Gnas Magnetic circuits involving Fy = NI and , Fn, and magnetic field strength, H, and state their units ND T ishing between 1g, ty and 4 {for different magnetic materials “The study of magnetism began in the thirteenth century with many eminent scientists and physicists such as William Gilbert, Hans Christian Oersted, Michael Fara- day, James Maxwell, André Ampére and Wilhelm Weber all having some input on the subject since ‘The association between electricity and magnetism is a fairly recent finding in comparison with the very first understanding of basic magnetism. ‘Today, magnets have many varied practical appli- cations, For example, they are used in motors and generators, telephones, relays, loudspeakers, computer hard drives and floppy disks, anti-lock brakes, cam- eras, fishing reels, electronic ignition systems, key boards, Lv, and radio components and in transmission equipment. "The full theory of magnetism i one of the most com- ‘plex of subjects; this chapter provides an introduction tothe topic:Magneticcieuts 67 Arun ‘A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic ‘material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which bas properties of attracting other pieces of these materi- als. A permanent magnet will position itself in a nosth and south direction when freely suspended. The north- seeking end of the magnet is called the north pole, , and the south-seeking end the south pole, S. ‘The area around a magnets called the magnetictield anditisin this area that the effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or heard and there- foreis dtficul to represent. Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, bby imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables investigation ofthe distribution and density of the field to be carried out. ‘The distribution of a magnetic field can be investi- gated by using some iron filings. A bar magnet is placed ‘ona flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is sprinkled some iron filings. Ifthe cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a pattern similar to that shown in Figure 7.1. ITanumber of magnets of different srength are used, iis found thatthe stronger the field the closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice-versa, ‘Thus a magnetic field has the property of exerting a force, demonstrated in this ease by causing the iron fil- ings to move into the pattern shown, The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet. It should be realized, of course, that the ‘magnetic field is three dimensional ints effect, and not acting in one plane as appears to be the case in this experiment, ‘fa compass is placed in the magnetic feld in various positions, the direction of the lines of ux may be deter- ‘mined by noting the direction of the compass pointer. Lines of saprete pt i NY Ne Magnets Cy» Figure 74 ‘The direction ofa magnetic field at any pointis taken as {hat in which the north-seeking pole of a compass needle points when suspended in the field, The direction of a line of fax is from the north pote to the south pote on the outside ofthe magnet and is then assumed fo con- tinue through the magnet back to the point at which it emerged a thenorth pole, Thus such Hines of ux always form complete closed loops or paths, they never inter- sect and always have a definite direction, The laws of magnetic altration and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In Figure 7.2(a), with unlike polesadjacent, attraction takes place. Lines of fax are imagined tocontract and the magnets ty toll together. ‘The magnetic fields strongest in between the two mag- nets, shown by the lines of flux being close together. In Figure 7.2(6), with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occur, ic. the two north poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic fux lines running sie by side in the same direction sepel ~G Dm aos en se @ Cc Figure 7.2 Pua ecu het Cunieg Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the ‘numberof lines of force) produced by amagnetic source. ‘The symbol for magnetic lux is (Greek letter ‘phi’ ‘The unit of magnetic flux is the weber, Wb. ‘Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux pass- ing through a defined asea that is perpendicular to the direction of the fux: ‘Magnetic flux density = mametic fox claa {68 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology ‘The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit ‘of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T, where 17° 1Wb/m?, Hence ®, 2 tesla where Aten) isthe area Problem 1. A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200mm by 100mm. If the total lux emerging from the pole is. 150uWe, calculate the flux density. Flux = 150Wb = 150x 10-8 Wb Cross-sectional area A200 100 = 200mm? = 20000 x10-Sm? ® 150% 10-* A ~ 20000 x 16° )0075°T or 7.5 mT Flux density B = Problem 2. The maximum working flux density ofa lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and the effective area of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux produced is 353mWhb, determine the radius of the pole face. Flux density B= 1.87, flux = 353mWb = 353 x 10 Wo Since B= ©, cross-sectional atea a tm” =0.1961m* ‘The pole face is circular, hence area= r?, where r is the radius, Hence srr? =0.1961 from which r? — 2225) ang rad [foaser rom which? = SS and rads r= (= 250m, i.e, the radius of the pole face is 250mm ect) CE edie bd ‘Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of the exis- tence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit, mmf, Fy amperes where Vis the number of conductors (or tums) and J is the current in amperes. The unit of mmf is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However since ‘tums have no dimensions, the SI unit of mm is the ampere, Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force), in NI/l ampere per metre where I is the mean length of the fux path in metres ‘Thus mmf =NI= H1 amperes Problem 3. A magnetizing force of 8000 A/m is applied toa circular magnetic excuit of mean diameter 30cm by passing a current through a coil ‘wound on the circuit. I the coil i uniformly wound szound the excuit and has 750 turns, find the curzent in the col H tums 30107? m; 8000 A/m; I= md 750 HI _ 8000 x x 30x 107? vO 750 ‘Thus, current [=10.05 A Now try the following exercise Exer 21 Further problems on flux, flux density, m.m-f. and magnetic field strength 1. What is the flux density in a magnetic field of cross-sectional area 20cm? having a flux of 3mWb? ust 2. Determine the total flux emerging from a mag- netic pole face having dimensions Sem by Gem, if the flux density is 0.97. (2.7mWb] 3. ‘Themaximum working flux density of lifting clectromagnet is 1.9T and the effective area of a pole face is circular in cross-section, If the total magnetic flux produced is 611 mWb determine the radius of the pole face. [32cm]Magnetic circuits 69 4, Accurrent of SA is passed through @ 1000-tum coil wound on a circular magnetic circuit of radius 120mm. Calculate (a) the magne- tomotive force, and (b) the magnetic field strength, {(@) 5000 A (b) 6631 A/m] ee aay For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of mag- netic flux density to magnetizing force is a constant, i.e, BH = a constant. This constant is 4o, the perme: ability of free space (or the magnetic space constant) and is equal to 4 x 10-7 H/m, ie. for air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio 2/1 = 9. (Although all non-magnetic materials, including air, exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can effectively be neglected.) For all media other than free space, B/H= ppt, where u, isthe relative permeability, and is defined as Sux density in material = Gx density in a vacoum, uy varies with the type of magnetic material and, since itis a ratio of lux densities, it has no unit. From its definition, 4, for a vacuum is 1 HoH, =, called the absolute permeability By plotting measured values of flux density B against ‘magnetic field strength H7, a magnetization curve (or B-H curve) is produced, For non-magnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical curves for four magnetic materials are shown in Figure 7.3 ‘The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic mat- rial is proportional tothe slope of the B=H curve and thus varies with the magnetic field strength. The approx- imate range of values of relative permeability 4, for some common magnetic materials are: Castiron 4, = 100-250 Mild steel 4, = 200-800 Silico iron tr = 1000-5000 Cast steel 4, = 300-500 Mumetal 4, =200-5000 Stalloy y+, = 500-6000 Problem 4. A flux density of 1.2 Tis produced in apiece of cast steel by a magnetizing force of 1250 A/m. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions, Fux cansty, 096s RG “SOT WOT VG —SOO Foe ‘Magno fold svat, (Atm) igure 7.3. B-H curves forfour materials For a magnetic material: B= po, B 12 Ne t= TH ~ Gir x 10-0250) — 764 Problem 5. Determine the magnetic feld strength and the mmf requited to produce a flux density of 0.25 Tin an air gap of length 12mm, For air: B= jo H (since py = 1) ‘Magnetic field strength Problem 6. A coil of 300 turns is wound ‘uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic material. The ring has a mean circumference of 40cm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 4em?. Ifthe current in the coil is 5A, calculate (a) the magnetic field strength, (b) the flux density and (c) the total magnetic flux in the ring. claa 70 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology NE (2) Magnetic field strength W = “7 (©) For @ non-magnetic material jp =1, thus flux density B= oH ie, Bada x 10-7 x3750=4.712 mT (©) Flax © = BA = (4.712 x 107)(4 x 10-4) 885. Wb Problem 7. An iron ring of mean diameter 10cm is uniformly wound with 2000 tums of wire. When a current of 0.25 A is passed through the coil a fiux density of 0.4 Tis set up in the ion. Find (a) the ‘magnetizing force and (b) the relative permeability of the iron under these conditions N=2000 tums; =0.25 A; B=04T NI__20000.25 _ $000 @H Tx 10x i 7 B (©) B= pow H, ence my = voll 04 __ © Gir x 10-0592) = 200 Problem 8. A uniform ring of cast iron has a cross-sectional area of 10cm? and a mean circumference of 20cm, Determine the mmf necessary to produce a flux of 0.3mWb in the ring. ‘The magnetization curve for cast iron is shown in Figure 7.3, {0 em? = 10x 10m; 3x10"? Wo oa Flux density B= From the magnetization curve forcast iron in Figure7.3, when B=03T, H = 1000 A/m, hence mumf= HI = 1000 0.2 = 200A. ‘A tabular method could have been used in this problem. Such a solutions shown below. rats Sve iL) Reluctance (or Ry) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a ‘magnetic circuit tothe presence of magnetic fux. Reluctance, sefw Mom tt ® @ BA (BIN)A pon, ‘The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H~) or A/Wb. Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance and can be used as magnetic sereens to prevent magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen. Problem 9. Determine the reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150mm and cross-sectional area 1800mm? when the relative permeability is +4000, Find also the absolute permeability of the mumetal, 1 ou, A Reluctance § 150% 10-2 Gir 10-7000} (TBO % 10-5 16 S80/H or 16 S80A/Wh or 16.58kA/Wb “Absolute permeability, Hod, = (ar x 10774000) 5.027 x 107 Him Problem 10, A mild steel ing has a radius of ‘50mm and a cross-sectional area of 400mm?. A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and the flux produced is 0.1 mWb, If the relative permeability at this value of current is 200 find (a) the reluctance of the mild steel and (b) the number of tums on the coil, 2ar = 2x «50% 107m; A= 400% 10-%m?s SA; @ =0.1 x 10~> Wh: u, =200 G Sc od Poa anyMagneticcieuits 71 1 (a) Reluctance wou A 2xm x50%1079 (Gee 10-7200) 400% 1 3.125 x 10° mmf @) s=Tic mmi=so so that NT= $ and S® _ 3.125 100.1 x 107? 7 oS = 625 turns hence Now try the following exercise Exercise 22 Further problems on magnetic circuits (Where appropriate assume: jg =r x 10-7 H/m) 1, Find the magnetic field strength and the mag- netomotive force needed to produce a flux density of 0.33 T in an air gap of length 15mm. {(a) 262600 A/m (b) 3939 A] 2. _Anair gap between two pole pieces is 20mm, in length and the area of the ux path across the gap is Sem?, If the flux required in the air gap is 0.75mWb find the mmf necessary, [23870 A] 3. Find the magnetic field strength applied to a ‘magnetic citcuit of mean length SOem when ‘coil of 400 tumns is applied to it carrying a ‘current of 1.2.A. [960 A/m] 4, A solenoid 20cm long is wound with 500 tums of wire. Find the current required to ‘establish a magnetizing force of 2500A/m inside the solenoid. Al ‘A magnetic field strength of 5000 A/m is applied toa circular magnetic circuit of mean diameter 250mm. Ifthe coil has 500 turns find the current in the oil (7.85 A] 6. Find the selative permeability of a piece of silicon iron if a flux density of 13 T is produced by a magnetic field strength of 700 jm. (1478) 7. Partofamagnetic citcuitis made from steel of length 120mm, cross-sectional area 15cm? 10. IL and relative permeability 800. Calculate (@) the reluctance and (b) the absolute per- eability of the steel [(@) 79 S8OVH (b) 1 mF/m] “A.steel ting of mean diameter 120mm is uni formly wound with 1500 turns of wire. When current of 0.30 A is passed through the coil a flux density of 1.5 Tis setup inthe steel. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions. [1000] ‘A mild steel closed magnetic cireuit has a ‘mean length of 7Smm and a cross-sectional area of 320,2mm?. A current of 0.40 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the eizcuit and the flux produced is 200 Wb. If the tel- ative permeability of the steel at this value of ‘current is 400 find (a) the reluctance of the ‘material and (b) the number of turns of the coil. [G) 466000/H1 (6) 233) ‘A niform ring of cast steel has a cross- sectional area of Scm? and a mean circum. ference of 15cm. Find the curent required in a coil of 1200 tums wound on the ring to produce a flux of 0$mWb, (Use the ‘magnetization curve fo cast steel shown on page 62) (0.60 A] (@) A uniform mild steel ring has a diameter of SOmm and a cross-sectional area of em?. Determine the mmf necessary to produce aflux of 50 Whin the ring. (Use the B-H curve for mild steel shown on. page 69.) () Ia coil of 440 turns is wound uniformly azound the sing in part (a) what current ‘would be required to produce the flux? {(o) 110 A (6) 025 A) eeu circuits For a series magnetic circuit having m parts, the total reluctance $ is given by: S=SitSr 4-5), (This is similar to resistors connected in series in an electrical circuit) claa 72 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Problem 11. A closed magnetic circuit of east steel contains a 6cm long path of cross-sectional area Lem? and a 2cm path of cross-sectional area 0Sem?. A coil of 200 turns is wound around the cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4 A flows. Determine the flux density inthe 2m path, if the relative permeability ofthe cast steel is 750. For the 6 cm long path: © Et XIV TSOVT 10- = 6.366 x 105) For the 2em long path: be Reluctance S; owrAy 2x107* © Gx x IO TSO) OS x 10-} = 4.244% 1057 ‘Total circuit reluctance $= S$; + Sz = (6.366 + 4.244) x 10° = 10.61 x 107/11 mmf _ NI ss 200%04 os I T5410 Wh eer ‘Air gap Air 7x10 — Sx10-~4 Problem 12. A silicon iron sing of eross-scetonal area Sm? has a radial airgap of 2mm cut into it I the mean length ofthe silicon iron path is 40cm, calculate the magnetomotive force to produce a flux of 0.7 mWb, The magnetization curve for silicon is shown on page 69. ‘There are two parts to the circuit — the silicon iron and the air gap. The total mmf will be the sum of the mmt’s of each part 07x10 For the silicon iron: B= © = 97 * 10 reerrs AT From the B-Hf curve for silicon iron on page 69, when B=14T, H =1650 Am. Hence the mmf for the iron path= HI = 1650%0.4 660A For the air gap: ‘The flux density will be the same in the air gap as in the ion, ic. 1.4 (This assumes no leakage or fringing occurring) _ ia yo ix 107 = 1114000 A/m For air, H Hence the mmf for the air gap = HT = 1114000 x 2x 107? = 2228 ‘Total mmf to produce aflux of 0.7 mWb = 660+2228 = 2888, A tabular method could have been used as shown below, BCT) H (Alm) 14 7" 14 Toa x1 28 =1114000Magneticcieuts 73, Problem 13, Figure 7.4 shows a ring formed with ‘wo different materials — cast stecl and mild steel ‘The dimensions are Stn Cast steel 300mm 312.Smm" Figure 7.4 Find the total mmf required to cause a flux of 500 Win the magnetic cixcuit, Determine also the total circuit reluctance, A tabular solution is shown on the next page mmf 2000 ‘otal circuit reluctance $=" = = =4x 107 Problem 14. A section through a magnetic circuit of uniform cross-sectional area 2em? is shown in Figure 7.5. The cast steel core has a mean length of 25em. The air gap is Imm wide and the coil has 5000 turns. The BAT curve for cast steel is shown, ‘on page 69. Determine the current in the coil to produce a lux density of 0.80 T in the air gap, assuming that ll the ux passes through both parts of the magnetic cizcuit. Lo ai 006 2 Bm Figure 75 For the cast steel core, when B = 0,80°T, H =750.A/m (from page 69) 1 Reluctance of ore i= and since B= tor. Tone As th Bans h hit be oH o(ea)A BA (= oh (25 x 107%)(750) OD x 10-4) = 1172000 For the air gap: he b HorAa Hoar (ince jay = 1 for air) Reluctance, S2 _ 1x 107 Gr x10 IA «1-H = 3979000 “Total circuit reluctance § = Si +S: =1172000+3979000 = 5151 0005 Flux © = BA =0.80x2% 107 = 1.6 x 10-'Wb thes mmf = Hence P= 50 so and conent J = => (5151.000)(1.6 x 10) 5000 = 0.165, Now try the following exercise Exercise23 Further problems on composite series magnetic circuits (Where appropriate assume jig = 42x x 10-7 H/m) 1. A. magnetic circuit of cross-sectional area O.4em? consists of one part 3em long, of ‘material having relative permeability 1200, and. ‘a second part 2cm long of material having claa 74 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology erent me Coo) cron B Cast steel 500x 10-6 312.5 10-S Py omy graphs p 69) 4800 300% 107? 1440 relative permeability 750, With a 100 tum coil carrying 2 A, find the value of flux existing in the circuit, [0.195mWb) 2. (a) Accast steel ring has a cross-sectional area ‘of 600mm? and a radius of 25mm. Deter- ‘ine the mmf necessary to establish a flux ‘of 0,8mWb in the ring. Use the B-H curve for cast steel shown on page 69. (b) Ifaradial sir gap 1.5mm wide is cutin the ring of par (a) find the mmf now necessary ‘to maintain the same flux in the ring {{@) 270 A (b) 1860 A] 3. For the magnetic ciscuit shown in Figure 7.6 find the current in the coil needed to produce a ‘lux of 0.45 mWb in the ai gap. The silicon iron ‘magnetic circuit has a uniform cross-sectional area of 3em? and its magnetization curve is as shown on page 69 (083) [ie fe Lut sien a vo Figure 76 4, Asing forming a magnetic circuits made from two materials; one partis mild steel of mean length 25cm and cross-sectional area 4cm?, and the remainder is cast iron of mean length 20cm and cross-sectional area 7.Sem?. Use a tabular approach to determine the total mmf required to cause a flux of 0.30mWb in the ‘magnetic circuit, Find also the total reluctance of the circuit, Use the magnetization curves shown on page 69, [S50 A, 1.83 x 10°/H] 5. Figure7.7 shows the magnetic circuit of arelay. When each ofthe air gaps are 1.5mm wide find the mmaf required to produce a flux density of 0.75 T in the air gaps. Use the B-H curves shown on page 69. [2970 A) fan Ae gap son ism Ce ee ae) Pee nee es Pend ueMagneticcieuits 75 ee Bot Decent r Hysteresis loop Let @ ferromagnetic material which is completely demagnetized, ie. one in which B =H =0 be sub- jected to increasing values of magnetic field strength Hand the corresponding flux density B measured. The resulting relationship between B and H is shown by the curve Oab in Figure 7.8. Ata particular value of H, shown as Oy, it becomes difficult to increase the flux density any further. The material is said to be saturated, ‘Thus by is the saturation flux density. Figure 78 If the value of H is now reduced itis found that the flux density follows curve be. When H is reduced to zero, flux remains in the iton. This remanent flux den sity or remanence is shown as Oc in Figure 7.8. When H is increased in the opposite direction, the fiox den- sity decreases until, ata value shown as Od, the flux density has been reduced to zero, The magnetic field strength Od required to remove the residual magnetism, ive, reduce B to zero, is called the coercive force, Further increase of H in the reverse direction causes the flux density to inerease in the reverse direction until saturation is reached, as shown by curve de, If H is var- ied backwards from Ox to Oy, the flux density follows the curve efgb, similar (o curve ede. tis seen from Figure 7.8 thatthe lux density changes lag behind the changes in the magnetic field strength, ‘This effect is called hysteresis. The closed figure bedefgb is called the hysteresis loop (or the BiET loop). Hysteresis loss A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (ie. ‘groups of atoms) of a ferromagnetic material causes energy to be expended in taking it through a cycle fof magnetization, This energy appears as heat in the specimen and is called the hysteresis loss, ‘The energy loss associated with hysteresis is pro- portional to the area of the hysteresis loop. ‘The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the energy loss, is much {greater for hard materials than for soft materials. Figure 7.9 shows typical hysteresis loops for: (@) hard material, which has @ high remanence Oc and a large coercivity Od (b) Soft steel, which has a large remanence and small coercivity (©) ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic sub- stance made from oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt, ‘magnesium, aluminium and mangenese; the hys- teresis of ferrite is very small For ac.-excited devices the hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle of alternating current, Thus ahysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss would be considerable. Silicon steel has a natrow hysteresis loop, and thus small hys- teresis loss, and is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine armatures. © Figure 79 cla