
trolley buses
3. Usually, DC series motors are preferred for tramways and regenerative
where
even though DC compound motors are available
braking is desired.
electrification system
4. The operating voltages of vehicles for DCtrack
are 600, 750, 1500 and 3000 V.
tramways in
5. Direct current at 600 - 750 Vis universally employed for railways,
line
the urban areas and for many suburban and main
1500 - 3000 V is used.
can be obtained from
6. In some cases, DC supply for traction motor to
substations equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power
DC.
7. These substations receive AC power from 3¢ high-voltage line or single
phase overhead distribution network.
and
8. These substations are usually automatic and remote controlled
they are so costlier since they involve rotary converting equipment.
9. The DC system is preferred for suburban services and
road transport
where stops are frequent and distance between the stops is small.
B. Single-phase AC system :
used
1 In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are
for getting the necessary propelling power.
2. The distribution network employed for such traction systems is normally
15 -25 kV at reduced frequency of 25 Hz.
3. The main reason ofoperating at reduced frequencies is AC series motors
that are more efficient and show better performance at low frequency.
4. These high voltages are stepped down to suitable low voltage of
300 - 400 V by means of step-down transformer.
5. Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply frequency with the
help of frequency converter.
6.
These are used where the cost of overhead structure is not much
importance more over rapid acceleration and retardation is not required
for suburban services.
C. Three-phase AC system :
1. In this system of track electrification, 3¢ induction motors are employed
for getting the necessary propelling power.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-7C(EN-Sem-7)
2. The operating voltage of induction motors is normally 3000- 3600V AC
at either normal supply frequency or 16 Hz
frequency.
3 Usually 3¢ induction motors are preferable because they have simple
and robust construction, high operating
efficiency, provision of
regenerative braking without placing any additional equipment, and
better performance at both normal and reduced frequencies.
4. Reason:
i In addition to the advantages, the induction motors suffer from some
drawbacks, they are low-starting torque, high-starting current, and the
absence of speed control.
ii. The main disadvantage of such track electrification system is high cost
of overhead distribution structure.
5. This distribution system consists of two overhead wires and track rail
for the third phase and receives power either directly from the
generating station or through transformer substation.
6. Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted for the services where the
output power required is high and regeneration of electrical energy is
possible.
D. Composite systems are of two types:
i. Single-phase to DC system:
1. In this system, the advantages of both lÙ and DCsystems are combined
toget high voltage for istribution in order to reduce the losses that can
be achieved with 1¢ distribution networks, and DC series motor is
employed for producing the necessary propelling torque.
2. Finally, 14 AC distribution network results minimum cost with high
transmission efficiency and DC series motor is ideally suited for traction
purpose.
3. Normal operating voltage employed of distribution is 25 kV at normal
frequency of 50 Hz.
4. This track electrification is employed in India.
ii. Single-phase to 3¢ system or Kando system:
1. In this system,1¢ AC system is preferred for distribution network.
2, Since single phase overhead distribution system is cheap and 3¢ induction
motors are employed as traction motor because of their simple, robust
construction, and the provision of automatic regenerative braking.
3. The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15-25 kV at
50Hz.
4. This l¢ supply is converted to 36 supply with the help of the phase
converters and high voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the
3¢ induction motors.
 Electric Traction-I
4-8C (EN-Sem-7)
and
5. Frequency converters are also employed to get high-starting torque
toachieve better speed control variable supply frequency.
PART-3

Traction Mechanics : Types of Services.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.5. Discuss types of services.

Answer
1 Main line services: In the main line service, the distance between two
should be
stops is usually more than 10 km. High balancing speeds
required. Acceleration and retardation are not so important.
2.
Urban service: n the urban service, the distance between two stops is
very less and it is less than 1 km. It requires high average speed for
starting and stopping.
3. Suburban service:In the suburban service,the distance between two
stations is between l and 8km. This service requires rapid acceleration
and retardation as frequent starting and stopping is required.
Que 4.6. Explain tramways.

Answer
1. The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very
dense traffic.
2. It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an
overhead conductor at about 600 V DC, the running rail forming the
return conductor.

3. Itis provided with at least two driving axles in order to secure necessary
adhesion, start it from either end and use two motors with series-parallel
control.
4. Two drum-type controllers, one at each end, are used for controlling the
tramcar.
5. Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable
interlocking arrangement to prevent their being used simultaneously.
6 The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel.
Aluminium is extensively used for bodywork.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-9C(EN-Sem-7)
7. The underframe is of rolled steel
sections. Seats are either in transverse
direction or a combination of transverse and longitudinal arrangement
is used.
8 Theequipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is
considerably smaller and does not exceed 60 to 75 HP.
Que 4.7. Explain the
theory, working and characteristics of linear
induction motor for traction purposes. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
i. Linear induction motor :
Construction :
1. A linear induction motor, in its
simplest form,
having a 34 distributed winding placed in slots asconsists
of field system
shown in Fig. 4.7.1.
Primary (3¢)

Secondary
Fig, 4.7.1. Short-single primary.
2. The field system may be single or double
of this type of induction motor is normally primary system. The secondary
a conducting plate made of
either copper or aluminium in which interaction currents are induced.
Working:
1. When the 30 primary winding of the motor is
energized from a balanced
three phase source, a magnetic field moving in a straight line from
end toother at a linear synchronous speed V, is one
2. The linear synchronous speed V,is produced.
given as:
V,=2 tfm/s
where, t= Pole pitch in metres, and
f= Supply frequency in Hz.
3 As the flux moves linearly, it drags
the rotor plate alongwith it in the
same direction with speedV. Consequently the relative speed of travel
of the flux w.r.t. rotor plate decreases.
4. Slip of the motor(s) is given as

S=
V,-V
V,
where, V= Linear synchronous speed, and
V= Actual speed of therotor plate.
5. Thrust or force or tractive effort (F) is
given as:
F=
V
 Electric Traction-I
4-10 C (EN-Sem-7)

where, P,2 = Actual power supplied to the rotor.

6. Also, copper losses in rotor =sP,2
and mechanical power developed, Pmech. =(1-s)P
7. Fig. 4.7.1 shows the thrust or tractive effort-speed characteristics. In a
linear induction motor the following peculiar effects are encountered :
i End effect.
ii. Transverse edge effect:
Due to the secondary of this motor being a solid conducting state, the
paths of the induced currents in the secondary are not well defined.
b. The portion of the current paths parallel to the direction of motion of the
secondary does not contribute anything towards the production of useful
thrust but only contributes towards losses.
C.
This effect causes reduction in thrust and increases the losses and is
known as transverse edge effect.

neWtons
F,

V, m/s
Fig. 4.7.2. Thrust-speed characteristics.
Advantages :
1. Simple in construction.
2. Better power to weight ratio.
3. Low initial cost.
Disadvantages :
Owing to transverse edge and end effects utilization of motor is poor.
1
2. Capital cost of reaction rail fixed along the centre line of the track is very
high.
3. Provision of three phase collector system along the track involves
complications and high cost.
PART-4

Speed-Time Curve and its Simplification.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
 Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 4-11C(EN-Sem-7)

Que 4.8.Draw and explain general speed-time curve of a train

running between two stations. How can this curve be approximated
for (a) main line service (b) suburban
service?
|AKTU201,6-17, Marks 10
Answer
Speed-time curve mainly consists of the following five parts:
1. Constant acceleration period (0 to t,) :
i. During this period the traction motors accelerate from rest, the current
taken by the motors and the tractive effort are practically constant.
ii. This is also known as
notching up period.
iii. It is represented by portion OL.
2. Acceleration on speed curve (t, to t) :
i After the starting operation of the motors is over, the train still continues
to accelerate along the curve LM.
ii. During this period, the motor current and torque decrease as train
speed increases.
ii. Hence, acceleration gradually decreases till torque
motors exactly balances that, due to resistance to the developed
by the
train motion.
3.
Free-running period (t, to t,):
At the end of speed curve running i.e., at t, the train
attains the
maximum
speed. During this period the train runs at constant speed attained at t,
and constant power is drawn.
It is represented by the portion MN.
Acceleration
on speed curve Free
M
running Coasting or
N running with
power cut-off
Speed
P

Rheostatic
Braking
acceleration
t, ty t4
Time
Fig. 4.8.1. Typical speed-time curve for main line service.
4. Coasting (t, to t):
i At the end of free running period (i.e., at t,) the
and the train is allowed to run under its own power supply is cut-off
momentum.
 Electric Traction-I
4-12 C (EN-Sem-7)
account of resistance to the
ii. The speed of the train starts decreasing on
motion of train.

üi. The rate of decreaseofspeed during coasting

period is known as coasting
retardation (which practically remains constant).
the kinetic energy of the
iv. Coasting is desirable since it utilizes some of braking. Hence, it helps
train which would, otherwise, be wasted during
to reduce the energy consumption of the train.
V It is represented by portion NP.
5. Braking (t, tot :
brought to a stop.
F: During this period brakes are applied and the train is
It is represented by the portion PQ.
services:
Typical speed-time curves for different
curves for different
Fig. 4.8.2 (a), (b) and (c) shows the typical speed-time
services.
Refer to Fig. 4.8.2 (a):
values of acceleration and
i. It represents city service where relative
retardation are high in order to achieve nmoderately high average speed
between stops.
ii.
of free
Due to short distances between the steps, there is no possibilitysave
to on
running period though a short coasting period is included
energy consumption.
Refer to Fig. 4.8.2 (b):
is no
Here, suburban services are represented in which again there
free-during period but there is comparatively longer coasting period
because of longer distance between stops.
retardation
i. In this case also, relatively high values of acceleration andpossible.
are required in order to make the service as attractive as
Refer to Fig. 4.8.2 (e):
periods of
It represents main line service. Here, there are long
free-running at high speeds.
i. The acceleration and retardation periods are relatively less important.
Coasting
km/h
Speed,
80 80t
Speed,
km/h
Coasting
601 60+

40+ Braking 40
Acceleration Braking.
20 20 Acceleration

Time, s Time, s
(a) City service-distance (6)Suburban service-distanc
between stops about 0.5 km. between stops about 3 to 5 km.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-13 C(EN-Sem-7)
Speed,
km/h
-
Free running
90+ Coasting
60+
30+ Acceleration
Braking
0
Time, min
(c) Main line serviçe.
Fig. 4.8.2. Typical speed-time curves.

Que 4.9. Give definitions of various speeds.

Answer
A. Crest speed:The maximum speed attained by the train during run is
known as crest speed. It is denoted with V m

B. Average speed:
1. It is the mean of the speeds
attained by the train from start to stop, i.e.,
it is defined as the ratio ofthe distance covered by the train
between two
stops to the total time of run.
2 It is denoted with V,

Average speed = Distance between stops

Actual Time of run
where V, is the average speed of train in kmph, Dis the distance between
stops in km and Tis the actual time of runin hours.
C. Schedule speed:
1. The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the total time of
the run including the time for stop is known as schedule speed.
2. It is denoted with the symbolV,
Schedule speed = Distance between stops
Total timne of run + Time for stop
Distance between stops
Schedule time
D

where T is the schedule time in hours.

D. Schedule time:It is defined as the sum of time required for actual run
and the time required for stop,
i.e., T =T. +T..
run
stop
 Electric Traction-I
4414C(EN-Sem-7)
E The factors that affect the schedule speed of a train are :
i. Crest speed.
The duration of stops.
iii. The distance between the stops.
iv. Acceleration.
V. Braking retardation.

Que 4.10. What are the factors affecting the schedule speed of a
train?
A train runs between two stations 1.6 kmn apart at an average speed
of 36 kmh if the maximum speed is limited to be 72 km/h, acceleration
to 2.7 km/h/s, coasting retardation to 0.18 km/h/s and braking
retardation to 3.2 km/h/s, compute the duration of acceleration,
coasting and braking periods. Assume a simplified speed-time
curve. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Factors that affect the schedule speed : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4-13C,
Unit-4.
B. Numerical :
Given : D= 16 km, V, = 36 km/h, V = 72 kmh, a = 2.7 km/hs,
m

Bo=0.18 km/h/s, Bp =3.2 km/h/s

To Find:t tg ty
1. Duration of acceleration,
72
t,= = 26.67 sec
2.7
2. Actual run time,
3600 x D 3600 x 1.6
T= = 160 sec
36
3 Let speed V, before applying brake,
Duration of coasting,
V 72-V,
t= Pe 0.18
sec

Duration of braking,
t,= V,/BR= V,/3.2 sec
4. T= t+t,+ t3
160 = 26.27 + 72-V, V,
0.18 3.2
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-15 C (EN-Sem-7)
V,= 50.91 km/h
5. 72- 50.91
t,= =117.16 sec
0.18

6 50.91
t,= 3.2
= 15.90 sec

Que 4.11. A train is required to run between two

stations 1.6 km
apart at the average speed of 40 kmn/h. The acceleration,
during coasting and braking are 2 km/h/s, 0.16 km/h/s retardation
3.2 km/h/s respectively. Assuming quadrilateral and
speed-time curve, determine: approximation of
i. The duration of acceleration, coasting and
ii. The distance covered during these braking periods and
periods.
AKTU2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
D = 1.6 km = 1600 m : V= 40 km/h = 40 × 1000 = 11.11 m/s :
3600
a = 2km/h/s = 2 x 1000
= 0.555 m/s:
3600
0.16 x 1000
B=0.16 km/h/s = = 0.0444 m/s:
3600
3.2 x 1000
B= 3.2 km/h/s = =0.888 m/s2.
3600
i. Duration of acceleration, t, ; coasting, t, and braking periods, tz:
1 Actual time of run, t= D 1600 = 144 s
V 11.11

2. We know that, V, = ..4.11.1)

1-&)
V,-0.0444144 - 0.555/
V,= 0.0444
0.888
V -6.394 + 0.08V
0.95
V, = 1.1368 V, -6.73 ...(4.11.2)
3 Using the relation :D=t(V, +V,) - kV,V, ...(4.11.3)
 Electric Traction-I
4-16C (EN-Sem-7)

1 1
1.465
where k = 0.888/
in eq. (4.11.3) we
4 Substituting the value of V, from eq. (4.11.2) values
get

1 1.464V (1.1368V -6.73)

1600 = x 144[V + (1.1368V -6.73))
m
m
m

1600 = 72(2.1368V -6.73)- 1.664V 2+9.853V.

m
m m

1.664V_2- 163.7V + 2084.6 = 0

V 2-98.4 Vm + 1252.8 = 0
m

98.4 + 68.35
98.4 ± /(98.4)' -4 x1 x1252.8 =15 m/s
m 2 2
(considering ve sign)

5. Putting value of V in eg. (4.11.2),

m
m/s
V,= 1.1368 x 15 -6.73 = 10.322
15 = 27.03s
6. . Duration of acceleration, t, = 0.555
V -V, 15-10.322 = 105.4s
7. Duration of coasting, t, = 0.0444

V, 10.322
Duration of retardation, t, = = 11.62s.
8. 0.888
and t,:
iü. Distance covered duringthe periods t,, t,
1
S,, = x 15 x27.03 = 202.7m
2
1
S,, = 2 x(15 + 10.322) × 105.4 = 1334 m

1
S,, = G Xx 10.322 x 11.62 = 60m
maximum speed of
Que 4.12. A suburban electric train has a
including a station stop of
65 kmph. The schedule speed kmphps, find the value of
30 sec is 43.5 kmph. If the acceleration is 1.3 stops is 3 km.
retardation when the average distance between
Answer

Given : V = 65 kmph, a = 1.3 kmphps, D = 3 km.

To Find:ß.
1. Total time of run including stop
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-17C (EN-Sem-7)

3 x 3600
= 248 sec
43.5
2. Time for actual run,
T= 248-30 = 218 sec
3. Average speed, V, = 218 x 3600 = 49.5 kmph
4. Now, we know
1 1 7200 V -1
a B
1 1 7200 × 3 65
B 1.3 652 49.5
B= 1.208 mphps.
PART-5

Tractive Effort.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and MediumAnswer Type Questions

Que 4.13. Explain various functions of tractive effort, exerted by

traction unit is supposed to perform and derive an expression for
total tractive effort. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
OR
What is tractive effort of a train and what are its functions ? Derive
an expression for the tractive effort developed by a train unit.
|AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Define the following:
1, Steam engine drive
2.
3.
Tramways
Tractive effort for propulsion of train.
AKTU2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A Steam engine drive :Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4-2C, Unit-4
B. Tram ways: Refer Q. 4.6, Page 4-8C, Unit-4
 4-18 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Traction-I

C. Tractive effort :
a Effective force necessary to propel the train at the wheels of locomotive
is known as tractive effort.
b. Functions of tractive efforts :
i. Tractive effort required to accelerate the train mass : This has
horizontal tractive effort (in newtons) at an acceleration of
a kmphs
ax 1000
F, = (1000 M) x = 277.8 x Mx a newtons
3600
where M is the mass in tonnes.
ii. Tractive effort required to accelerate the rotating parts :
1. Moment of inertia of wheels
J, = 2N,J,
where J is the moment of inertia of one wheel in kg-m? and N, the
number of axles on the train.
2. Let N= Number of driving motors
n, = Teeth on motor gear wheel
= Teeth on axle gear wheel

a=
Wheel speed
Motor speed
R= Radius of the wheel, m
J = Moment of inertia of one motor, kg-m²
m

3. Then moment of inertia of motors referred to wheels

N
J, = a'
a x 1000
Acceleration (in meters/second²) = mpsps
3600

Acceleration in rad/seg2 a x 1000 rpsps

3600 R

4. Tractive effort for driving rotating parts

ax 1000
F,, =(J, +J) 3600 R

NJm
2N,J, + 3.6R?
5. Total tractive effort required for accelerating the train on a level track
(in newtons)
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-19 C (EN-Sem-7)

F, =F, +F, = 277.8Ma+2N,J, + NJ

3.6R²
= 277.8 Manewtons
p

where Mis defined as the effective mass of the train.

iüi. Tractive effort required to overcome the
force to gravity:
1. It will have three basic
components: one due to coulomb friction which
is independent of speed, second will be due to viscous
friction which is
proportional to speed, and third because of air friction which is
proportional to speed squared,
Thus, F =A + BV +CV' newtons ...(4.13.1)
where V= Speed of the train
A, B, C = Constants.
2. Eq. (4.13.1)suggests that it is difficult to estimate the train resistance.
Since it is quite smallcompared to F, an approximate value of F can be
used and is often assumed as r networks per tonne weight of the train.
3. Thus, F= rM newtons ...(4.13.2)
rM
9.81
kg ...4.13.3)
4. For calculating drive rating, r is chosen to be 20 N/tonne.
5. Total tractive effort required to move the train
F,= F +F, +F,
Mr
= 28.3 M, at MG+ kg ...4.13.4)
9.81
= 277.8M a + 9.81 MG +Mr newtons ..(4.13.5)

PART-6

Specife Energy Consumption.

Questisns-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.14. What is specific energy consumption of a train ? Discuss

various factors affecting it. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
 Electric Traction-I
4-20C(EN-Sem-7)

OR
track using
Derive an expression of specific energy output on level
is achieved by the
a simplified speed time curve. What purpose
determination of this quantity ? AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Specific energy consumption, Epe
Specific energy consumption is defined as thetheenergy consumed (Wh)
1. run.
per tonne mass of the train per km length of
Total energy consumed (Wh)
i.e., Espe =
Train mass (tonne) x Run length (km)
Specificenergy output.

where, n = Overall efficiency of transmission motor and gear

= nmotor X gear
2. Specific energy consumption with gradient
0.01072 x V M, 27.2% G D' +0.2778 x
X Wh/t-km
nD M D

3.
The value of E when gradient is not involved is given as
spe

M, +0.2778x D'
E -0.01072 x Wh/t-km
spe
nD M D

B. The specific energy consumption of a train running at a given

schedule speed is influenced by the following factors:
Acceleration
Retardation
ii. Maximum speed
iv. Distance between stops
V. Track configuration
vi. Type of train and equipment.
C. Purpose : By caleulating specific energy consumption running expenses
of train can be determined.

Que 4.15.An electrie train weighing 500 tonnes climbs up-gradient

with G = 8 and following speed-time curve:
i. Uniform acceleration of 2.5 km/hr/sec for 60 sec.
ii. Constant speed for 5 min.
iii. Coasting speed for 3 min.
iv. Dynamic breaking at 3 kmphps to rest.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-21 C (EN-Sem-7)
The train resistance is 25 N/tonne,
transmission and motor is 80 %.rotational inertia effect 10 % and
Calculate the specific energy
consumption. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
1.
V, = at, = 2.5 x 60 = 150 kmph
2. Retarding force during coasting
Pcs = F, +F, =9.81 MG +Mr
= 9.81 x 500 x 8 + 500 x 25 = 51740 N
3. Deceleration during coasting
Fca 51740
B= =0.3386 kmphps
277.8M 277.8 x 1.1 x 500
4. Speed after coasting V=V -Bt, = 150
m 0.3386 x 180 = 89 kmph
89
t,= = 29.67 sec
3
5. Distance covered during acceleration
t,
= Area ABF = ÷1
2
n
3600
1 60
x 150 x = 1.25 km
3600
6. Distance covered during constant speed
5
= Area FBCG = 150 x = 12.5 km
60
7. Distance covered during coasting
1
= Area GCDH = ,(V, +V)x
3600
1 3
=(150 +89) x = 5.975 km
60
8. Distance covered during braking
1 29.67
= Area HDE = V x 89 x
2 3600 2 3600
= 0.367 km
9. Distance between stops
D= 1.25 + 12.5 + 5.975 + 0.367 = 20.092 km
D, = 1.25 + 12.5 = 13.75 km
D, 13.75
D
=

20.092 =0.684; 1-=0.316

D
10. Specific energy output
 Electric Traction-I
4-22 C(EN-Sem-7)

0.01072 V M, +2.725 G 40.2778r D,

M D D
D
13.75
0.01072(150) x1.1+2.725 x8x 13.75 +0.2778 x 25 x
20.092 20.092
20.092
= 13.205 + 14.919+4.753 = 32.877, Whptpkm
32.877 =41.1 Whptpkm
11. Specificenergy consumption = 0.8

Speed D

Ym

H E
Time

Fig. 4.15.1.

each
Que 4.16. A 203-tonne motor-coach train has motors
developing a shaft torque of 5130 N-m during the accelerating period.
Calculate the time taken by the train to attain a speed of
The motors
42 kmph starting from rest on a gradient of 1 in 250. wheel
have a gear ratio of 3.5 to 1 and gear efficiency is 93 %. The
diameter is 91.5 cm. Assume train resistance as 45 N per tonne and
allow 10 % for the effect of rotation inertia.

Answer

Given: W= 203 tonne, W= 203 x 1.1= 223.3 tonnes,

T=5130 N-m per motor, y= 3.5, r= 45 N per tonne, D = 0.915 m,
V, =42 kmph, n = 93 %
To Find:t.
100
1. G= = 0.4
250
2. F= 277.8 Wa +W +98.1 WG
= 277.8x 223.3a+ 203(45 + 98.1 x 0.4)
= 62040 a + 17100 ...(4.16.1)

3
D
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-23 C (EN-Sem-7)

2 x 3.5
= 0.93 x (5130 x 4) = 146000N ...(4.16.2)
0.915
4. From eg. (4.16.1) and (4.16.2), we get
62040 a +17100 = 146000
a= 2.08 kmphps
5. . Time for acceleration

42
t, = = 20.2 seconds.
2.08

Que 4.17. An electric train has an average speed 42 kmph on a

level track between stops 1400 m apart. It is accelerated at
1.7 kmphps and is braked at 3.3 kmphps. Draw the speed-time curve
for the run. Estimate the energy consumption at the axles of the
train per tonne km. Take tractive resistance constant at 50 N per
tonne and allow 10 percent for rotation inertia.
Answer

Given : V, =42 kmph, a = 1.7 kmphps, B=3.3 kmphps, D= 1.4 km

To Find: Energy consumption.

D 14
1. Time for run T= x 3.600= 120 sec
V. 42
h= a+B 1.7+3.3
2 = 0.892
aß 5.61
2
7200 D
3. Now,

2
120 120 7200 x 1.4
m
0.892 0.892 0.892
= 52 kmph
V 52
4. .

t,=
m
30.6 sec
1.7

5. t, =
V 52 = 15.8 sec
3.8
6 t,=T-(t,tt)
= 120- (30.6 + 15.8)
= 73.6 sec.
 Electric Traction-I
4-24 C (EN-Sem-7)

7. Therefore, the speed-time curve is as shown in Fig. 4.17.1.

Specific energy consumption
0.0107 V' w,We +0.278r " Wh per tonne km
D W D
8. In this case,
42 x 30.6
D= 1.4 = 1.2214 km
2x 3600
9. Energy consumption
0.0107 x 52 x 11 +0.278 x 50 x 1.2214
1.4 1.4
= 22.7 + 12.1 =34.8 Wh per tonne-km
Speed,
km/h

52

30.6 Time 104.2 120

second
Fig. 4.17.1,

PART-7

Coefficient of Adhesion and its Influence.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.18. Define adhesive weight, coefficient of adhesion and

explain factors on which it depends.
Answer
A Adhesive weight and Coefficient of adhesion:
1. The adhesive weight of a train is equal to the total weight to be carried
on the driving wheels. It is less than the dead weight by about
20 to 40 percent.
2. If Adhesive weight (W,)
Dead weight (W)
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 4-25 C (EN-Sem-7)
then W =xW
a

3. The coefficient of adhesion (u) is defined as the ratio of tractive effort to

the slip wheels and adhesive weight.
Tractive effort to slip wheels E
Adhesive weight W
4. F,=, W, =u,xW= , xMg
5. If M is in tonnes, then
F= 1000 x 9.8 xu M= 98004, xM newtons
6. The normal value of coefficient of adhesion with clean dry rails is 0.25
and with wet or greasy rails the value may be as low as 0.08.
B. Coefficient of adhesion depends upon the following factors:
i. Coefficient of friction between wheels and the rail.
Nature of motor speed-torque characteristics.
üi. Series-parallel connections of motors.
iv. Smoothness with which the torque can be controlled.
V. Speed of response of the drive.
Que 4.19. Define the term "coefficient of adhesion" and explain
the factors on which it depends.
A 220 tonne motor coach driven by four motors takes 18 seconds to
attain a speed of 40 km/h, starting from rest on an ascending gradient
of l in 75. The gear ratio is 3.2, gear efficiency 90 %wheel diameter
92 cm, train resistance 45 NIt and rotational inertia &percent of the
dead weight. Find the torque developed by each motors.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
A 220 tonne motor coach driven by four motors takes
18 seconds to attain a speed of 40 km/h, starting from rest on an
ascending gradient of 1 in 75. The gear ratio is 3.2, gear efficiency
90 %, wheel diameter 92 cm, train resistance 45 N/t and rotational
inertia 8 percent of the dead weight. Find the torque developed by
each motor. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
A Coefficient of adhesion: Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4-24C, Unit-4.
B. Numerical :
Given : W = 220 tonne, V, = 40 km/h, t, = 18 sec, Gear efficiency
100
(n) = 90 %, D = 92 cm, r = 45 Nit, y= 3.2, G = = 1.33
75
To Find:Torque.
 Electric Traction-I
4-26 C (EN-Sem-7)

40
1 a =
m
=2.22 kmphps
t, 18

W, =1.1 x 220 = 242 tonne

2,. F, = 277.8 W,a + W(r + 98.1 G)
98.1 x 1.33)
= 277.8x 242 x 2.22 + 220(45 +
= 187849.33 N

3. Tractive effort on driving wheel,

F,= 2nTD
2x0.9 x Tx3.2
187849.33 =
0.92
T= 30003.71 N-m

T
Torque of each motor = = 7500.93 N-m
4. 4

accelerate train of
Que 4.20. A locomotive of 100 tonnes can just
gradient of 10 %.
500 tonnes with an acceleration of 1 kmphps up weight, tractive
Adhesive weight of locomotive is 70 %of total dead locomotive is
resistance 45 newtons/tonne and inertia 10 %. If this
100 % adhesive
helped by another locomotive of 130 tonnes with
weight, find out
under
i. Trailing weight that can be hauled up the same gradient
same conditions.
remaining
ii. The maximum gradient, trailing hauled load
unchanged. |AKTU2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1.
Dead weight of locomotive combined = 100 + 500 = 600 tonne
2. F,= (277.8 a M, + 98 MG +Mr)
= (277.8x 1x 1.1 x 600+ 98x 600 x 10+ 600 x 45)
= 798348 N
3 Maximum tractive effort = 9800x M,
= 9800 x 0.7 x4, x 100 = 686000u,
686000 =798348
H= 1.164
4. With two locomotive,
M, = (100 + 130) = 230 tonne
F,= 9800xM;,=9800 x 0.7 x 1.164 x 230
Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 4-27C(EN-Sem-7)
= 1836559 N ...(4.20.1)
Let trailing load with two combined locomotive can haul M
tonne. Then
Total dead mass = (100 ++ 130 + M) tonne
Tractive effort = (277.8a M'+98 MG+Mr) newtons
= M(277.8 x 1 x 1.1+ 98 x 10 + 45)
= M(1330.58) newtons
Now, 1836559 =Mx 1330.58
M= 1380.27 tonne
:. Trailing load = 1380.27 -230=1150.27 tonne
Total hauled load = 500 + 100 +130= 730 tonne
F= (277.8 a M, +98 MG +M,)
e

= 730 (277.8 × 1x 1.1+ 98 G+ 45)

= 255923.4 + 71540 G ...(4.20.2)
From eq. (4.20.1) and (4.20.2)
255923.4 + 71540 G= 1836559
G= 22.06 %

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. State the main requirements for an ideal

Name the different traction systems. Give traction system.
merits and
demerits of electric traction over steam engine traction.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.

Q. 2. What are different systems of track

electrification ? Why 3
phase traction system employing induction motors is now
obsolete ? Give reasons.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.4.

Q.3. Explain the theory, working and

characteristics of linear
induction motor for traction purposes.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.7.

Q.4. Draw and explain general

running between two stations. speed-time curve of a train
How can this
approximated for (a) main line service (b) suburbancurve be
service?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8.
 5
UNIT
Electric Traction-II

CONTENTS
Part-1: Salient Features of. 5-2C to 5-4C
Traction Drive

Part-2 : Series-Parallel .... 5-4C to 5-16C

Control of DC Drives
(Bridge Transition)
and Energy Saving
Part-3: Power Electronic. ..es.
5-16C to 5-20C
Control of DC and
AC Traction Drive

Part-4 : Diesel Electric Traction 5-20C to 5-24C

5-1C (EN-Sem-7)
 Electric Traction-II
5-2C (EN-Sem-7)

PART- 1

Salient Features of Traction LDrive.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Give the salient features of traction drive.

OR
Discuss various features of the electric supply system which have
bearing on the drive. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15

Answer
1. Large torque is required during start and acceleration in order to
accelerate the heavy mass.
2. The motor is subjected to torque overloads during acceleration and
when negotiating up gradients.
3. Because of economie reasons single phase supply is used in AC traction.
Indian Railways employ 25 kV, 50 Hz single-phase supply.
4. The locomotive ratings, can be 6000 HP and higher. Again because of
economic reasons the substation ratings are not very high. Consequently,
the traction supply is weak and locomotive supply voltage varies in wide
limits.
5. In 25 kV AC traction, the supply voltage may vary from 19 to
27.5 kV on continuous basis. For a short duration (around 10 sec) the
voltage may vary from 17.5 to 29 kV.
6. The supply has sharp voltage fluctuations, including discontinuity when
the locomotive crosses from one supply section to another.
7. Since, the supply is weak in nature, the reactive power has very adverse
effect. Therefore power factor should not be allowed to be lower than
0.8 and it should never be allowed to be leading to avoid over voltages.
8. The harmonics injected into the source, both in AC and DC traction, can
cause maloperation of signals and interference in telephone lines.
9. Dynamic braking is widely used. Mechanical brakes are also provided
for use when the train is stationary.
10. When regenerative braking is used, the distribution system is subjected
to higher voltages during regeneration.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-3C (EN-Sem-7)
11. In alocomotive more than one
motor are fed
froma converter. The load
sharing between motors is more uniform when the
speed regulation. motors have a large

Que 5.2. State the mechanical and electrical characteristics of

electric traction motors.
Answer
A. Mechanical characteristics :
1 Traction motors must be robust and capable to withstand
vibrations. continuous
2 Must be totally enclosed type, particularly when mounted
beneath the
locomotive or motor coach, to provide protection against ingress of dirt,
dust, water,mud etc.
3. Must be small in overall dimensions specially in its overall
diameter.
4. Minimum weight (so that pay load capacity of the vehicle may be
increased).
B. Electrical characteristics :
1 High starting torque.
2 Simple speed control.
3 Self relieving property.
4. It should have overload handling capability.
5. Better commutation.
6. Possibility of dynamic or regenerative braking.
7. Capability of withstanding voltage fluctuations.
Que 5.3. State the mechanical and electrical features of electric
traction motors and discuss the relative suitability of :
i. DC series motor
ii. AC series motor. |AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Mechanical and electrical features of electric traction motors:
Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5-3C, Unit-5.
i. DC series motor :
1 DCseries motor is having high starting torque and having the capability
of handling overloads that is essential for traction drives.
2. These motors are having simple and robust construction.
3. The speed control of the series motor is easy by series parallel control.
4. Sparkless commutation is possible, because the increase in armature
current increases the load torque and decreases the speed so that the
emf induced in the coils undergoing commutation.
54C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Traction-II

5. Service motor flux is proportional to armature current and torque. But

armature current is independent of voltage fluctuations. Hence, the
motor is unaffected by the variations is supply voltage.
i. AC series motor :AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose
due to high starting torque.

PART-2
Series-Parallel Control of DC Drives (Bridge Transition) and
Energy Saving.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.4. Explain series-parallel control of DC drive (bridge
transition method).
OR
What is the main advantage of series-parallel control of motors
over rheostatic method of starting and speed control ?
AKTU2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
1. The motor and the starting rheostats are connected in the form of a
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig.5.4.1(a).
2. In the first starting position the motors are in series and the rheostats
are completely in circuit as indicated by the rheostats arm Pat AA',A
and A' are moved in the direction of the arrow heads and in position BB'
the motors are in full series.
B

Link
Starting!position P
of linkP

B
(b) Transition step.
(a) Series position.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-5C(EN-Sem-7)

1
+

(c) First parallel position.

Fig. 5.4.1. Series-parallel starting : Bridge transition.
3 In the transition step, the rheostats are reinserted by connecting to
positive and negative of the supply as shown in Fig. 5.4.1(6).
4. In the first parallel step, the link P is removed and the
motors are
connected in parallel with the starting resistances in their circuits
Fig. 5.4.1(c).
Advantage :
1. During transition, the motors are always connected to the supply and as
the resistances are so adjusted that the value of current
remains same,
the torque does not change and hence uniform acceleration is obtained.
2. It has higher efficiency than plain rheostatic method of starting as proved
above.
3. We get more than one economical speeds which are possible in plain
rheostatic method only by wasting energy in the rheostat.
4. Due to low energy loss in the starting resistances they are not of
cumbersome size.

Que 5.5. Find the efficiency for series-parallel method. And

compare it with DC motor control.
Answer
1 Fig. 5.5.1 shows the current during the series and parallel starting periods.
During series period OE, the current is I while during the parallel period
EH it is 21.
2 The values of the t during which the motors remain in series and t.
during which they are in parallel can be determined from Fig. 5.5.2. In
Fig. 5.5.1 triangles OLE and OGH are similar, therefore,

OE =
LE t, LE2- IR
OH GH t GH V- IR
 Electric Traction-II
5-6C (EN-Sem-7)

1/V-2IR) ..(5.5.1)
t
t= 2\ V-IR
1/v-2IR\) t
and, =t-t,=t- V- IR
!V-2IR)] ...(5.5.2)
or,
S
R
F
K

|
M
Voltage D
Voltage

V/2

Time, s
Time, S Fig. 5.5.2. Variation of current in
series-parallel starting.
Fig,5.5.1. Voltage built-up to
series-parallel starting.
of this method. For this purpose
Let us now calculate the efficiency (n)
as E, developed practically equals
3.
neglect IR drop in the armature circuit
motor. This modifies Fig. 5.5.2 to
the voltage impressed across the
Fig. 5.5.3.
K

Voltage
V

VI2

E H

Fig. 5.5.3. Eficiency of starting by

series-parallel method.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric
Traction 5-7C (EN-Sem-7)
4
Since Dis the mid-point of CE and back
the parallel combination, KC = CF emf motor develops along DF in
i.e., time for series
time for the parallel
combination. combination =
5.
Lett, =t,= and the average starting current be I per
motor, t, = 0E,
t, =EH.
6 Energy lost in R= Shaded area and under
ACDF AOKC + Shaded area under

= VIt
2
7. But, total energy supplied
= VIx t +V x 21x t 3VIt
2 2 2
(Series) (Parallel)
3VIt VIt
Efficiency of starting, n= 2 2 2
or 66.66%.
3VIt
2
Thus this method has high efficiency.
Que 5.6. Explain the working principle of metadyne control of
traction motor and mention merits and demerits of this
control.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Metadyne control:
1. In the series-parallel control of DC traction
motors, there is a considerable
loss of energy in the starting resistances.
2. The metadyne system of control estimates the energy loss and
a very smooth control during accelerating period. achieves
3. Machines with more than two brush sets per pair of poles are called
metadynes.
4. It is a device which converts power at constant voltage and
current into one with constant current and variable voltage. variable
Working :
1 Consider a DCarmature with brushes and two poles.
2 If the current is supplied to the brushes A,A,
the
cross-flux will be as shown and mainly confined to the poles asarmature
shown in
Fig. 5.6.1(i).
 Electric Traction-I
5-8 C (EN-Sem-7)
current is supplied to A,A, and the
3. In case there are four brushes, as shown in Fig. 5.6.1(ii).
armature cross-flux willtake up the path
brushes B,B, as shown in
4. Now, if the current is supplied totakes up path as indicated.
5.6. 1(iii), the armature cross-flux
Fig. the
armature is rotated at constant speed and currentI, is fed into
5. Ifthe winding between B, B, due to flux
brushes A,A,, an emfis induced in the
produced by I,
the voltage between A,A, is on
6. No emf is induced between A,A, and
account of the voltage drop due to I,. load
B,B, a current I, will flow in a
7. Since an emf is induced across
connected between them (Fig. 5.6.2(i).

Supply

B B3

(i) (ii)

-Supply
(ii)
Fig. 5.6.1.
I, is as shown in
8. The resultant flux distribution on account of I, and
(Fig. 5.6.2(ii).
components, and
9. The total flux ¢ may be assumed to be made up of twÙ
0, at right angles and directed along A,A, and B,B,.
emf E, between A, and A,
10. The rotation of armature in , induces an
which opposes the supply voltage.
value of I the supply
11. Since the current is to be kept at its original
voltage must induced to overcome E,.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-9C (EN-Sem-7)
Under steady conditions: E, a , =kl, ; E,a ,=
kl,
E<, =EJ, =kI!,
12. This indicates that the
machine behaves like a DC transformer. Only
the rotational losses of the machine
motor. need to be supplied by driving
13. Thus, when the supply voltage E,
remains constant, I, remains constant.
Therefore, the arrangement is quite suitable for starting DC motors.
14. In order to keep the metadyne as a
transformera regulator winding is
provided producing flux as in Fig. 5.6.2(ii).
15. By adjusting the current in the regulator
made equal to the input power. winding the output power can

supply
DC A

Traction motor
load

(i) (ii)
Fig. 5.6.2.
Merit:
1. Loss is much lower th£n in case of resistance starting method.
2. Uniform tractive effort is developed which avoids jerky environment of
the train.
3 Regenerative braking down to zero speed can be obtained.
4. Saving in energy during acceleration and braking may easily counter
balance the additional cost Tf the more complicated equipments required
in metadyne control.
Demerit: It is most suitz Dle for DC traction motor only.
Que 5.7. The following data refer to two traction motors rated
at 1500V: Armature resistance by each motor = 0.15 2, Current
drawn by each motor =500 A(During starting), Efective weight of
the train = 140 tonnes,Dead weight of the train = 120 tonnes, Specific
resistance = 50 N/tonne, Tractive effort per motor = 38000 N, Speed
at the end of starting period = 40 km/h. Calculate :
5-10 C (EN-Sem-7) Electric Traction-II

Duration of starting period

ii. Speed of train at transition
ii. Rheostatic loss. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
Given : Rated voltage of each motor =1500 V; R= 0.15 2;I= 500 A;
M=140 tonnes; M= 120 tonnes; Specific resistance r = 50 N/tonne,
F per motor = 38000 N; V= 40 kmh.
To Find:t,V.tran_ t .
i. Duration of starting period, t,:Tractive effort required by the train,
F,- 277.8 M,a +Mr= 38000 x2 =76000 N
(where, a is the acceleration in kmphps)
or, 277.8 x 140 x a+ 120 x 50 = 76000
a = 1.8 kmphps
Starting time,
40
t= = 22,22 s.
1.8
ii. Speed of train at transition, V,trans
Resistance drop per motor =IR =500 x 0.15 =75 V
V- 2IR
Also, t, = t

1500 - 2 x 500 x 0.15

x 22.22 = 10.53s
1500 - 500 x 0.15
t =t-10.53 = 22.22 - 10.53 = 11.69 s
Since acceleration during starting is assumed to be constant, therefore,
speed at transition,
trans = a xt, = 1.8 x 10.53 = 18.95 kmh
675V750
kV>
75 V

--1425
V
Voltage

75 V

Time
Fig. 5.7.1,
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-11 C (EN-Sem-7)
iüi. Rheostat loss (R,): loss

Refer to Fig. 5.7.1, loss of energy in controller per motor

x675x 10.53x 500 + x750x11.9x 500

3600 x 1000
= 1.102kWh
Loss of energy in controllers for two motors
= 2 x 1.102 = 2.204 kWh
Que 5.8. Two motors each of 1200V and armature resistance
0.3 ohm take 450 amperes during starting. If effective weight of train
is 140 tonne and dead weight of 130 tonne, track resistance of
50Ntonne, tractive effortmotor 40000 N, speed at the end of starting
period 40kmph, find:
i Duration of starting period
i. Speed of train at transition
iii. Rheostatic loss. AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer

E:F: The procedure is same as Q. 5.7, Page 5-9C, Unit-5.

i. t =19.65 sec
Vtrans = 13.61 km/h
i. Rheostat loss = 0.66 kWh
Que 5.9. A motor coach is being driven by two similar motors
taking supply at 650 V. If first motor is geared to driving wheel
having diameter of 90 cmn and other motor to driving wheel having
diameter of 86 cm and if speed of first motor is 400 rpm when connected
in parallel with other motor across 650 V supply, find out the speed
of motors when connected in series. Assume armature current to
remain same and armature voltage drop of 10 % at this current.
AKTU2013-14,Marks 10
Answer
Given : D, = 90 cm = 0.9 m, D, = 86 cm = 0.86 m, N, = 400 rpm,
V= 650 V, Armature drop = 10 %.
To Find:N,N.
Motor speeds when connected in series:
10
1 E71 = 650 - x 650 = 585 V
100
 Electric Traction-II
5-12C (EN-Sem-7)

10
x 650 V-65
N, V, - IR 100 ...(5.9.1)
2. 10 V, -65
N, V, -IR x 650
100
3 N,D, =N,D,
N D, 0.86 = 0.956 ...(5.9.2)
D, 0.9
N,
4. From eq. (5.9.1) and (5.9.2), we get
V, -65 = 0.956
V, - 65
...(5.9.3)
V,-0.956 V, =2.86
...(5.9.4)
We know, V, + V,= 650
5. From eq. (5.9.3) and (5.9.4) :
V,= 319.15 V, V, = 330.85 V
N, E
6.
N, E,
E -= 400x 319.15 - 65
=173.77 rpm
N'= N, x 650- 65
E,
0.9
7. N,= N, x D183.77 x0.86 = 192.32 rpm
D,
Que 5.10. Two 750 V DC series motors each havinga resistance of
0.1 Q are started on series-pa: allel system. Mean current throughout
the starting period is 300 A. Starting period is 15 sec and train speed
at the end of this period is 25 km/h. Calculate:
i.
Rheostatic losses during series and parallel comnbination of
motors.
ii. Energy lost in motors.
iii. Motor output.
iv. Starting efficiency.
V.
Train speed at which transition from series to parallel must be
made.

Answer

Given: Rated voltage of eachseries motor = 750 V;R=0.12 per motor;

I= 300 A; t= 15s; Speed after starting period = 25 km/h.
To Find : Rheostatic losses, Energy lost in motors, Motor output,
Starting efficiency, Train speed.
Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 5-13 C (EN-Sem-7)
i. Rheostatic losses :
1/V -2IR
t =
2 V-IR |t= 1/750 -2x 300 x0.1 x 15 =7.1875 s
2 750 - 300 x 0.1
.:. t, = 15 -7.1875 =7.8215 s
Energy lost in rhe0stat
1
E,,
2 xIxt, +12 Ebp
2
-x2l x t,

|21Ixt,
>
750
H2-300 x0.1|300×7.1875 + 750 300 x 0.1

x 2 x 300 × 7.8125
= 743906 + 843750
= 1587656 Ws = 441 Wh.
ii. Energy lost in motors:
Energy lost in two motors = (I' × R,) x2x 15
= (300)² x 0.1] x 2 x 15 = 270000 Ws =75 Wh.
iüi. Motor output :
Total energy supplied =VxI xt, + 2I x Vxt,
= 750 x 300 x 7.1875 + 2 x 300 ×
750 x 7.8125
= 1617187 + 3515625
= 5132812 Ws = 1425.78 Wh
Motor output = Total energy supplied-Energy lost in rheostat
Energy lost in armatures
= 1425.78 441 -75 = 909.78 Wh.
iv. Starting efficiency, nstart i
lstart =
Total energy supplied Energy lost in rheostat
Total energy supplied
1425.78 -441
=0.6907 or 69.07 %
1425.78
V. Train speed-transition :
Acceleration is uniform during starting period of 15
after which series to parallel transition must be sec. Therefore speed
made
Speed after starting period
xt,
Total starting period
25
x 7.1875 = 11.98 km/h
15
 Electric Traction-II
5-14C (EN-Sem-7)

series
Que 5.11.|Two motors of a motor-coach are started on
(considered as
parallel system, the current per mnotor being 350 A If the
being constant) during the starting period which is 18 sec.
acceleration during starting period is uniform, the line voltage is
600 V and resistance of each motor 0.1 2. Calculate:
i. The time during which the motors are operated in series.
ii. The energy loss in the rheostat during starting period.

Answer
Given:Current per motor, I = 350 A; t= 18 s; V= 600 V;R=0.1 Q.
To Find:t,, energy lost.

i. The time during which the motors are operated in series, t, :

1/V-2IR t ...(5.11.1)
t,=-

2 V-IR

600 -2x 350 x 0.1

= 8.44 s
600- 350 x 0.1

Time during which motors are in parallel,

t, =t-t, = 18-8.44 = 9.56 s
ii. The energy loss in the rheostat during starting period :
1 Back emf (E) of each motor, in series operation,
600
-IR = 350 x 0.1 = 265 V
E,. = 2 2
2. When two motors are in series,
E, = 265 + 265 = 530 V
3. Back emf (E,) of each motor in parallel operation,
E,, = V-IR
600
350 x 0.1= 565 V
2

4. Energy lost when motors are connected in series

1 8.44
E,It, =x530 x350 x = 217.4 Wh
3600
5 Energy lost when motors are connected in parallel

1,Bx(2It,
2 2
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-15 C (EN-Sem-7)

1 565 9.56
x (2x 350) x = 262.6 Wh
2 2 3600
6. .:. Total energy lost = 217.4 + 262.6=480 Wh.

Que 5.12. Amultiple-unit train weighing 210 tonnes isequipped

with 6 motors giving a total tractive effort of 82800 N. The motors
operate at a line voltage of 600 V and each motor takes an average
current of 200 A during starting. Series-parallel control is used for
starting. The full line voltage is applied to each motor when the
speed reaches 38.6 km/h. Resistance of each motor is 0.1 ohm.
Calculate:
i. Energy supplied during the starting period.
ii. Energy lost in the starting resistance.
iii. Useful energy supplied to the train.
Answer
Given : W= 210 tonnes; Number of motors = 6; Total tractive
effort =82800 N, Line voltage = 600 volts; Current taken by each motor,
I= 200A; V= 38.6 km/h; R= 0.15 Q.
To Find : Energy supplied, Energy lost, Useful energy supplied.
i. Energy supplied during the starting period:
1. Tractive effort, F,= 277.8 Ma ... M is in tonnes

F 82800
= 1.42 kmphps
277.8 M 277.8 x 210
38.6
2. Time for acceleration, t= 1.42
= 27.2 s

3 1/V-2IR
We know that,
2 V-IR

1/600 -2x 200 x 0.15 x 27.2 = 12.9 s

2 600 - 200 x 0.15

4. Total energy supplied = Energy supplied- Series position (2 motors in

series and3 such circuits in parallel)
+Energy supplied -Parallel position (all motors
in parallel)
=3x 600 x 200 x 12.9 + 6x 600 x 200x 14.3
= 4.64 x 10 + 10.3 x 10® = 14.94 x 106 Ws
= 4.15 kWh
ii. Energy lost in starting resistance:
1
1 Series position = 3x
2
x 540 x 200 x 12.9 = 2.09 x 106 Ws
 Electric Traction-II
5-16 C (EN-Sem-7)

300
2. Parallel position = 6% x 200 x 14.3 = 2.57 x 105 Ws
2
4. Total energy lost = 2,09 x 106 + 2.57 x 106
= 4.66 x 10® Ws = 1.3 kWh
4. Energy lost in motor resistance
= 6 x (200) x 0.15 x 27.2
= 0.98 x 106 Ws = 0.272 kWh

30

IR

l540 V

600 V IR 570 V

300 V
270 V
Ebs
60 V

tp
t

Fig. 5.12.1.
iüi. Useful energy supplied to the train : x )xt
Useful energy suppliedto the train = (12) x (F,
1 38.6 × 1000 1 27.2
kWh
2
-x82800 x 3600 1000
X
3600
=3.35kWh.

PART-3
Drive.
Power Electronic Control of DC and ACTraction

Questions-Answers
Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type

control
Que 5.13. Explain thyristor control on ACside and phase
of SCR.
Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction 5-17 C(EN-Sem-7)

Answer
A. Thyristor control on ACside :
1. When DC traction motors are fed
with rectified AC supply, magnitude
of DC voltage is decided by the average value ofthe positive half cycles
allowed to pass through the rectifiers.
2 This in turn can be
controlled in following two ways; firstly allowing only
portions of the positive half cycles to pass through the rectifier decided
by the instant in the positive half cycle when positive gate pulse is
applied; secondly by not allowing acertain number of positive halfcycles
tobe rectified by missing positive gate pulses for those cycles.
B. Phase control of SCR:
1. Fig. 5.13.1 shows a simple circuit ofa phase controlled SCR.

A
SCR
Pulse
Timer K
amplifier

Fig. 5.13.1.
2. Just like plain diode,SCR blocks the flow of load current during negative
half cycles of supply voltage.
3. During positive half cycles, it is only when positive gate is applied to SCR
that conduction takes place through it and large current flows through
the load as the supply voltage can be applied at any instant during 0 to
180° of the positive half cycle of anode voltage.
4. Fig. 5.13.2 gives the picture of voltage in various parts of the circuit
shown in Fig. 5.13.1. Load current varies with load voltage.
Applied voltage
wave

Impulse from
timer

Voltage across
motor load

Voltage across
AK

When plane diode When SCR is used with When SCR is used with
rectifier is used early gate impulse late gate impulse

Fig. 5.13.2.
5. Longer the time is present, longer the current will flow and larger will
be the average current.
 Electric Traction-II
5-18 C (EN-Sem-7)
positive half
6 Current flow stops when anode voltage reaches the end of
cycle. load can be regulated.
7. By controlling the triggering time, voltage across of controlling
SCR, therefore, is a smooth continuous and easy method
the speed of traction motor.
amplification before
8. Signal strength from timer being weak, it requires amplifier
it can be used for controlling the SCR for which purpose pulse
is used.
current
9 This method of control produces harmonics of higher frequency in
wave and therefore, suffers from poor pf.
andAC series motor
Que 5.14.Compare the use of DCseries motor
in electric traction.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
DC series motors AC series motors
S. No. Aspects
More Less
1 Development of
starting as well as
running torque for the
same size.

2. Number of speeds Limited number of Many speeds (By tap

speeds (except by changing method).
chopper method).

3 Cost, weight, efficiency Less costly, lighter, more More costly, heavier,
for the same HP. efficient. less efficient
comparatively.
Less More
4. Maintenance required
5. Regenerative braking More efficient and less Less eficient and more
complications. complications
comparatively.

6. Negative boosting Less elaborate More elaborate (due to

required. high impedance of
track).

7. Number of sub More in number Less in number

stations required for a
given track
kilometerage.
8. Overhead distribution Heavier and more costly Lighter and less
system. comparatively. costly.
9. Interference with Low High
communication lines.
10. Rail conductor system Possible with DC| Not possible.
ftrack electrification. system.
Utilization of Electrical Energy & Electric Traction 5-19 C (EN-Sem-7)

Que 5.15. What are the different

methods of speed control of
induction motor ? Why thyristorised method is
advantageous ?
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Methods:
A. Rotor resistance
control :
1 The speed of wound induction motor can be controlled by
external resistance in the rotor circuit through slip rings. connecting
2. Although the maximum torque is
independent of rotor resistance, yet
the exact location of max is dependent on it. Greater the value of R,,
greater is the value of slip at which maximum torque occurs.
3 As the rotor
resistance is increased, the pull-out speed of the motor
decreases, but the maximum torque remains constant. Therefore, by
this method, control is provided from the rated speed to lower
speeds.
4. This method of speed control is very simple. It is possible to have a large
starting torque, low starting current and large pull-out torques at small
values of slip.
B. Slip-energy recovery :
1. The principle of slip power recovery is to connect an external source of
emf of slip frequency to the rotor circuit.
2. A method for recovering the slip power is shown Fig. 5.15.1. This method
is known as static Scherbius drive. It provides the speed control of a slip
ACring induction motor below synchronous speed.
3-Phase
supply

Smoothing
reactor

Slip ring
induction motor Bridge Inverter
rectifier
bridge
Fig. 5.15.1. Static Scherbius drive for speed
control of slip ring induction motor.
3. A portion of rotor AC power (slip power) is converted into DOC by a diode
bridge.
 Electric Traction-II
5-20 C (EN-Sem-7)
smoothing reactor.
4. The rectified current is smoothed by the
output of the rectifier is then connected to the DC terminals of the
5. The power and feeds it back to
inverter, which inverts this DC power to AC rectifier operated in the
controlled
the AC source. The inverter is a
inversion mode.
power applications where
6. This method of speed control is used in large a large amount of slip
variation of speed over a wide range involves
power.
which require speed
7. Applications: Large power fans and pump drives
control in narrow range.
method :
C. Advantages of thyristorised
1. Saving of energy.
2. Notchless control.
3. Minimum wear and tear.
4. Increase in pulling capability.
PART-4

Diesel Electric Traction.

Questions-Answers
Answer Type Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium

Que 5.16.Explain workingof diesel engine.

Answer
the engine by an
1. Diesel fuel is stored in a fuel tank and delivered to
electric fuel pump.
railroad locomotive use
2 Diesel fuel has become the preferred fuel for
availability.
due to its lower volatility, lower cost, and common
of the diesel-electric locomotive.
The diesel engine is the main componentcomprised
3. of several cylinders
It is an internal combustion engine
connected to a common crankshaft.
4. Fuel is ignited by the intense compression, pushing the piston down.
The piston's movement turns a
crankshaft.
which converts
5. The diesel engine is connected to the main generator,
the engine's mechanical power to electrical power.
circuits
6. The electricity is then distributed to traction motors through
established by various switchgear components.
 Utilization of Electrical Energy &Electric Traction
5-21 C (EN-Sem-7)
7.
Because it is always turning, whether the
the main generator's output is locomotive is moving or not,
to its windings. controlled by the excitation field current
8. The engineer controls the power
output of the locomotive by using an
9.
electricaly-controlled throttle.
Asit is opened, more fuel is injected into the
its
mechanical power output. Main generator engine's cylinders, increasing
increasing its electrical output. excitation increases,
10. Each traction motor is directly
use of electricity as the
geared to a pair of driving wheels. The
"transmission" for the locomotive is far more
reliable than using a mechanical transmission and clutch.
Que 5.17. Explain working of adiesel
engine driven DC generating
feeding DCseries motors system. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
1 Block
diagram of the scheme is shown in Fig. 5.17.1. Diesel engine has
a very small overloading
capacity.
Traction motors

Diesel
engine

Field
controller
Fig. 5.17.1. Diesel electric traction using DC
DC series traction motors.
generator and
2. Even a10 %overload results in stalling the engine. It
to modify the generator characteristics so that becomes necessary
engine can be avoided. overloading of the diesel
3. Desired V-I characteristics of the generator are shown in Fig.
The ideal system of electric transmission for diesel 5.17.2.
one in which full horse power of the engine can be electric locomotive is
into tractive effort over the wide range of utilised by conversion
fuel injection the generator output power locomotive speeds, i.e., for a
must be held constant
regardless of speed of the traction motors.
 Electric Traction-II
5-22C (EN-Sem-7)

4. When operating at full fuel injection, part BC of the characteristic ABCD

ensures operation of the generator at constant power (Vx I= Constant).
VA
A B

|A' B'

A" B"

0
D" D' D
Fig. 5.17.2. Generator V-I characteristics.
5. Part CD is obtained by imposing a limit on generator current
for:
i. Protecting the generator and motor.
ii. To limit the traction motor torque.
6. Too high traction motor torque can produce two undesirable
results:
With high adhesion between locomotive's driving wheels and rails, draw
bar fracture might result.
ii. . With low adhesion,slipping of driving wheels might result.
7. Part AB is realised by imposing generator voltage limit so that:
i. Generator and motor voltages do not exceed the rated value, and
i. Motor speed will remain within a safe limit.
8. For lower diesel engine fuel injections, generator has the characteristics
A'BC'D' and A"BC"D" etc. Parts B'C' and B"C" of these characteristics
represent operation at a constant power.
9. Current limits CD' and C"D" and voltage limits A'B' and A"B"are
incorporated for smooth acceleration and to deal with varying conditions
of track related to slope, and condition and strength of rails.
10. The characteristics S, and S, are provided for shunting.
11. Diesel engine does not have starting torque. It is started by making
generator to work as a motor. For this the generator may be fed from a
battery.
Que 5.18.What are the main characteristics of diesel engine with
special reference to its application for traction purposes ?
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Utilization of Electrical Energy & ElectricTraction 5-23 C (EN-Sem-7)

Answer
1. Diesel engines do not have starting torque.
be provided to start them. Therefore, means have to
2. Starting can either be achieved by the use
of
making generator to work as motor from batterycompressed
supply.
air or by
3. It develops
torque which remains nearly constant at all speeds. HP
developed, therefore, increases linearly with speed. This is shown in
Fig. 5.18.1.
4. It is, therefore, observed that
diesel engine delivers its rated output at
particular value of rpm.
Torque

Torque
HP HP

rpm
500 1000 1500
Fig. 5.18,1.
5. It is more or less constant HP prime mover with limited overload capacity.
10 %of over load results in stalling the engine.
6. As compared to straight electrie locomotive which can develop more
than twice its normal rated power for short periods, diesel powered
traction unit is limited in its output to that of the diesel engine.
Que 5.19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of diesel
electric traction ? Discuss the main characteristics of diesel engine
with special reference to its application for traction purposes.
AKTU2013-14, 2014-15; Marks 10
Answer
A. Advantages :
1. It requires less amount rt oil per km than amount of coal per km in
steam engine.
It consumes small amount of water.
3 Power loss in speed control is low.
4. Good for places where coal mines are far away.
B. Disadvantages :
1 High initial cost.
2 High weight.
 ElectricTraction-II
5-24C (EN-Sem-7)

3. Low life.
4. Regenerative braking not possible.
5. They do not have high starting torque.
Page 5-220C, Unit-5.
C. Characteristics : Refer Q. 5.18,
alternator feeding
Que 5.20. Explain diesel engine driven
induction motor.

Answer
scheme. Both six-step and
1. Fig. 5.20.1 shows the block diagram of this
PWM inverter can be used.
Induction
Brushless Voltage source
Rectifier inverter motors
alternator

Diesel
engine
Fig. 5.20.1. Block diagram of diesel electric drive using
inverter fed induction motors.
adjustment
2 When six-step inverter is used voltage control is provided by
of alternator field current.
3. When PWM inverter is used, voltage control is provided by the inverter
at the
itself and the rectifier output voltage can be maintained constant
rated value.
4 This allows reduction in the current rating of alternator and diode
rectifier; further reducing the cost, weight and size of the generating
unit.
5. Acycloconverter can also be used instead of diode rectifier and inverter.
But then the alternator must be driven at a higher speed.
6.
Because of the use of squirrel-cage motors, alternator and inverter, this
scheme has following advantages :
i. High ratio of power output to locomotive weight. The locomotive can
therefore pull heavier trains on faster schedules.
High power rating.
i. Reduced maintenance and overtime.
iv. High efficiency due to low power losses.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Discuss various features of the electric supply system which

have bearing on the drive.