IGCSE RS

Paper 1: Beliefs and Values

Section 1: The Universe, Creation and the Place of

Human Beings

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In this Section, you will cover the following topics:

1.1 The Universe and the Place of Human Beings

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about creation, stewardship, imago Dei and the uniqueness of
human beings
• The application of scripture in creation and teachings

1.2 Human Nature and the Human Condition

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about the nature of human beings, with particular reference to
the body, the spirit and the soul

1.3 Selfishness, Greed, Ignorance and Sin

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about selfishness, greed, ignorance and sin

• The nature of sin

1.4 Freewill, Determinism and Predestination

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about human freedom and its limitations and predestination

1.5 Ultimate Reality

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about God as the Trinity, as reflected in the Creeds, with
particular reference to God as Father, Creator and Judge
• Reference to God’s nature as almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and benevolent

1.6 Belief, Uncertainty and Unbelief

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about, and responses to, reasons for/ factors that may influence
belief in God, including Christian nurture and formation
• Reasons for/ factors that may lead to agnosticism or atheism

1.7 The Problem of Evil and Suffering

• Christian beliefs/ teachings about evil and suffering in the world, and how they relate to the
purpose of life, with particular reference to suffering as punishment for sin and proof of faith
• The questions evil and suffering raise for Christians about God’s omnipotence, omniscience
and benevolence
• Christian attempts to explain why God created a world containing suffering and/ or allows it
to continue
• Theodicy

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 1.1 The Universe and the Place of Human Beings

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about the origin of the universe and the place
of human beings in it

• Religious beliefs and teachings about its purpose

• (Differing) views as to why people believe that human beings have a responsibility for the
planet, and the different ways they can exercise this responsibility

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about the relationship of human beings to
other creatures, including (differing) views about the commonality of all living beings

• The dominance of human beings over all other creatures

• How human beings should treat animals

• Animal rights

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Non-Religious Beliefs and Teachings about the Origins of the Universe and the Place of Humans in
it

Non-religious people do not believe the universe was designed or created by God or any other
supernatural power. Instead, they think the universe is a product of chance and has developed
through natural physical processes. The universe has no goal or purpose. Rather, the events that occur
during its development are accidental rather than deliberate.

During the first half of the twentieth century, there were two competing theories about the origins of
the universe:

The Steady-State theory: devised by Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle in 1948, this
theory holds that the universe is continually expanding whilst maintaining a constant average density.
The universe has no beginning or end.

However, this theory about the nature of the universe has been almost completely rejected by
scientists. The vast majority of scientists accept the Big Bang theory to account for the origins of the
universe.

The Big Bang theory: suggests that matter is eternal – it is neither created nor destroyed. It can only
be changed from one form to another (the law of thermodynamics).

About 13.7 billion years ago, the matter of the universe became so
compressed it produced a huge explosion or ‘Big Bang’. As the matter of the
universe flew away from the explosion, the forces of gravity helped some of
the matter to merge forming stars. About 5 billion years ago, our solar
system was formed. It is thought the earth was made about 4.6 billion years
ago from the dust and gas left over after the sun formed. As the molten earth
began to cool, it was covered with a liquid layer of various chemicals, which
through evaporation, radioactivity and heat from the sun led to the
evolution of simple molecules into complex proteins and acids. These
complex proteins and acids began to reproduce themselves 4,000 million
years ago leading to the first form of life on the planet.

This theory was first proposed by Alexander Friedman, a Russian mathematician, in

1922. In 1927, Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966), a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic
priest, expanded the theory. He called his theory, ‘the hypothesis of the primeval
atom or cosmic egg’ stating that the ‘cosmic egg exploded at the moment of creation’.
Later, the term ‘Big Bang’ was coined for the theory.

Scientists such as Edwin Hubble have provided observations and measurements of our galaxy and
others which support this theory. Hubble found that nearly all the galaxies were moving away from
our galaxy. Indeed, the further the galaxies were from us, the faster they were moving away. Such
observations pointed to the continued expansion of the universe.

Other evidence to support the Big Bang theory includes:

• The Redshift Effect: astrophysics tells us that light from the stars approaching us should be at
the blue end of the spectrum and those moving away from us should be at the red end. Studies
of the stars from other galaxies demonstrate their light is at the red end of the spectrum.

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 • Radiation: radio telescopes have discovered background radiation throughout the universe
which is believed to be the remnant of the Big Bang.
• Gravitational Waves: in March 2014, gravitational waves were detected in deep space.
Scientists believe they were triggered by the rapid expansion of the universe during the Big
Bang.

The theory of evolution is widely accepted by non-religious people to the explain how human beings
came into existence. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) provided the evidence necessary to support the
theory. In 1831, Darwin began an expedition on HMS Beagle. He was the official government naturalist
who was given the task of making a survey of the South American coast. On the Galapagos islands,
600 miles to the west of Ecuador, he discovered the evidence he needed to support the theory of
evolution. He discovered tortoises on different islands that were related but had differing
characteristics and features. Similarly, the islands hosted finches which were related but whose beaks
differed. He observed the beaks differed according to the food eaten by the finches. He concluded
that the finches had a common ancestor but had developed differing physical features based on their
differing environments.

The evidence collected during the expedition led Darwin to propose the theory of natural selection.
He argued that those organisms best able to cope in a certain environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce (the survival of the fittest). Gradually, over time species changed to keep in tune with
a changing environment. Darwin argued that this theory is applicable to all animals, including humans.
Darwin published these theories and evidence in On the Origin of the Species in 1859. The book had a
huge impact on the Christian community. The evidence which suggested humanity, like other animals,
has evolved and shares some of its ancestry with apes proved particularly controversial. It meant that
human life has no special value other than what humans choose to give it.

The main evidence for evolution is the fossil record. Palaeontologists have
discovered the older a fossil, the simpler its structure. The fossil record also
provides transitional species such as Archaeopteryx which had
characteristics of both reptiles and birds. The fossil records also contain
remains of those species which are now extinct which suggests natural
selection at work.

More recently, the study of DNA and genetics has offered further evidence of evolution. Compiling
the human genome, Geneticists are discovering more about the history of human development.
Namely, modern humans originated in Africa, reproducing with and eventually replacing older types
of human species and continued to evolve into the modern type of human that exists today.

Just like the non-religious beliefs about the origins of the universe, this theory holds human beings are
the product of natural processes. They are not designed or created by God or any other supernatural

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 force. Human beings are simply part of the evolutionary process, not its goal. Humanity is just one
example of many well-adapted animals which have thrived on the earth. It has taken millions of years
for modern humans to emerge from their evolutionary ancestors. The features of modern humans
such as intelligence, relationality and creativity are genetic adaptations shaped by their environment.

Work

1. How might Christians respond to the non-religious views of the origins of the universe and
humanity’s place in it?

2. Explain two ways in which evolutionary theory might undermine Christian beliefs.

Christian Beliefs and Teachings about the Origins of the Universe and the Place of Humans in it

For most Christians, the Bible provides the basis for their understanding of the origins of the universe
and humanity. At the very least, Christians learn from Genesis chapters one and two that God is the
source of the cosmos. But even in these opening chapters of the Bible there are two quite different
accounts of creation.

Genesis 1 – 2:4 – The World Created in Six Days

God is described as the sole source of power and life, totally in control of his creation. He is unique,
entirely distinct from the natural world which is subordinate to him.

For some Christians the opening sentences of Genesis chapter one

In the beginning God created the mean God brought the universe into being from nothing (ex nihilo) but
heavens and the earth. The earth was for others, God created the universe from pre-existing matter (ex
without form and void and the darkness materia). Nevertheless, according to this account, God has merely to
was upon the face of the deep; and the
say the word and he gives shape and form to chaos. Each day, God adds
spirit of God was moving over the face of
to his creation showing that it has a design and a purpose. At each stage,
the waters. Genesis 1:1-3
God declares the finished product ‘good’, emphasising the excellence
and wholesomeness of the universe.

The culmination of his creation in this account is humanity; Adam and Eve are created in his image.
They are to have ‘dominion’ over the rest of the natural order and are told to be fruitful and multiply.

Genesis 2:4-25 – Adam is Moulded from the Earth

In this second, earlier account, a different understanding of the creative process is offered. The world
is deserted and utterly empty. But from the earth a spring rose and provides the means by which life
can flourish. Hence, God is not described as summoning things into existence.

God begins his creative work by fashioning the first man, Adam, from the earth
(like a potter working with clay) and then breathing life into him. Thereafter, God
creates a garden for Adam to cultivate and animals, which he is to name. Later,
he makes a companion for Adam from one of his ribs, Eve.

This second narrative implies a different understanding of God; whilst all life is
derived from him, he is not distant. He works in close relationship with his
creation. Equally, the place of humanity in the world has a different emphasis;
humanity is to cultivate the land rather than to have dominion over it.

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Interpreting the Biblical Accounts of Creation

Fundamentalist Christians tend to be creationists, taking the Biblical accounts of the creation of the
universe and humanity literally. By referring in particular to Genesis chapter one, they argue that all
life was created by the actions of God and all forms of life existing today are created by God as only
God can be the source of new life. Whilst a few forms of creationism accept a limited understanding
of evolution, the majority reject this scientific theory. For example, Young Earth Creationists believe
the earth and all life forms as they are found today were created by God in six days around 10,000
years ago. Old Earth Creationists accept the earth is approximately four billion years old but they hold
that all life including humanity has been intentionally and directly created by God in countless acts of
creation throughout history.

Given that the editors of the Bible kept the two, separate creation accounts together without any
attempt to iron out their differences, many Christians who are conservative or liberal in their
interpretation of the Bible regard the stories as parables or symbolic. They are thought to offer a
profound truth that God is the source of the universe and he sustains his creation. Hence, for Karen
Armstrong, the Genesis stories of creation are not historical accounts but rather a meditation on the
origins of life and the nature of our existence.
Similarly, John Polkinghorne, a priest and a Genesis is not there to give short, technical answers about how the
physicist, does not have a problem accepting universe began. It gives us the big answer that things exist because
the truth of the Bible creative narratives and of God’s will. One can perfectly well believe in the Big Bang, but
the scientific theories of the origins of the believe in it as the will of God the creator. John Polkinghorne
universe.

In January 2010, the Manchester Diocese of the Church of England in its Special Agenda IV responded
to the scientific explanation of the origins of humanity by encouraging the Church of England to affirm
the compatibility of belief in God and the understanding of science and to provide a better public
understanding of that compatibility. It argued that the divine design of the universe is achieved by
God through the way in which the laws of the universe work and the process of evolution.

According to the Report, many people currently have little awareness of what Christianity stands for
but are impressed by scientific explanations and think these theories prove religion is wrong. Instead,
the Report urged the Church to show science and religion can be compatible and by working together,
they can help people to understand more about the world. Furthermore, science shows the amazing
nature of the world created by God.

Nevertheless, the scientific theories, particularly the

theory of evolution, raise serious issues for Christians.
The theory of evolution could be seen to question the
authority of the Bible. Whilst the Genesis story of
creation can accommodate the Big bang theory,
evolution questions whether God specifically created
vegetation, fish, reptiles, birds and humans. Rather,
according to evolution, they are a product of natural
selection.

Equally, if one were to take the stories in Genesis literally, evolution also questions the basis of Original
Sin. If there was no Adam and Eve and no Fall, then there is no original sin. Hence, there is no need
for the atoning death of Jesus.

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 Natural selection undermines the notion of a good God. In Genesis, after creating each aspect of the
cosmos, God declares it good. However, natural selection operates on the principle of violence and
suffering. Species struggle to survive in a brutal environment; predators devour their prey and
sometimes they seem to inflict suffering for no survival purpose at all.

Evolution also seems to undermine the Christian belief in the intrinsic value of human life. By being
made in the image of God and having a soul from the moment of conception, every human being is of
equal worth. Humanity evolving from simpler organisms questions that notion of the sanctity of
human life.

Evaluation questions to ponder and practise:

1. ‘If the Big Bang theory is right then the creation stories in the Bible are fiction’. Evaluate this
statement. [12]

2. ‘Humanity is created by God’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

3. ‘God is the creator of the world.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

4. It does not matter if the world has a creator.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Beliefs and Teachings about the Purpose of the Universe and Humanity

Christians believe the universe is a product of God’s design, created deliberately by him and forms a
part of his divine plan. Consequently, the universe and humanity within it has a God given purpose.
Similarly, the universe is regarded by Christians to be intrinsically valuable – it is grounded in the very
being of God and as he was creating it, he declared it ‘good’.

The Christians teachings of creation also point to the purpose of

So God created humankind in his image, in
humanity. Created in his image, humanity is designed to be in a
the image of God he created them; male and
relationship with God. By serving God and meeting his
female he created them. Genesis 1:27
expectations, humanity has the chance of salvation.

The story of creation in Genesis makes it clear that human

beings have other roles to fill. They are to procreate in order God blessed them and said to them, “Be
to fill the earth. This will enable them to rule the earth. This fruitful and increase in number; fill the
command to fill the earth and subdue it has caused some earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in
controversy. Scholars such as L. White and A. Toynbee have the sea and the birds in the sky and over
gone so far as to claim that the Judeo-Christian doctrine of every living creature that moves on the
creation is responsible for the current ground.” Genesis 1:28
ecological crisis. They argue that God’s
command to Adam and Eve in Genesis 1:28
could be (and has been) interpreted as humanity’s right to exploit the earth’s
resources. But Christians would counter this claim by stating God declared his
creation to be good and in their leadership of the world, humanity has a special
responsibility to control, cultivate and guard the world. However, the world is only
on loan to humanity; we are the stewards or caretakers of the earth.
Consequently, humanity will have to account for its treatment of the world to God
at the End Time.

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 The purpose of human beings as God’s stewards of the The LORD God took the man and put him in
universe is further endorsed in the second chapter of the garden of Eden to till it and keep it.
Genesis – Adam is told to look after God’s creation. Genesis 2:15

The story of the Fall in Genesis 3 further explains the roles of men and women in society. Men are
expected to work, whilst women should look after the home and raise the children.

To the woman he said, “I will greatly increase your pangs in

childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be
for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” And to the man he said,
“Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of
the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is
the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your
life; thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the
plants of the field. By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you
return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to
dust you shall return.” Genesis 3:16-19

The purpose of human beings derived from the Christian stories

about creation is supplemented with other teachings from the Go therefore and make disciples of all
Bible. Jesus’ Two Great Commandments to love God and love your nations, baptizing them in the name of the
neighbour ensorse the importance of agape wihtin the human Father and of the Son and of the Holy
community. Similarly, his Great Commission to his disciples to Spirit. Matthew 28:19
spread the Gospel shortly before he ascended heaven signifies the
importance of evangelism.

St Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274) taught that as God is the creator of the universe, there is a natural
order to the world. Consequently, there are certain fundamental laws set by God which humanity
should follow. Using our reason, humanity can work out God’s intended purpose for creation. Based
on these beliefs, Aquinas used Natural Law to derive the fundamental purposes of humanity (known
as the primary precepts): preserve life, reproduce, educate children, live in society and worship God.
From these primary precepts, it is possible to determine secondary ones for example to be able to live
in harmony in society one should not lie, steal or break promises.

Work

1. Explore whether the concept of stewardship is undermined by God’s command to humanity to have
dominion over the other creatures.

2. How do Christian views about the purpose of human beings compare with those of non-religious
people?

3. Explain Christian teachings about the place of human beings in the universe. [6]

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The Responsibilty of Human Beings for the Earth

Christian teachings about caring from the environment are based on Christian
beliefs about creation. The doctrine of creation encourages Christians to value
the sanctity of life, to acknowledge the interdependence of living things and to
become actively involved in stewardship.

Creation teaches that God is the source of the natural world and, as a result, it is holy. All life is rooted
in God and it should be celebrated and nurtured. Many Christians teach that caring for the world is a
form of worship. This teaching is particularly evident during harvest festivals when Christians celebrate
the produce gathered from the land.

Human beings cannot be viewed in isolation from the world. They

have been set apart by God and chosen to be in a special relationship A righteous man has regard for the life
of his beast. Proverbs 12:10
with him but they are a part of God’s wider creation nonetheless.
Humanity is reliant on the world for survival. Hence, damage to the
world damages humanity.

Human beings have been placed in charge of creation by God. They have a special responsibility to
control, cultivate and guard the world. However, the world is only on loan to humanity; we are the
stewards or caretakers of the earth. Consequently, humanity will have to account for its treatment of
the world to God at the End Time.

The earth and all life on it is a gift from God given to us to share and develop, not to dominate and exploit.
Our actions have consequences for the rights of others and the resources of the earth. The goods of the earth
and the beauties of nature are to be enjoyed and celebrated as well as consumed. We have a responsibility
to create a balanced policy between consumption and conservation. We must consider the welfare of future
generations in our planning for and utilisation of the earth’s resources. Pope John Paul II in Sollicitudo Rei
Socialis 1988

The health of the environmental system is critical to all life and immensely fragile in the face of the demands
of a consumerist and technologically powerful culture. The universe as a whole is a product of God’s creative
and imaginative will. All its parts are interdependent. Men and women are to be stewards and curators, not
exploiters, of its resources - material, animal and spiritual. Christians must support those working for
conservation and the development of more appropriate, sustainable lifestyles. Methodist Conference 1991

The Christian Declaration on Nature drawn up at Assisi in 1986 declared:

• All creation, both with and without humans, has a close interdependence which was made in
this way by God. The harmony of creation is the glory of God.
• Humans have the role of protecting all created things, not abusing or destroying them.
• All types of exploitation of the world and its resources and all creatures are rejected. Humans
must not do anything that risks damage to the world, including nuclear warfare.

Consequently, Christians believe that everyone has a duty to recycle and to use environmentally
friendly products. They should also aim to reduce their carbon footprint by thinking carefully about
the holidays they take, the modes of transport they use and the produce they buy. Similarly, Christians
think they should encourage those in government to invest in renewable sources of energy. They may
also support charities such as Greenpeace and the WWF or contribute to Christian initiatives such as
Shrinking the Footprint and Operation Noah.

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 However, there are some Christians who think it is more important to
focus on the Eschaton and judgement day rather than on preserving the
planet. Some Christian Millennialists (premillenialists) believe that as
we get closer to the Eschaton things will get steadily worse in the world
until God has had enough and decides to act. There will be the
Tribulation during which Satan will torture humanity (although some
fortunate Christians will avoid the Tribulation because God will take
them up to heaven (Rapture)). The Tribulation will be ended by God
when he defeats Satan at the battle of Armageddon. It is only after this
battle that Jesus will begin his rule. As a result of this interpretation of
Millennialism, these Christians think their major goal is to prepare for
the End Time and to help others to prepare too. Hence, they think the
importance of evangelism outweighs the need for caring for the
environment.

Non-religious people think it is important to care for the environment. They may argue that there is a
greater sense of urgency amongst non-religious people to look after the planet as they do not believe
in an afterlife. The way in which they can ensure life continues is by preserving the world for future
generations. On a more practical level, they may argue that the interdependence of life forms on the
earth make it essential that ecosystems are cared for and sustained. Without other life forms,
humanity would flounder. Non-religious people may argue that it is necessarty to care for the
environment because by neglecting it there are more natural disaters and it tends to be the poorest
people who suffer the most. Hence, a sense of justice and equality may motivate non-religious people
to take responsibility for the planet.

Work

1. Identify three ways human beings can protect the environment. [3]

2. Explain why religious people believe they have a responsibility for the planet. [6]

3. ‘It is more important for religious people to care for the environment than non-religious people.’
Evaluate this statement. [12]

The Relationship of Human Beings to Other Creatures

Some non-religious people stress the superiority of humanity and argue that
human being are the dominant species. Given humanity’s intelligence, ability to
reason and sense of self-awareness, other animals are of a lower order. These
differences between humanity and other animals mean that animals do not
deserve the same rights as humanity. Animals act according to instinct in their
bid to survive and as such, they do not exercise moral responsibility. This means
they cannot be treated the same as human being.

As a consequence, animals can be used to help humanity to continue to thrive.

Many non-religious people agree that animals can be farmed for food, they can
be used for labour and used in medical testing. Some non-religious people may
even approve of the use of animals for cosmetic testing too.

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 However, many non-religious people are more likely to see
commonality between humanity and other animals. Rooted in
evolutionary theory, these people will acknowledge the
biological similarity between humanity and other animals.
Human being have evolved from a common ancestor with
higher primates and therefore share a high percentage of their
DNA. Such similarity between humanity and other animals
cannot be ignored and should govern and guide human
treatment of other animals. Consequently, this group of non-
religious people are more likely to be in favour of animal rights
so at the very least animals are protected from human cruelty.
Indeed, some non-religious people have gone further to argue that all animals (humanity included)
have the same moral worth as they all make decisions and they all feel pain. For example, Peter Singer
argues that it is ‘speciesist’ to think only humans are valuable.

Those Christians who accept evolution would also be open to the

commonality between humanity and other animals. They would argue
that animals are important not just because God created them (and he
created them ‘good’) but also because of the common heritage shared
between humanity and other animals. The concept of stewardship
endorses this view – human beings have a responsibility to protect all of
God’s creation, safeguarding its future. Indeed, Albert Schweitzer
stated that Christians should have a reverence for all life.

However, most Christians who accept the commonality between humans and animals, only do so to a
certain point. The belief that humanity has been created in the image of God indicates an important
point of difference between humanity and other creatures. Human beings have a spiritual dimension:
they are capable of being in a relationship with God. This unique relationship was solidified by the
incarnation. God uniquely revealed himslef in human form; taking on human flesh to teach humanity
of his expectations. His death on the cross and subsequent resurrection pointed to a salvation on offer
to humanity alone. Consequently, some Christians emphasise the dominance of humanity over the
rest of the animal kingdom.

Work

1. Explain religious and non-religious views on the commonality between humanoty and other
animals. [6]

2. ‘Humans are more important that other animals.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Teachings on Animal Rights

Christians believe that animals are different from human beings. Unlike humanity, animals have not
been created in God’s image and they do not have a soul. Hence, they cannot have the complex
spiritual relationship with God that human beings experience. Indeed, God told Adam and Eve that
animals were given to humanity to rule and control.

God blessed them and said to them, ‘Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule
over the fish of the sea, and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground’.
Genesis 1:28

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 However, the Bible also states that humanity has a responsibility to look after God’s creation. This is
the notion of stewardship - human beings are the caretakers of God’s creation. The Messianic vision
of the Scriptures looks forward to a perfect world in which human beings and animals co-exist in
perfect harmony. Jesus also stated God’s concern for all his creation. Even the death of a single
sparrow does not go unnoticed by God.

Wolves and sheep will live together in peace, and leopards will lie down with young goats. Calves and lion
cubs will feed together, and little children will take care of them. Cows and bears will eat together, and their
calves and cubs will lie down in peace. Lions will eat straw as cattle do. Even a baby will not be harmed if it
plays with a poisonous snake. Isaiah 11:6-8

On the basis of these teachings, Christians believe that all animals should be respected. Humanity has
power and dominion over the rest of the animal kingdom but that control has to be exercised
responsibly and with compassion. Hence, most Christians support the use of animals for food. They
take a utilitarian approach to the issue; the right thing to do is based on what would bring the greatest
happiness to the greatest number of people. Similarly, many Christians are opposed to the use of
animal testing for cosmetics but they do think vivisection for essential medical research is acceptable.
Whilst the value of an animal’s life is less than that of a human life, an essential experiment performed
on an animal should be carried out humanely.

The Church of England states: The Church recognises the need for
animals to be used in certain research to improve medical
understanding, veterinary or behavioural knowledge, and to test for
the safety of chemicals, and understands that such testing is a
requirement of the law. It also, however, affirms that responsible
stewardship of the natural world requires all animals to receive careful
and sympathetic treatment, both during their lives and in the manner
of their dying. What Churches Say, CEM

The Roman Catholic Church has a similar view;

animal experiments are acceptable as long as God entrusted animals to the stewardship of those whom he
the aim of the experiments is to improve the created in his own image. Hence, it is legitimate to use animals for
quality of human health or to save lives. The food and clothing. They may be domesticated to help man in his
Roman Catholic Church warns its members not work and leisure. Medical and scientific experimentation on
to be sentimental about animals and grant animals is a moral practice if it remains within reasonable limits
them too much importance. Human beings are and contributes to caring for or saving human lives. The Roman
Catholic Catechism, 2417
of greater value than animals and whilst people
suffer, every effort should be made to alleviate
that suffering.

However, there are some Christians who oppose any research performed on animals and even eating
animals. These Christians argue animals are as intrinsically valuable as humans because they have
been created by God.

Work

‘The life of an animal is as valuable as a human life’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 1.2 Human Nature and the Human Condition

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about the nature of human beings

• (Differing) views about immortality and the soul

o Why some people believe that human beings have a soul, while others do not

• Why some people believe the real world is nothing more than the physical world
(physicalism)

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The Nature of Human Beings

‘Nature’ refers to one’s character. Every person has their own individual character. However, it is
possible to argue that human beings have some characteristics in common. These characteristics are
collectively known as human nature.

Non-religious people may draw upon science to understand the nature of

human beings. The Darwinian theory of evolution holds that human
beings are the product of natural selection; interacting with the
environment, the fittest of our species survives. Hence, human beings are
just one of a number of exceptional higher primates. The nature of
humanity, along with all other creatures, is to survive as a species.

It is also possible for non-religious people to turn to psychology to derive a set of characteristics
common to humanity. Sigmund Freud (1865-1939) suggested that the human mind is composed of
three elements:

• Ego – the rational self whose role is to balance the other two aspects of the mind: Id and Super
Ego.
• Id – the self which contains its most basic needs such as hunger and self-preservation. It is
amoral and merely seeks to express itself.
• Super Ego – the controlling, restraining self. It has its origins in infancy, the morals of one’s
parents acting as a form of censorship. It can be too severe, demanding perfectionism which
can lead to guilt and acute self-criticism.

Whilst the human mind is influenced by psychological and sociological factors, the three elements of
which it is composed are common to all human beings.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) argued that there is no such thing as human ‘essence’
or human nature. Rather who we are and what we are come from the choices we
make – ‘existence precedes essence’. Sartre was an existentialist. He was interested
in the uniqueness of an individual’s life. He believed the meaning life could only be
derived from a subjective point of view and that each person has the freedom to
choose their own projects, meanings and values.

Sartre argued that there are no transcendent values and no Man is nothing else but what he makes of
intrinsic purpose to our lives. Neither God nor evolution has himself.
created us for any purpose. Instead, we choose our own
values. The meaning of life is something we each create. There is no human nature, since there is no
Consequently, there is no human nature. The most basic god to conceive it.
thing that can be said about humanity is that we are radically Man is condemned to be free, because once
free – we can choose anything except not to choose. Hence, thrown into the world, he is responsible for
self-knowledge entails understanding the reasons for our everything he does.
actions and beliefs.

Christians, on the other hand, strongly believe in human nature. These beliefs are rooted firmly in the
Bible. In Genesis, Adam and Eve are described as being created in the image of God (Genesis1:27).
Based on this teaching, Christians are inclined to assert that all people have been created with God-
like qualities; we all have the capacity to be rationally, morally and spiritually aware.

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 The second creation story found in Genesis chapter 2 sheds further light on human nature. In this
account, Adam is described as being created from the dust of the earth and given the breath of life by
God. This account hints at the composition of humanity; we are made up of a body and soul.

However, the third chapter of Genesis describes the Fall of humanity. Incapable of resisting
temptation, first Eve and then Adam eats the forbidden fruit resulting into their expulsion from the
Garden of Eden. This narrative explains the sinful nature of humanity.

Nevertheless, later in the Bible the possibility of salvation

provided by Christ’s sacrifice on the cross offers humanity Don’t you know that you yourselves are God’s
hope. Hence, St Paul describes the body as the temple of the temple and that God’s Spirit dwells in your
Holy Spirit – the relationship with God is re-establish and midst? 1 Corinthians 3:16
humanity can once again, draw upon those God-like qualities.

These Biblical teachings have been the basis of Augustine and Aquinas’ views on human nature:

St Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD) asserted that human beings are created of body
and soul. Both elements are necessary for our human nature and both have been
created by God. Drawing upon the philosophy of Plato, Augustine viewed the soul
as the rational and spiritual component of humanity and as such, it should govern
the body which is driven by instinct and physical urges. Again, drawing upon Plato,
he used an analogy of a rider and horse to explain the relationship between the
body and soul. The soul is like the rider, steering the animal whilst the horse is like
the body, carrying the soul.

Created by God, human nature is good and by granting us freewill,

Many times I lied to my tutor; my God has placed human beings higher on the metaphysical ladder
master, and my parents, and deceived of creatures than non-human animals and plants. However, this
them because I wanted to play games gift of freewill was tainted by the Fall. All human beings have
or watch some futile show…I even stole inherited the effects of the Original Sin. Hence, Augustine argued
from my parents’ larder…Can this be we are no longer equally free to choose between good and evil.
the innocence of childhood? Rather we are constantly attracted towards excessive satisfaction
Confessions Book I Chapter 9 of our lower desires for material things and pleasure
(concupiscence).

St Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274) drew a more positive understanding of human

nature from the book of Genesis. He argued that as human beings are created in
God’s image, they are essentially good. However, the Fall damaged humanity’s
ability to reason correctly. Hence, whilst people have a natural ability to distinguish
right from wrong and a natural desire to do good instead of evil, they make
mistakes in their choices. Wrongful or sinful acts occur because a person has
mistaken a wrong act for a right act; they have mistaken an apparent good for a
real good.

Whatever man desires, he desires it under the aspect of good. Summa Theologica
Work

1. What do you think ‘created in God’s image’ means?

2. Are human beings able to choose entirely how they turn out?

3. Do you think human beings are naturally inclined to do good or to rebel?

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The Soul

In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry learns of the existence of dementors and how they
are used by the Ministry of Magic to guard Azkaban and occasionally impose a punishment described
worse than death, the dementor’s kiss. The punishment involves the dementor pulling back its hood,
clamping its jaw around the victim’s mouth and consuming their soul.

You can exist without your soul you know, as long as your
brain and heart are still working. But you’ll have no sense of
self anymore, no memory, no anything. There’s no chance at
all of recovery. You’ll just exist. As an empty shell. And your
soul is gone forever…lost. Remus Lupin explaining the effects
of a dementor’s kiss.

But what is a soul? Do all people accept human beings are composed
of a body and a soul?

The Immortality of the Soul

For some scholars, the soul very much exists. Indeed, for these scholars it is the very essence of the
human being; immortal, surviving the demise of the body. Plato (c.428-c.348) was a dualist, believing
the human being composed of a body and a soul. He saw the body as in a constant state of change
and impermanence and as such it belongs to the sensible world or the realm of becoming. This realm
is fluid and dynamic and as a result, it cannot provide true or permanent knowledge. The soul, on the
other hand, is a simple entity and thus, it cannot be broken down into smaller parts or decay. It
provides permanence because of its immortality and access to the stable realm of being. Hence, it is
through the soul that a person has access to truth, beauty and knowledge.

He regarded the body as imprisoning the soul. He used the analogy of the relationship between a
charioteer and a chariot to explain the relationship between the body and soul. The one who is doing
all the thinking and controlling is the charioteer (the soul). The chariot (the body) is just a thing, which
follows instructions. Just like the charioteer, the soul is the vital part of the relationship. At death, he
argued, the soul would be released from its prison to experience the realm of being.

Hinduism offers a form of dualism too. However, Hindus do

not go as far as Plato and describe the body as a prison. They
teach that every living creature has a soul (atman). When the
creature dies, reincarnation occurs and the atman is rehoused
in another body. The body given to the atman is dependent
on the creature’s karma or action; good karma leads to a
higher life-form and bad karma leads to a less complex and
lower life-form. The aim of a Hindu is to attain moksha or
escape from this cycle of samsara so that the atman can be
united with Brahman (the World Soul).

The evidence non-religious people could offer for this understanding of humanity can be found in the
realm of parapsychology:

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 • Near Death Experiences: these experiences happen when
people are clinically dead for a period of time before coming
back to life. The experiences are often described as peaceful
and joyful in which the person is briefly reunited with dead
relatives and friends and/ or they enter another world. The
people who have these experiences describe something of
themselves leaves their body, perhaps their soul or spirit.
• Spiritualism: People who claim to have seen a ghost or spoken
to the spirits of dead people through an Ouija board suggest
that there is a form of consciousness that exists beyond death.
Mediums claim to have the gift of communicating with the dead
providing a link between the material and spirit worlds.
• Reincarnation (Remembered Lives): There have been a number of cases of children saying
they can remember living in a different house with other parents and family members as well
as recalling how they died. For some people, these remembered lives point to the
reincarnation of the soul.

Although Christianity emerged from Judaism which did not have a dualistic understanding of the
human being, many Christian thinkers were influenced by Greek thought and developed the notion of
the human being as a psychosomatic unity. For many Christians today there is a tendency to view the
human being as being composed of body and soul, with the soul superior to the body. Whilst the body
is valued much more than Platonic thought as it is considered a creation of God, the soul is regarded
as naturally immortal.

Those Christians who veer towards regarding the soul as immortal point to the stories of creation in
Genesis as evidence. In Genesis 2:7, unlike other creatures, Adam is given the breath of life by God
which could be a hint at human beings given a spiritual dimension or soul. The description of humanity
being created in God’s image in Genesis 1:27 could be regarded as another indication of the spiritual
nature of human beings. Having God-like qualities enables humanity to be in a relationship with God
as well as the possibility of surviving death. St Paul’s description of the body as the temple of the Spirit
in 1 Corinthians 3:16 also indicates the dualistic nature of humanity.

The Bible also contains texts which hint at the natural immortality of the soul. Ecclesiastes 12:7 states
and the dust returns to the ground it came from, and the spirit returns to God who gave it. When Jesus
warns his followers to focus their efforts on their relationship with God, he too implies the soul
survives death - Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; rather fear him who can
destroy both soul and body in hell. (Matthew 10:28)

The soul is the innermost aspect of humans, that which is

of the greatest value in them, that by which they are
most especially in God’s image: ‘soul’ signifies the
spiritual principle in man. The Roman Catholic Catechism

A Psychosomatic Unity

Some Christians do not believe human beings have an immortal soul. They regard such a concept as
unbiblical as there are no clear references to a soul and little mention of an afterlife in the Old
Testament. They may also think that belief in an immortal soul undermines the notion of the power
and sovereignty of God and humanity’s dependence on him. Human beings cannot not assume they

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 will naturally survive death because of some permanent component of their being. Rather, just as they
were dependent on God giving them life through his act of creation, they are reliant on him bringing
them back to life for the day of judgement.

They argue that the notion of the resurrection of the body and soul has Biblical authority. Jesus
returned from the dead with a physical body. It was a body that showed the scars of his death which
could be touched and was capable of speech and consuming food. St Paul also taught that the next
life would be experienced in bodily form. There also a number of occasions when the New Testament
describes a bodily resurrection on the Day of Judgement.

So it is with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is

perishable, what is raised is imperishable. It is sown in dishonour,
it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness, it is raised in power. It
is sown a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a
physical body, there is also a spiritual body. Thus it is written,
“The first man, Adam, became a living being”; the last Adam
became a life-giving spirit. 1 Corinthians 15:42-45

The tombs also were opened, and many bodies of the saints who
had fallen asleep were raised. Matthew 27:52

Work

1. Do you think human beings have a soul?

2. Why might non-religious people believe human beings do not have a soul?

3. ‘There is more to life than the physical world’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Physicalism

Physicalists think that the real world is nothing more than the physical world we
live in. Consequently, they regard each person only as a living, physical body.
Thought, spirituality, feelings and emotions result from the psycho-chemical
reactions in our brains. Hence, we do not have minds as such rather we are
capable of thought because of the physical functions of our brains.
Consequently, when our brains slow down, malfunction or deteriorate we lose
the ability to think or react in the normal way; we lose our ‘minds’.

Physicalists argue that there is no scientific evidence for a soul or a mind; a person is composed of
matter alone. Hence, death marks the end of the physical body and all thoughts, spirituality, emotions
and feelings which arise from the functioning of that body. Death marks the end of an individual’s
existence; there is no soul and there is no afterlife!

Work

1. Why might non-religious people and Christians disagree with physicalism?

2. ‘Everyone has an immortal soul.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 1.3 Selfishness, Greed, Ignorance and Sin

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about human selfishness, greed, ignorance and
sin

• Selfishness, greed, ignorance and sin as the root causes of human wrongdoing and whether
they can be overcome

• (Differing) views about human responsibility for hatred, injustice, violence and war in the
world

• Whether hatred, injustice, violence and war are inevitable features of a world inhabited by
human beings

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 Selfishness

Selfishness refers to behaviour which is performed out of self-

interest based on individual need without considering the needs of
other people. Hence, selfish people put their needs and desire first,
which may be at the expense of other people.

Non-religious people tend to think selfishness is wrong, especially

when self-interested behaviour leads directly to the suffering of
other people. J.S. Mill (1806-1873) encouraged people to act in ways
that do not harm other people. He placed a low value on the
selfishness of humanity, respecting humanity’s public spirit.

The only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so
long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. J.S. Mill
On Liberty

However, it is possible to argue that selfishness is a natural attribute of humanity. The theory of
evolution holds that organisms develop based on the survival of the fittest. Those organisms most able
to attain the available resources are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation. This
could mean that human beings are predisposed to selfish behaviour.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued that survival is the most basic aspect of human nature and if it
means using other people to achieve that goal, then we are prepared to do so. However, Hobbes also
thought that people quickly realise that working with other people rather than competing with them
is in their own self-interest and will help to ensure their survival. Hence, he believed that human beings
enter into a social contract with each other which, whilst curbing some of their own behaviour,
restrains other people’s behaviour too.

Christianity teaches that selfishness is wrong. Making selfish choices diminishes one’s relationship
with God – it is not possible to pursue one’s own self-interests and serve God at the same time.
Similarly, there are many Biblical teachings which encourage an active concern for other people. The
story of creation endorses that all people have been created by God – therefore all people are have
self-worth and are equal; no individual’s need should be at the expense of other people. The concept
of stewardship is closely linked with the doctrine of creation. Human beings, created in God’s image,
have a duty and responsibility to care for God’s creation and that includes other people too.

Jesus’ teachings focused upon agape – self-less love. His golden

In everything do to others as you would rule taught his disciples to be mindful of other people. His parables
have them do to you; for this is the law also encouraged care for others. The Parable of the Good
and the prophets. Matthew 7:12 Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) and the Parable of the Sheep and Goats
(Matthew 25:31-46) both encourage love of one’s neighbour.

Work

1. Identify three examples of selfishness. [3]

2. Identity three root causes of selfishness. [4]

3. Explain how selfishness causes human suffering. [6]

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Greed

Greed is an excessive desire for things such as wealth and food which does not
bear relation to one’s actual needs. It is related to selfishness but it is
specifically concerned with the attainment and use of resources.

Many non-religious people are concerned about the effects of greed on society
and the environment. In 2006, the United Nations conducted a study of global
household assets. The subsequent report showed that the world’s richest 1%
of people own 40% of the world’s wealth. The world’s richest 10% of people
own 85% of the world’s wealth. Those in financial services and the internet
sector predominate among the super-rich. By contrast, half of the world’s population together own
only 1% of the world’s wealth. Many ethicists would argue that it is important to regulate greed for
the greater good; everyone’s interests should be protected. If the wealthiest people take more their
share of the world’s wealth and resources, only a small amount is left to be divided amongst the
poorest people.

But some non-religious people think there is a positive aspect to greed – it provides the incentive to
work harder and attain more leading to advances in technology and standards of living:

• Capitalist societies are based on greed. Many economists think the capitalist system
encourages competition and provides the basis for an efficient market. With free trade and a
free market, arguably the economy helps to improve people’s standard of living.
• Pharmaceutical companies invest in discovering new drugs and treatments in order to make
a profit.

Arguably, the work of charities and some aspects of the welfare state could be counterproductive to
the advancement of society. By providing aid and benefits, people may be less inclined to work and
improve their situation in life.

Christianity teaches that the world is created by God for the use of everyone. Those people who take
more than their fair share of resources at the expense of other people are undermining the will of
God. Indeed, human beings are God’s stewards, duty bound to care for God’s creation, which includes
a fair distribution of resources. Hence, Christians are taught that if they have excess wealth, they
should use it to help other people.

Throughout the Bible, Christians are warned to guard against greed. The love of money can be a source
of idolatry, leading to all kinds of evil. Indeed, Jesus stated that one cannot serve God and money.

For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, and in their eagerness to be rich some have
wandered away from the faith and pierced themselves with many pains. 1 Timothy 6:10

No one can serve two masters; for a slave will either hate the one and love the other, or be devoted
to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. Matthew 6:24

Consequently, greed is one of the deadly sins according to Roman Catholic teaching.

During Jesus’s ministry, he encounters a rich young man who askes him how he can
inherit eternal life. Jesus tells him to follow the Law of Moses. When the rich man
explained he was dutifully following the Law, Jesus told him to sell all his possessions,
give the money to the poor and become one of his disciples. This, the young man was
unable to do, which prompted Jesus to say: Truly I tell you, it will be hard for a rich person

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to enter the kingdom of heaven. Again I tell you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a
needle than for someone who is rich to enter the kingdom of God. Matthew 19:23-24.

By contrast, the early Christians were willing to share their possessions. In the book of Acts, the earliest
Christian communities were set up as a kind of commune.

Now the whole group of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one claimed
private ownership of any possessions, but everything they owned was held in common. With great
power the apostles gave their testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and great grace was
upon them all. There was not a needy person among them, for as many as owned lands or houses
sold them and brought the proceeds of what was sold. They laid it at the apostles’ feet, and it was
distributed to each as any had need. Acts 4:32-35

Many Christians today do not think it is practical to live in this way. But most Christians think it is
important to give to charity. Equally, they think it is important to protest against the greed of some
nations, companies and individuals and work towards a fairer distribution of wealth between nations
and within communities.

How does God’s love abide in anyone who has the world’s goods and sees a brother or sister in
need and yet refuses help? 1 John 3:17

Work

1. Choose one religion. Outline two teachings about greed in this religion. [4]

2. ‘Greed is the root of all evil’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Ignorance

In this particular case, ignorance refers to moral ignorance – namely, not

knowing the difference between right and wrong or not knowing what
makes an action wrong. The most likely reason for moral ignorance is poor
socialisation; the person has not been taught right from wrong. However,
there are some people who do not have the capacity to distinguish right
from wrong.

Many non-religious people are concerned about moral ignorance. They think that not knowing the
difference between right and wrong can be harmful to society. They believe that parents, schools and
law makers and maintainers have a duty to ensure that all people know what makes an action wrong.
By guaranteeing this knowledge, society is more likely to peaceful, just and harmonious.

Christians think most people have the capacity to tell right from wrong. Thomas Aquinas argued that
human beings have been given the gift of rationality by God. Rationality is the basis of the human
conscience which is able to determine whether something is right or wrong by thinking logically about
it. Aquinas also believed that human beings are naturally inclined to do good because we are created
in God’s image. Therefore, it is the duty of every Christian to avoid moral ignorance.

23 | P a g e
However, there are times in the Bible when people make mistakes because of ignorance and can be
forgiven. When Jesus was dying on the cross, he reportedly exclaimed ‘forgive them Father, for they
do not know what they are doing’. (Luke 23:34).

Aquinas also acknowledged that people can make honest

mistakes. He conceded that our conscience may think
something is good when it is not (an apparent good). For
example, it may seem right to support a woman’s right to
have an abortion. However, by doing so, you are supporting
the termination of a life. Hence, the real good in this case is
to oppose abortion in order to preserve life.

Work:

1. Consider whether moral knowledge is innate or learnt.

2. Outline two Christian views on moral ignorance. [4]

3. Explain the cause of human wrongdoing. [6]

Sin

The Greek word for sin, hamartia, means to ‘miss the mark’. God expected humanity to obey him in
order to be in a relationship with him. However, by turning from God and becoming self-centred,
humanity has not fulfilled God’s goals. This self-centred attitude results in sins – behaviour which goes
against the will of God.

Originally, God’s creation was perfect. But Adam and Eve gave into the temptation of
the serpent and disobeyed God’s commandment not to eat the fruit from the tree of
the knowledge of good and evil. This Original Sin meant that they were banished
from the Garden of Eden and separated from God. This event is also known as the
Fall, i.e. the Fall from God’s grace (undeserved love).

Christians believe that all humanity is affected by Original Sin. For some Christians, it is a kind of
spiritual inheritance with which each person is born. For other Christians, the story of the Fall is a
description of the universal human condition; no matter how good our intentions, we are easily
influenced into doing the wrong thing.

Christians consult the Bible to determine the behaviour that will please God and that which will go
against God’s will. However, Christians differ in how best to interpret the teachings in the Bible.
Fundamentalist Christians believe the Bible is the Word of God, inerrant and applicable to all ages.
Hence, they believe all sins listed in the Bible should be avoided. Whereas, a liberal or conservative
Christian is more likely to accept that some of the teachings are reflections of values from another
age. These Christians accept that some Biblical teachings have been influenced by human authorship
as the writers struggled to understand how best to obey and follow God. Hence, liberal and
Conservative Christians are likely to use Christian tradition and their conscience along with Scripture
to decide the behaviour which is acceptable or unacceptable to God.

Most Christians accept the Ten Commandments and Jesus’ parables and sayings (such as those found
in the Sermon on the Mount) as reflections of God’s will. By using these teachings to determine how

24 | P a g e
one should behave, Christians should both please God and make the
world a better place. Christians believe God is both omniscient and
omnibenevolent, meaning he knows what is best for humanity. Hence,
they should be guided by his Word and strive to please him. Jesus
commended the pure in heart, claiming they will see God (Matthew 5:8)

Jesus encouraged his followers to go further and to avoid sinful thoughts

as well as sinful actions.

“You have heard that it was said to those of ancient times, ‘You shall not murder’; and ‘whoever
murders shall be liable to judgment.’ But I say to you that if you are angry with a brother or
sister, you will be liable to judgment; and if you insult a brother or sister, you will be liable to the
council; and if you say, ‘You fool,’ you will be liable to the hell of fire. Matthew 5:21-22

However, Christians acknowledge that it is hard to avoid temptation. If they do sin, they believe
forgiveness is possible.

If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins,
he who is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness. If we
say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us. 1 John 1:8-10

Given the fallibility of humanity, Christians are warned to be understanding of their peers if they fail
to meet God’s expectations and to be slow to judge.

“Do not judge, so that you may not be judged. For with the judgment you make you will be judged,
and the measure you give will be the measure you get. Why do you see the speck in your
neighbour’s eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye? Matthew 7:1-3

Work

1. What do you think non-religious people believe about sin?

2. Explain why Christians think people sin. [6]

3. Are selfishness, greed, ignorance and sin the root causes of wrong-doing in the world? Can they be
overcome?

Human Responsibility for Hatred, Injustice, Violence and War in the World

Most people would accept that selfishness, greed and ignorance lead to many of the problems
experienced in society. It may be fair to say that these all too human characteristics are responsible
for the hatred, injustice, violence and war prevalent in the world.

Greediness means that some people take or desire more than their fair
share of things, which may lead to other people suffering. For example, the
desire for cheap consumer goods often results in child exploitation or slave
labour in less economically developed countries. The ever-growing need

25 | P a g e
for resources can be a motivating factor behind wars, for example
the first Gulf War in 1991 was in response to Iraq’s invasion and
annexation of Kuwait over oil pricing and production disputes.

Selfishness too leads to suffering in the world. Ignoring the needs of

other people who suffer as a result of social injustice can lead to
resentment and violence. Anti-social behaviour, practices such as tax-dodging and discrimination all
have a direct impact on the quality of other people’s life spurning hatred and disharmony.

Moral ignorance is a contributing factor in crime. Children who do not learn the difference between
right and wrong are more likely to act morally irresponsibly when they get older. Sin, too, leads to
social ills. Ignoring commandments such as do not kill, do not steal and do not commit adultery can
lead to hatred, injustice, violence and war.

However, not all forms of suffering are caused by ignorance, sin, selfishness and greed:

• The forces of nature can be behind a lot of suffering – droughts, famines, earthquakes and
diseases are often beyond human control.
• Addiction may be the source of some suffering – alcohol abuse, dug addiction, gambling…etc
may lead to hatred, injustice and violence.
• Wars may be started for ideological reasons, e.g. the Crusades were the result of a clash of
religious beliefs and the Second World War was fuelled by Hitler’s notion of the ideal race.
• Wars also may occur to defend the weak and as a last resort, to overcome social injustice (the
basis of the Just War theory and lesser jihad).

Work

1. Explain the cause of human wrongdoing. [6]

Are Hatred, Injustice, Violence and War Inevitable?

It seems likely that war, violence, injustice and hatred are inevitable features of a world inhabited by
humanity. An examination of the history of humanity provides examples of prejudice, bad-feeling,
unfairness and conflict in every age. It is likely that the future holds much of the same. Human nature
and ironically, human survival may require injustice and hatred which result in violence and war.
Indeed, with a growing human population and the consequent scarcity of resources, it seems to be
even more likely.

For Christians, hatred, injustice, violence and war are signs of the Fallen nature of humanity. The belief
in Original Sin means these fallible characteristics of humanity are inevitable. Despite knowing how
we should behave, we simply can’t stop ourselves from sinning.

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 For I know that good itself does not dwell in me, that is, in my sinful nature. For I have the desire
to do what is good, but I cannot carry it out. For I do not do the good I want to do, but the evil I
do not want to do—this I keep on doing. Romans 7:18-19

However, on a more positive note, some people take a more optimistic view of what the future holds
for humanity. Most societies have become more tolerant, accepting difference and rejecting social
injustices. The development of mass media enabling news of conflict, violence and hatred to be
transmitted around the world in an instant means people are less likely to get away with any harm
that they cause. Equally, knowledge of the causes of past violence, warfare, injustice and hatred may
be used by communities to avoid such behaviour so as to make the world a better place.

Developments in the fields of science and technology may be used to make more efficient use of the
world’s resources, ensuring that there is plenty for everyone. Better infrastructure along with better
lines of communication may ensure a fair distribution of resources as and when it is needed.

Many Christians are positive about the future. Whilst they believe
humanity is affected by sin, they also have the example of Jesus. If
everyone takes on board Jesus’ teachings about love and
forgiveness, then it is possible that hatred, violence, injustice and
war can end.

Work

1. Provide some recent examples of human hatred and injustice.

2. Provide some recent examples of human goodwill and kindness.

3. ‘The world will always have hatred, injustice, violence and war
whilst humanity populates it.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 1.4 Freewill, Determinism and Predestination

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious and non-religious beliefs/ teachings about free will, determinism and
predestination

• (Differing) views about whether human beings have free will and its limitations

• Whether determinism means human beings’ choices and actions can be free

• The extent to which human beings should be held responsible (and punished) for their
actions and whether God decides their fate

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Do we have freewill?

Freewill is the belief that the human will is free; human beings can choose and act freely. Most people
work on the assumption that we have freewill. We seem to be able to make choices regarding our
behaviour, actions and thoughts. We think that if we had chosen to do so, we could have behaved in
a different way in the same circumstances.

Similarly, our reactions to other people’s behaviour implies we think human beings are free. Praising
someone’s actions or criticising them implies they have freely chosen to act in a certain way and are
therefore morally responsible for the consequences of their actions.

Libertarians agree that human beings have genuine freedom to make truly unfettered decisions,
although some of our behaviour may be partly caused by external factors. To justify this position,
libertarians distinguish between a person’s character and their moral self. Whilst a person’s character
is governed by causal laws and can be explained through scientific and psychological studies because
it has been formed by heredity and the environment, one’s moral self
can transcend one’s personality. Our moral self is an ethical concept, at
work when making moral decisions, capable of choosing between self-
interest and duty.

Jean-Paul Sartre argued that being free is fundamental to being human.

He claimed that we are always self-consciously aware that at any time
we could be making choices to be acting or thinking in different ways.

However, some people question whether humanity is truly free, arguing that our behaviour is caused
by other factors. Determinism holds that every event has a cause, including human behaviour.
Determinists point to our genes, nurture and physicality to demonstrate that we do not truly have
freewill.

Genetic determinism points to the influence our genes have on our physical characteristics such as
eye colour, stating that we have no control over these characteristics. It may be possible to argue that
we also inherit character traits in this way too. Studies have shown that certain genes are linked to
particular forms of behaviour. In 2009, a study of the mutation in the gene DARPP-32 which affected
dopamine levels showed it could be responsible for people having a quick temper. Genes which
regulate feelings such as hunger may be responsible for a higher rate of obesity.

If genes are responsible for our behaviour then it is possible to argue that
people do not really have freewill. Instead they are determined by their nature.
Studies of identical twins provide a good opportunity to test the validity of
genetic determinism. During the 1970s and 1980s, Thomas Bouchard
conducted a study on twins which indicated that identical twins whether raised
together or apart tended to have a similar IQ, favour certain school subjects
and have similar political leanings etc.

However, Professor, Dr Gerd Kempermann has demonstrated that although identical twins are usually
very similar, differences can occur – genes can be switched on or off owing to life experiences. At the
very least, this study shows that nurture also has a role to play in influencing our choices and
behaviour.

Despite these studies, one can question the validity of genetic determinism. Many children
dramatically differ from their parents and siblings in their character and choices. Having similar genetic

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material does not necessarily mean that you will act the same way as your closest relatives and
therefore, may be an indication that we are not fully determined by our genes.

Psychological determinism focuses on socialisation to explain how our behaviour is caused. Like
genetic determinism, psychological determinism argues your character determines how you act.
However, one’s character is not determined by one’s genes but rather by one’s upbringing.

The view is based on the observation that children learn by imitation and are very receptive to new
influences. As we age, we are still receptive to our environment but we are less impressionable. It
seems that the influences we are exposed to when we are young seem to be very important in shaping
our character. For example, studious children are likely to be raised by hardworking parents.

However, there is a difference between influence and cause. Even if you have a certain propensity to
act in a certain way, it is not inevitable that you will do so. Whilst one’s upbringing and one’s
environment in one’s formative years may be highly influential, it is possible to act against type. There
have been numerous stories of individuals who have achieved great things despite a poor start in life.

Physical determinism holds that just as we think computers and other animals do not have freewill,
then so too human beings are not free. The brain could be seen as a biological computer; synapses
firing along specific pathways and dependent on the information provided by our senses. Thoughts
and actions are directly caused by these processes.

Benjamin Libet conducted a neurological experiment in the

1980s which has been used to suggest freewill is just an illusion.
In the experiment, a volunteer is asked to move their finger
whenever they like but they are to note the time when they
make that choice. Libet discovered the choice to move the finger
occurred after the action had been initiated by the brain.

However, it is possible to argue that Libet’s experiment which is

in essence a simplistic test does not replicate what happens
when we make choices day to day. In the experiement, the
volunteer knew s/he has to make a choice between two options
which may have triggered a subconcious process which
contributed to the choice.

People who believe our behaviour is determined are either hard determinists or soft determinists.

Hard determinism is the view that human behaviour and actions are wholly determined by external
factors and therefore, human beings do not have genuine freewill or ethical accountability.

In the mind there is no absolute or free will; but the mind is determined to will this or that by a
cause, which has been determined by another cause, and this last by another cause, and so on
until infinity. Benedict Spinoza

Soft determinism also holds that human behaviour and actions are wholly determined by causal
events. However, even though one’s character is shaped by external factors such as heredity,
upbringing and society, one can still have a semblance of freewill if one is acting according to one’s
character and not compelled to act in a certain way. Whilst it is possible to predict how a person may

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act if you know that person well, we still don’t know exactly what they will do. Hence, this form of
determinism is compatible with a notion of freewill.

Work

1. What do you think? Do we have freewill or are we determined?

2. What are the implications if we do not have freewill?

Christian Teachings on Freewill and Determinism

Christians believe God gave humanity freewill. In Genesis,

humanity is described as being created in the image of God.
This teaching sets humans apart from other animals. Unlike
other animals who act mostly by instinct, humanity shares
some of God’s qualities such as justice, love and freewill. This
view is endorsed later in Genesis when Adam and Eve are
commanded not to eat the fruit from the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil. The fact that they disobeyed God and were
punished as a result is an example of them exercising their freewill.

Jesus, too, believed humanity has freewill. When asked about which of the commandments are the
most important, he recited the Jewish Shema: ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all
your soul and with all your mind.’ (Matthew 22:37) The implication here is that human beings are free
to do so.

However, a potential problem for the idea of human freewill can be found in the
Christian beliefs about the nature of God. Christians believe God is omniscient,
which would mean that he knows what happens in the future as well as what has
happened in the past. In other words, he knows what we do even before we do it,
which undermines the concept of choice and freewill.

In response to this problem, Christians could argue the following:

• God knows all possible outcomes but not necessarily the one that we will choose.
• God knows the end result but not the way we choose to get there.
• God has the capacity of omniscience but limits this capacity in order to provide humanity with
the gift of freewill.
• The transcendence of God means that he is beyond time meaning all things are present to
God; he does not experience anything as in the past or the future.

However, these responses are not very satisfactory as they all question the value of God’s knowledge.
Equally, we could solve the problem by stating human beings are not free, which would be problematic
for human accountability and the Christian belief in judgment or we could accept God is not
omniscient, which would undermine the Christian understanding of God.

Sin offers another problem for human freewill. If human beings have been influenced by Original Sin,
their fallen nature will hinder their ability to truly exercise their freewill. St Paul himself acknowledged
that his actions were limited by his sinful nature (Romans 7:18-19).

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 John Calvin (1509-1564) went further arguing that the Fall meant humanity is
inherently sinful, meaning no one is in a position to earn a place in heaven. He
was writing in response to the actions of the Roman Catholic Church at the time,
which seemed to be asserting its authority in such a way that it controlled who
was admitted into or barred from heaven. Christians were taught that in order
to be sure of entry to heaven they had to receive the sacraments, which were
administered by the priests. Excommunication from the Church and a denial of
the sacraments meant one was effectively damned to hell. The selling of
indulgences to enable the saved to be fast-tracked through purgatory also
implied the power of the Church. Calvin wanted to emphasise that it was
entirely up to God who went to heaven or hell.

Calvin argued that salvation is completed unmerited or undeserved as it is a gift given by God. God is
entirely free to give the gift of salvation to whomsoever he chooses; the
gift cannot be earnt through faith or actions. Calvin also believed that
those chosen to receive the gift were selected before they were born
(the elect). Whilst those who were not chosen by God, he called the
reprobate.

Throughout their lives, the Holy Spirit would be active in the lives of the
elect, enabling them to do good deeds. Whilst the reprobate, without
the presence of the Holy Spirit, would yield to their sinful nature and act
accordingly. Your behaviour throughout your life then would provide a
good indication of whether you were a member of the elect or one of
the reprobate. Either way, this concept of predestination undermined
the concept of human freewill: good people only do good because God
helps them and bad people have no option but to be bad because they are living according to their
sinful nature.

However, many Christians are uncomfortable with the notion of predestination because it does not
reflect an omnibenevolent God; namely, one who loves all people. Equally, it seems to make moral
laws pointless; choosing to behave in a certain way is undermined if your destiny has been
predetermined. Similarly, the Christian belief in a judgement day is questionable. If human nature has
been tainted by the devious actions of Adam and Eve and God has already decided who will be saved
or damned, one cannot be held accountable for one’s actions.

Work

1. Explain whether Christians think people are accountable for their actions. [6]

2. Explain whether Christians believe God determines their fate. [6]

3. ‘Since we are not free, we are not responsible for our actions’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 1.5 Ultimate Reality

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious beliefs/ teachings about the nature and character of God

• Religious beliefs and teachings about the ultimate reality, which do not include reference to
God

• Non-religious attitudes to the idea of an ultimate reality

• Monotheism and polytheism – the reasons why people believe in one God or many gods

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Ultimate Reality refers to something that is the supreme, final and fundamental power in all reality.
It is the underlying cause of all existence and the ground of being. This is in contrast to ordinary reality,
which is the product of the conscious mind, influenced by the sensory world. Ultimate reality is
independent of observation, existing independently of humanity.

In the religious and philosophical worlds, it can take one of three forms:

• A personal being, e.g. a loving God who is the focal point of religious belief.
• An impersonal being from whom all personal beings are caused and to whom all personal
beings are drawn.
• An eternal truth or principal that governs the universe.

[Some people think that these three definitions are simply different manifestations of the same
reality.]

For Christians, the Ultimate Reality is God. God is the absolute foundation of everything that is and
the end to which all points. God is the source of all meaning of the world in general and human life in
particular.

Christian Beliefs about God

Christians believe in one God; they are monotheists.

I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of
bondage. You shall have no other gods before me…you shall not bow down to them or
serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers
upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but
showing steadfast love to the thousands of those who love me and keep my
commandments. Exodus 20:2-3, 4-5

No other being can be compared to or be associated with God. He is unique.

Consequently, he is beyond our understanding. He is transcendent; he is beyond everything. As such,
God is mysterious and incomprehensible.

Such a transcendent being has characteristics which far surpass those of humanity. He is omniscient,
omnipotent, eternal, omnipresent and infinite. He is the creator of the universe. This sovereign being
can only be known if he reveals himself to humanity. His sheer holiness and majesty mean he deserves
worship and obedience from his creation.

Whither shall I go from thy Spirit? Or whither shall I flee from thy presence? If I
ascend to heaven, thou art there! If I make my bed in Sheol, thou art there! If I
take the wings of the morning and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea, even
there thy hand shall lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me. Psalm 139:7-10

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 However, this transcendent being has revealed himself to his creation and has sought a relationship
with it. He is a personal (immanent) God. The very fact that God is the source of the universe means
that he is the very basis of our existence.

In the day that the Lord God made the earth and the heavens, when no plant of the
field was yet in the earth and no herb of the field had yet sprung up – for the Lord
God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the
ground; but a mist went up from the earth and watered the whole face of the ground
– then the Lord God formed man of the dust from the ground and breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being. Genesis 2:4-7

This personal God loves and sustains his creation. He is also a just God. He expects humanity to follow
his commandments and to live morally. Consequently, Christians believe there will be a time of
judgement, when all people will have to give an account of their beliefs and actions to God.

For God so loved the world that he gave his only son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have
eternal life. John 3:16

Work

1. Make a list of the attributes (characteristics) of God.

2. Define the following terms: monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, Deism, atheism and agnosticism.

3. Explain why it is important for Christians to believe in God. [6]

4. ‘If God is transcendent, how can we know about him?’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

God as Trinity

Christians believe that God is a Trinity (a tri-unity, three-in-one). They believe that God is one
substance, three persons. This belief in God as Trinity was formed because of two truths held by the
early Christians. Firstly, that there is one, sovereign God and secondly, this God was uniquely present
in Jesus the Christ (the Messiah, God’s anointed), whose life on earth was begun and then sustained
by the Holy Spirit.

In those days, Jesus came from Nazareth and was baptised by John in
the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw
the heavens opened and the Spirit descending upon him like a dove; and
a voice came from heaven, “Thou art my beloved Son; with thee I am
well pleased.” Mark 1:9-11

However, it is very difficult to convey the unity and threeness of the

Trinity. An emphasis of either one or the other can lead to
Unitarianism (the differences between the three persons are
superficial) or tritheism (there are three gods not one). Many
analogies have been used to explain the Trinity. The fifth century Irish
missionary, Saint Patrick, famously used the shamrock to explain how
God can be both one and three. Water has also been used to convey

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the triune nature of God: just as water can be experienced in three ways (as a solid, a fluid and a gas)
so too God can be experienced as Father, Son and the Holy Spirit.

Most Christians prefer to describe the work of God in the world to explain the unity and distinction of
the Trinity. Christians believe the Father is the creator of the universe, the Son is the saviour of
humanity and the Holy Spirit continues to guide the Church by giving new life and making people holy.
Whilst all three persons of the Trinity work together in perfect harmony, they have distinct eternal
roles.

The work of creation is primarily attributed to God the Father. He created the world
from nothing and he continues to sustain his creation by answering prayers,
performing miracles and through other forms of divine intervention.

The Son of God offers the most complete revelation of the divine. He was sent by
the Father to save humanity from sin. He became man (the incarnation) and he
spent his earthly ministry teaching people about God’s kingdom and encouraging
his listeners to repent of their sins. Jesus’ death (the crucifixion) and subsequent
resurrection are believed by Christians to redeem them from sin and offer them the
opportunity of atonement.

The third person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, was sent to continue the work of Jesus; to guide the
Church, the Christian community. He ensures the Gospel of Christ is preached and understood. He
strengthens those people who believe in Christ by providing a number of gifts, wisdom, faith,
knowledge, healing, prophecy, the ability to perform miracles, glossolalia (speaking in tongues), the
interpretation of glossolalia and the ability to distinguish between spirits. But he is also the terrifying
prosecutor of those people who do not believe in him. It is through the Holy Spirit that the believer is
brought into the presence of God and sanctified.

Despite the Trinity being a fundamental doctrine within Christianity, there are only a couple of texts
which explicitly describe God as a Trinity.

And Jesus came and said to them, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore
and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close
of the age.” Matthew 28”18-20

The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all. 2
Corinthians 13:14

Nevertheless, much of the New Testament implies the triune nature of God in all divine activity.

Work

1. Describe the Christian belief in the Trinity. [3]

2. Explain why belief in God as creator is important to Christians. [6]

3. Explain the importance of the person and work of the Holy Spirit to Christians. [6]

4. ‘Without Jesus Christians would not believe in God as a Trinity’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

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Non-Religious Beliefs about Ultimate Reality

Some non-religious people would view God or an Ultimate Reality as an invention of human beings.
The philosopher Julian Baggini (b.1968) has argued that those people who believe in an Ultimate
Reality either point to the past, seeking a cause to existence or look ahead to the future – the goal of
existence. Instead, he believes meaning comes from living in the present, i.e. enjoying the things that
make life worth living now. This is a meaning to our existence that we have to create for ourselves and
as such, it does not have a lasting impact on the universe.

Other non-religious people prefer to look to modern science for a

guide to understanding reality. In his book The Magic of Reality
(2011), Richard Dawkins (b.1941) explains many of the world’s
natural phenomena in a scientific way to show how the elementary
components of the planet work together in a logical and beautiful
way.

The truth is more magical – in the best and most exciting sense of the word – than any myth or
made-up mystery or miracle. Science has its own magic: the magic of reality. Richard Dawkins

Some non-religious people reject the notion of a higher power overseeing a designed world because
they believe the world is made only from ordinary matter. Physicalists think that the real world is
nothing more than the physical world in which we live. There is no higher metaphysical world or
Ultimate Reality.

Nevertheless, some non-religious people may accept that there are ultimate values. For example, the
pursuit of truth, beauty and justice may transcend time and be relevant to all ages.

Work

‘There is no Ultimate Reality’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Monotheism and Polytheism

By some estimates, there are more than 4,000 religions in the world. Whilst the beliefs of these
religions vary widely, they can be generally categorised as either monotheistic or polytheistic.

Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. The

Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam are
monotheistic. They believe that a single God is responsible
for everything, which is an indication of his might and power.
His character is unique, making him fundamentally different
from all other beings. This means there are two different
realities: God and the universe. God is the creator of the
universe, responsible for the natural order of the cosmos and
within it, the ethical and social orders. Human beings have a
duty to comply with the ethical and social expectations of
God.

The benefits of monotheism provide a clear understanding of the nature and expectations of God.
God is omniscient and omnipotent; the only being worthy of worship. His teachings and moral
guidance provide clear direction on how his devotees should live their lives.

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However, the exclusivity of monotheism is one of its disadvantages. The God worshipped within the
monotheistic religion allows for no rivals. Such exclusivity has often resulted in division, conflict,
oppression and war. Monotheism also struggles to account for the problem of evil. If God is the sole
source of the world it would seem logical to assume that he is the source of the evil and suffering
experienced by his creation.

Polytheism is the belief that there are multiple gods. The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and Norse
peoples were ancient polytheistic cultures. Some forms of Hinduism and the vast majority of spiritual
traditions native to Africa, Polynesia, central Asia and the indigenous Americas are polytheistic,
focusing their worship on the divine forces in nature.

Polytheism acknowledges that the universe is filled with divine

forces. Each force or god is responsible for a particular thing and
can be prayed to for help with a specific issue. Whilst there are
differences of status and power between the gods often resulting
in a hierarchical pantheon, they are all regarded as equally divine.
Typically, polytheistic cultures include beliefs in many demonic and
ghostly forces in addition to the gods. It is these malevolent
spiritual beings who are largely responsible for the ills experienced
in the world.

The benefits of polytheism include providing a wider variety of deities to whom one can apply for help.
Given the variety of gods, polytheists are more likely to be open to diversity within religious faith and
practice. The belief in demonic and ghostly forces may also help them to account for the existence of
evil and suffering.

However, the many gods worshipped by polytheists can detract from the clarity of message and
direction. The different gods may offer contradictory teachings. On a practical level, it may be quite
expensive being a polytheist – one may have to spend more money honouring and placating a number
of gods! Ultimately, polytheism may lead to less respect for the gods – they are not unique and may
be regarded as less powerful than a single, transcendent being.

Work

1. Explain why Christians believe in one God. [6]

2. Explain why many people find polytheism attractive. [6]

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 1.6 Belief, Uncertainty and Unbelief

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Reasons for believing in/ factors that may lead to, or support, belief in the existence of God/
an ultimate reality
o Arguments from causation in the world to God as first cause
o Arguments from the existence of the world to God as the only possible explanation
of its existence
o Arguments from the appearance of design in the world to God as designer
o The search for meaning and purpose in life
o The appeal to religious authority
o Experiences such as conversion

• Reasons for/ factors that lead to, or support, being unsure of (agnosticism), or not believing
in (atheism), the existence of God/ an ultimate reality
o Lack of clear evidence that God exists or takes an interest in the lives of human
beings
o Scientific explanations of the origin and operation of the universe
o Advances in science and medicine
o Human beings’ ability to control their own environment
o Conflicting religious teachings about God / ultimate reality and the purpose of life
o A non-religious up-bringing

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People believe in God or an ultimate reality for a number of reasons. One can divide the arguments in
favour of belief in God into two categories:

• Arguments from reason, i.e. things we can work out for ourselves.
• Arguments from revelation, i.e. we know God exists because he tells us he does.

Christians are more likely to believe in God because of religious experiences, the teachings from the
Bible and the example of Jesus, i.e. arguments from revelation. They may also believe in God because
it gives life meaning and purpose. Their upbringing is also a strong factor. The influence of parents on
their children and being raised within a religious community so that they worship God on a regular
basis will have a lasting impact on people’s lives. Celebrating religious festivals and marking key
moments in their lives through religious ceremonies such as baptism and confirmation also endorse
the truth claims of their religion.

Nevertheless, they may also be persuaded by the philosophical arguments for the existence of God,
i.e. arguments from reason.

Work

1. Explain why Christians believe in God. [6]

2. Explain how upbringing may influence belief in God. [6]

The First Cause or Cosmological Argument

The first cause or cosmological argument was classically expressed by Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274)
in his work Summa Theologica as one of the five ways for explaining the existence of God.

The argument begins with the fact the universe exists. Drawing upon our own experience that
everything is dependent on something else, it is possible to trace a whole series of causes and effects
from our own existence to the beginning of the universe. Then one is asked to consider how the
universe came into existence.

Aquinas argued that it makes sense to believe all causes have a beginning right up until the first cause;
we cannot keep following the chain of causation back in
time forever. The universe must have had a cause –
something must have triggered the whole process off,
rather like someone pushing over the first domino in a line
of dominos and then observing the rest of them falling
over. This first cause must have been different – it was
uncaused. God, who is himself without cause, must be the
cause of the universe.

Even if one considers recent scientific discoveries, Aquinas’ theory can still stand. For example, many
scientists hold that the origins of the universe lie in the rapid expansion of a dense nucleus of matter
(the Big Bang theory). According to the first cause or cosmological argument, God could have caused
this event to take place.

Whilst many Christians find this argument convincing as it tallies with their experience of life and
understanding of God, questions have been raised about the strength of the argument. Bertrand
Russell (1872-1970) criticised the argument for contradicting itself. Aquinas has argued that there is

40 | P a g e
no uncaused cause but yet he makes an exception for the primary cause (God) without providing
convincing justification for doing so. In fact, it makes more sense to accept that there is an infinite
regress of cause and effect.

Even if one does accept the validity of the first cause or cosmological argument, it does not necessarily
point to the existence of God. The universe itself could be responsible for its own existence; it has self-
existence. If the argument does point to God’s existence, it does not tell us much about the nature of
this God and therefore, it is not very helpful in informing people about their belief in God.

Work

1. Do you find the cosmological argument convincing?

2. ‘The universe could not have created itself’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

The Teleological Argument or Argument from Design

According to this argument, the universe cannot exist by chance. It shows so much order and purpose
that it must have been designed and this designer must be God.

The most popular version of this argument was advanced by William Paley (1743-1805). Paley
compared the discovery of a stone on a path with finding a watch on that same path. He argued that
one could explain how the stone arrived on the path by referring to natural processes. However, he
asserted that the watch, an intricate and complex mechanism, must have been made by someone and
thus, it must have a designer and purpose.

Paley compared the universe to the watch. Like the watch, the universe is intricate and complex; it
appears to be designed. For example, an examination of a human eye shows that it is composed of a
number of minute parts which fit together in a complex and exact way. The universe, like the watch,
also appears to be designed for a purpose. If one refers to the eye again, then one is aware that the
parts of the eye all work together for a common purpose, namely, to enable sight. On the basis of this
analogy, Paley argued that the universe has been designed and has a purpose. He also claimed that
the designer of the universe is God.

Recent theories in science have shown that the planet

evolving to produce conditions conducive to human survival
is minute. It seems then that there is a purpose to the
universe – the production and survival of humanity (the
anthropic principle). These theories have been used by
Christians to argue that God has designed the universe in a
certain way to allow human life to develop.

However, there have been many criticisms of the argument from design. David Hume (1711-1776)
questioned why the designer of the universe felt the need to include so much evil and suffering in his
product. He also suggested the possibility of the universe came into being through natural processes.
With the evidence offered by Charles Darwin to support the theory of evolution, Hume seems to be
vindicated in his critique of the argument; organs such as the eye could have evolved through natural
selection over a long period of time rather than rely on a designer God for their origins.

Work

1. Is Paley right to compare the universe to a watch?

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2. Explain why some people believe the world appears to be designed. [6]

The Argument from Religious Experience

Many Christians claim to have felt the presence of God in their lives by hearing him, seeing him or
feeling his support in everything they do. Rudolf Otto (1869-1337) used the word numinous to
describe these religious feelings and experiences; it is the sense of wonder and awe that we feel when
in the presence of something greater than ourselves. This experience of God provides Christians with
unshakeable proof of God’s existence.

One dark wintry afternoon, I was sitting alone in my study at school. I suddenly
became aware of a figure in white whom I saw pretty clearly in my mind’s eye. I
heard the words, ‘follow me’. Instinctively, I knew that this was Jesus. Heaven
knows how – I knew nothing about him. It was an indescribably rich event that
filled me afterwards with an overpowering joy. I could do no other than follow
those instructions. Bishop Hugh Montifiore 1920-2005

William James (1842-1910) argued that religious experience is the foundation of

religious belief. Whist Martin Buber (1878-1965) asserted that as God is personal, God is known only
through personal encounters. There are many examples in the Bible which support these claims. For
examples, Moses’ encounter with God at the burning bush (Exodus 3) and Paul’s conversion on the
road to Damascus (Acts 9)

Meanwhile Saul, still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of
the Lord, went to the high priest and asked him for letters to the synagogues
at Damascus, so that if he found any who belonged to the Way, men or
women, he might bring them bound to Jerusalem. Now as he was going along
and approaching Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around
him. He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, “Saul, Saul, why
do you persecute me?” He asked, “Who are you, Lord?” The reply came, “I am
Jesus, whom you are persecuting. But get up and enter the city, and you will
be told what you are to do.” The men who were traveling with him stood
speechless because they heard the voice but saw no one. Acts 9:1-7

Religious experiences vary from visions to healing to an overwhelming sense of love. Some
experiences are vividly described whilst others are ineffable (beyond description).

Whilst religious experiences provide convincing reasons for the people who have them to believe in
God, it is quite hard to use them to encourage other people to believe in God. The experience is
subjective, meaning it is out of the reach of rational examination. This problem is exacerbated if the
experience is ineffable; it is very hard to use an experience which is beyond description to convey a
concrete belief about the nature of God.

Miracles are a form of religious experience which prompt religious belief not just in those who
experience them but could offer concrete evidence to testify to the presence of God to other people.
Christians believe God sustains his creation through the work of the Son and the Holy Spirit. They claim
God intervenes in people’s lives, changing the natural course of events to their benefit. A miracle may

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be experienced as a physical or mental act of healing, a special sign that changes the course of one’s
life or an act that saves one from a specific danger.

Miracles were an important part of the ministry of Jesus. He performed a number of

miracles to illustrate the nature of God and his kingdom. These miracles either
overcame the forces of nature, expelled demons, provided healing or brought people
back form the dead. They were also a feature of his life. The incarnation, when God
became man, is the miracle of Jesus being both truly human and truly divine. The
resurrection of Jesus demonstrated the miracle of Christ overcoming the powers of
death.

Many Christians believe miracles still occur today. Lourdes is one place where
Christians have experienced miracles. Lourdes is a town in the south of France at the
foot of the Pyrenees. In 1858, Bernadette Soubirous had a number of visions of the
Virgin Mary in the Grotto of Massabielle. She was told to dig nearby, where she found
a spring. The spring is said to have healing properties. Many pilgrims who have visited
the grotto and have bathed in or drunk the water from the spring claim to have been
cured of their various ailments.

However, some Christians struggle to believe in miracles. They simply do not believe
that God works in that way. Rather they believe God provides one with strength and guidance to
overcome adversity. They also think the belief in miracles undermines a just and loving God; they
question why God would help just a few people rather than all.

Atheists and humanists think the events experienced by religious believers as miracles can be
explained by in other ways. Greater knowledge of the human body and advances in science may offer
alternative explanations. One could argue that the religious believer was misdiagnosed or their
recovery was stimulated by the hope of a cure from a religious figure. Similarly, it could be a matter
of perspective. For a religious person, experiencing a cure after praying for one may be taken to be a
miracle, whereas a non-believer may see it simply as a coincidence.

Work

1. Explain how religious experiences prompt belief in God. [6]

2. Explain why some Christians do not believe in miracles. [6]

3. ‘Belief in God is only possible if you have had a personal experience of God’. Evaluate this statement.
[12]

Reasons for being unsure of or not believing in God

Atheism literally means ‘without or no God’. An atheist then is a person

who believes there is no God or gods. Most atheists regard themselves
as realists – they face up to the world as it really is, providing a
naturalistic interpretation for the existence and functioning of the
universe.

Atheists argue there is no empirical evidence to support a belief in God

or, at least, no reliable evidence. They argue that a person should only
believe in things for which they have good evidence.

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Instead, atheists argue that everything in the universe can be explained in a satisfactory way without
reference to God. Using the knowledge derived from scientific observation, research and
experimentation, it is not necessary to believe in God to account for the world and how it functions.
The universe could have come about by chance with life evolving on earth because the conditions
were suitable. There is no need for some great design or plan. Equally, there does not need to be an
ultimate purpose to it all.

The problem of evil is used by atheists to question the belief in an omnipotent and omnibenevolent
God. The very existence of evil and suffering suggests an imperfect world, full of design flaws. The
apparent non-intervention of God to alleviate suffering and prevent evil further justifies the belief that
God does not exist.

Conflicting truth claims about the nature of God between religions and even within them undermines
the claim the God exists. Religious believers are unable to determine what God is like and what he
expects of them. Indeed, this conflict of truth claims is dangerous as is evident in some parts of the
world such as Israel/ Palestine and Northern Ireland, and in the atrocities committed in the name of
God.

Hence, atheists think faith is blind and irrational. God was once the
explanation for things we did not understand but now it is God who
needs explaining. Indeed, some atheists have provided explanations
to account for the belief in God.

Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) claimed that happiness is the primary

desire of people. This happiness is only thought to be possible if they
have the reassurance that God exists as God can ensure the virtuous are rewarded and the wicked are
punished. Hence, humanity has imagined a God to be sure of this ultimate goal of happiness. This
imagined God is given a personality with all the qualities admired by people such as intelligence,
goodness and love. Feuerbach concluded that what man is in need of he makes his God, meaning God
is no more than a projection of man.

One of Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) arguments against the existence of God is based on the assertion
that religion provides a mental defence against the threatening aspects of nature. Instead of facing
the terrors of life, many people believe in a protecting power who oversees them and to whom they
can apply for help. Freud claimed that this personal power was merely a magnification and projection
of the child’s earliest memory of a parent. Just as the child is reassured by the presence and protection
of the parental figure so too those who believe in God gain comfort from a heavenly father figure who
intervenes in history to protect his creation. Consequently, Freud regarded belief in God to be a
symptom of neurosis. This neurosis may be cured when one learns to face the world without relying
on illusions but instead uses the knowledge authenticated by empirical evidence.

Agnosticism strictly speaking refers to the notion that human beings

cannot know of the existence of anything beyond the phenomena of their
experience. The term has come to be equated with not knowing whether
God exists. Hence, agnostics feel there is not enough scientific evidence to
decide the question of God’s existence. Equally, there is no positive
empirical evidence to determine God’s existence. Neither the
philosophical arguments for the existence of God nor the arguments
stemming from the problem of evil are conclusive

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Agnostics do not feel that it is fundamentally irrational to believe in God because it is plausible to think
there might be some unknown cause behind the universe. For agnostics then, the matter is still to be
decided. Religious believers and atheists alike are guilty of intellectual arrogance by claiming certainty
about the existence of God when none exists, yet!

Work

1. Identify three reasons why some people are agnostics. [3]

2. Outline two reasons why some people are atheists. [4]

3. ‘There is no proof that God exists.’ Evaluate this statement. [12]

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 1.7 The Problem of Evil and Suffering

In this part of the Section, you will consider the following issues:

• Religious beliefs/ teachings about the cause and existence of evil and suffering in the world

• Why the existence of natural evil, moral evil and suffering raises questions for people who
believe that God is omnipotent, omniscient and benevolent and may lead some to reject
belief in God

• Attempts by religious people to explain why God created a world containing suffering and/
or allows it to continue

• Non-religious explanations of the causes and existence of evil and suffering in the world

• Religious and non-religious responses to the reality of evil and suffering and views on how to
cope with them

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 The word ‘evil’ is used to describe a number of things,
situations or people we dislike. But what does this
word actually mean? John Hick defined evil as
‘physical pain, mental suffering and moral
wickedness’. Christians think evil refers to anything
that is opposed to God and his purposes.

We know that in everything God works for good with

those who love him, who are called according to his
purpose. Romans 8:28

Evil then is that which causes suffering and harm to God’s creation. It is possible to distinguish between
two types of evil:

Moral Evil: the suffering caused by people who deliberately intend to harm others through acts such
as bullying, murder, rape, theft or terrorism.

Natural Evil: the suffering caused by events which have nothing to do with people. Instead suffering
is the result of the natural order of the world, for example, the consequence of natural disasters such
as volcanic irruptions, earthquakes, droughts or floods.

However, given human interference in the natural world, many recent natural disasters may actually
stem from human decisions and actions. Hence, the suffering caused by some natural disasters may
actually be a form of moral evil, e.g. the floods and mudslides which have occurred through
widespread deforestation.

Evil poses a real problem for Christians. Christians believe that God is the source of the world; a
benevolent creator. However, despite his declaration that the world is good, there is evil and suffering
in it. How can a good, all-knowing and all-powerful God who sustains his creation allow it to suffer?

The problem of evil has been expressed in a number of ways:

The Logical Problem of Evil

This form of the problem normally takes the form of an inconsistent triad; three statements which are
logically inconsistent are used to show that the Christian understanding of God is incorrect and suggest
God does not exist. It has been posed by a number of philosophers such as David Hume (1711-1776)
and J. L. Mackie (1917-1981).

• If God is omnipotent and omniscient, he is aware of the existence of evil and suffering and
knows how to put a stop to it.
• If God is omnibenevolent, he will want to put a stop to evil and suffering.
• Evil and suffering exist.

Given that there is sufficient evidence to show that evil exists, God is either not good (rather he is a
malevolent force who does not want to prevent evil) or he is not omnipotent (he does not have the
ability to prevent the existence of evil).

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The Evidential Problem of Evil

This form of the problem relies upon the amount and often gratuitous nature of evil experienced in
the world. It suggests that there is so much evil and suffering in the world that it is improbable that
there is an omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good God. The Jewish holocaust during World War II
and the mass exterminations that took place in the Killing Fields of Cambodia and the Soviet Gulag are
used to justify and illustrate this argument.

The Experiential Problem of Evil

This form of the problem arises when a person is confronted with evil first-hand and suffers as a
consequence. When a person is suffering or witnesses a loved one or innocent people such as children
suffer, it makes it very difficult for that person to believe in God. This difficulty may be compounded
if they pray to God for help and no response seems to be forthcoming.

Work

1. Give three examples of the suffering caused by evil. [3]

2. Explain two types of evil. [4]

3. Explain why evil and suffering cause problems for Christian belief. [6]

4. ‘Suffering proves God does not exist’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Christian Responses to the Problem of Evil

Biblical

When faced with the problem of evil, Christians have turned to the Bible to explain how a good,
omnipotent and omniscient God allows evil and suffering in his creation.

The story of the creation of the world found in the book of

Genesis describes Adam and Eve being given freewill. They are
given the choice to obey God and not eat the fruit from the tree
of the knowledge of good and evil or to disobey him. Genesis
chapter 3 describes how first Eve and then Adam disobey God
and fall from his grace. For some Christians, the Original Sin has
affected all humanity spiritually; we are born with a tendency to
perform evil. For other Christians, the story explains the human
condition; how easily we succumb to temptation.

In answer to the problem then, Christians think, like the Psalmist, we should strive to obey God. He
has given us rules to live by like the Ten Commandments. He has even become incarnate and lived for
a time on the earth to preach and demonstrate by example the lifestyle expected by God (the person
and work of Jesus).

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 Happy are those whose way is blameless, who walk in the law of the Lord. Happy are those who keep his
decrees, who seek him with their whole heart, who also do no wrong, but walk in his ways. You have
commanded your precepts to be kept diligently. O that my ways may be steadfast in keeping your statutes!
Then I shall not be put to shame, having my eyes fixed on all your commandments. I will praise you with an
upright heart, when I learn your righteous ordinances. I will observe your statutes; do not utterly forsake me.
How can young people keep their way pure? By guarding it according to your word. With my whole heart I
seek you; do not let me stray from your commandments. Psalm 119:1-10

However, this solution to the problem of evil does not explain the suffering caused by natural evil or
ignorance. Nor does it account for the sheer amount of evil experienced in the world.

Some Christians think that the human tendency to disobey God is encouraged by Satan. In the Bible,
Satan is initially described as a servant of God whose role is to test peoples’ faith.

Then Satan answered the Lord, “Does Job fear God for nothing? Have you not put a fence around him and
his house and all that he has, on every side? You have blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions
have increased in the land. But stretch out your hand now, and touch all that he has, and he will curse you
to your face.” The Lord said to Satan, “Very well, all that he has is in your power; only do not stretch out your
hand against him!” So Satan went out from the presence of the Lord. Job 1:9-12

But by the time of Jesus, Satan had come to be regarded as

a hostile supernatural force who tempts and possesses The devil had already put it into the
heart of Judas son of Simon Iscariot to
people. Jesus is acutely aware of the existence of Satan who
betray him. John 13:2
tempts him in the wilderness and is at work trying to thwart
the plans of God.

Some Christians believe that evil continues to occur through the temptations of Satan. They believe
he possesses people and hence, they practise exorcisms. Other Christians do not take the Biblical
descriptions of Satan literally but regard him as the personification of the potential for evil which
resides in every one of us.

Theoretical

a) The Freewill Defence

Some philosophers have attempted to respond to the logical problem of evil by using freewill. Alvin
Plantinga (1932- ) proposed the Freewill Defence by arguing that a good, omnipotent God can exist at
the same time as evil because he has given humanity the freedom to choose between good and evil.
In other words, God has chosen to limit himself so as to provide humanity with the gift of freewill.

Evil and the resultant suffering is caused by people misusing this gift. It is human decisions and actions
which cause hunger, poverty, pollution, diseases and wars. By creating humanity with the freedom to
choose between good and evil, God did not create evil but rather he created the possibility for evil to
occur.

Christian theologians have also devised their own theories or theodicies to explain the coexistence of
God and evil:

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b) The Augustinian Theodicy (Soul-Deciding Theodicy)

Augustine (354-430) based his theodicy on Genesis chapters 1-3. He argued that
evil exists in the world because of the disobedience of Adam and Eve, which
resulted in the Fall of humanity. He explained that evil could not have its origins
in God because he is absolutely good. Indeed, when God surveyed his creation,
he declared that it was good. Instead evil has its source in human freewill.

Human beings were created with the choice of obeying or disobeying God.
Augustine claimed that choosing to disobey God leads to an absence or privation
of goodness. Evil, then, is not a positive force created by God but an absence of
good, which can have devastating effects.

Natural evil occurs because of human disobedience. By ruining the perfection created by God, the
order of nature has been lost leading to devastating natural disasters, disease and death.

However, many people find this theodicy unsatisfactory. If God had created the world including
humanity perfect, why would human beings reject God by disobeying him? It also undermines the
suffering experienced as a result of real life events such as murder, rape, terror and pain. Stating that
suffering is caused by a privation of good does not alleviate the experience of that suffering!

c) The Irenaean Theodicy (Soul-Making Theodicy)

Like Augustine, Irenaeus (130-202) took the creation story as his starting
point to explain the co-existence of God and evil. But unlike Augustine, he
explained that God did not create the world perfect. Rather, the original
creation including humanity was made immature and innocent. Human
beings were given freewill to help them grow in maturity and willingly choose
to know and obey God, thereby enabling them to develop a soul. Natural evil
and moral evil enable people to develop qualities such as compassion which
aids the soul making process. The example of Jesus also helps them to
develop spiritually. Eventually evil and suffering will be overcome as people
develop a perfect likeness of God leading to everyone experiencing eternal
life in heaven.

However, many Christians are dissatisfied with this theodicy. Firstly, it seems to demote Jesus; he is
no longer the saviour of humanity but merely a role model. Secondly, one could question why evil is
used to promote spiritual growth; nurturing love might be a more effective tool in the soul making
process. Indeed, the experience of evil can be dehumanising, which would lead to the destruction of
the human spirit rather than its development especially given the amount of evil experienced in the
world.

Practical

Some Christians think it is beyond humanity to explain why there is evil and suffering in the world.
They say it is more important to have faith in God and trust that he has a plan for his creation. The
suffering we experience in the world may be part of a greater good or prevent a greater evil.

Instead of protesting against God or trying to explain the ways of God, we should follow the example
of Jesus. He accepted his fate and put his trust in God the Father. Although Jesus suffered and died,
the Father brought him back from the dead and he will also resurrect humanity. All those who have

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believed in God and tried to obey him will enjoy the rewards of heaven and all the suffering
experienced in this world will be forgotten.

In the meantime, Christians can respond to evil and suffering in three ways:

• Prayer: Christians can pray to God to try to understand

what God wants them to do and at the same time, trust
God is listening to them and will take care of them.
Christians believe that no sincere prayer goes unheard or
unanswered. If a prayer seems to go unanswered, it is just
that we cannot understand God’s reply. Christians can
also use prayer to help others. They can pray on behalf of
a victim of evil and ask God to help them.
• Forgiveness: Christians can try to forgive those who have been the source of suffering and
encourage them to seek forgiveness from God. By ‘turning the other cheek’ i.e. by not
responding in kind, they can try to end the cycle of hatred, bitterness and suffering caused by
acts of evil.
• Charity: Christians can respond to suffering
caused by moral and natural evil by contributing
to charity. They could give up time, money and
expertise to help alleviate the suffering caused
by natural disasters and sinful behaviour. In this
way, they would be following the example of
Jesus who healed the sick and complying with
his teaching. In the Parable of the Sheep and
Goats (Matthew 25:31-46), Jesus told his
followers that by helping those people in need
you are effectively helping him.

Work

1. Outline three solutions to the problem of evil. [3]

2. Explain two reasons why Christians might respond to evil by praying to God. [4]

3. Explain how Christians might respond to the problem of an unanswered prayer. [4]

4. Explain whether or not the Freewill Defence addresses the problem of evil successfully. [6]

5. ‘Evil is a necessary part of God’s plan’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

Non-religious explanations of the causes and existence of evil and suffering in the world.

Many non-religious people including atheists and Humanists cannot believe a good, omnipotent God
would have designed a world that has natural evils such as earthquakes and diseases. Non-religious
people find it easier to believe bad things happen as a result of evolution or human beings misusing
their freewill. Ironically, they think that a lot moral evil has occurred in the name of religion, e.g. the
Crusades, the atrocities committed by Isis and those religions who forbid the use of contraception.

In response to the suffering caused by evil, non-religious people think there are practical steps we can
take to reduce the suffering caused by natural evil. Using the knowledge acquired through disciplines

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such as science, meteorology and geology, we can prevent or mitigate the effects of natural disasters
and the suffering they cause.

The suffering caused by moral evil can be reduced through a better understanding of human
psychology by working to overcome the negative elements of human nature. Education, legislation
and a greater sense of social justice within the world may help to prevent crime and encourage a more
harmonious society. Equally, accepting that there will inevitably be some suffering in the world might
encourage societies to invest in establishments, treatments and care that can help those individuals
experiencing suffering, for example, therapies and support for those people suffering mental ill health,
palliative care for those people who have terminal illnesses…etc.

Work

‘There are no solutions to the problem of evil and suffering’. Evaluate this statement. [12]

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