See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/309464559

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Presentation · January 2014

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14809.52322

CITATIONS READS

0 13,462

1 author:

A. Balasubramanian
University of Mysore
389 PUBLICATIONS 1,018 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by A. Balasubramanian on 27 October 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

By Prof. A. Balasubramanian, University of Mysore

Objectives

After attending this lesson, the user should be able to understand an overview of physical
oceanography in terms of its morphology and relief features, distribution of water masses and their
properties, dynamics processes of the oceans, air-sea interactions, importance of currents, waves, tides
and other features.

Introduction:

Oceanography is the scientific study of oceans and seas. It deals with the distribution of oceanic water
masses, morphology and relief of the ocean floors, depth zones in oceans, sediments of the oceans,
marine mineral resources, oceanic processes, dynamics of water masses and the role of oceans on
controlling the global climate. The physics, chemistry, geology and biology of the oceans are very
deep concepts in natural sciences. Oceans are very dynamic and widely distributed water bodies.
The nature and role of oceans are continuously studied by the oceanographers, marine biologists,
marine engineers, environmental scientists, ecologists, geologists, marine geologists, meteorologists,
climatologists and geographers. It is one of the oldest subjects of man kind. Even today, the subject
of oceanography is diversifying into many folds and branches.

Branches of Oceanography:

Oceanography is a very vast subject. It has grown over a period of several centuries. The major
branches of oceanography are:
a) Physical oceanography,
b) Chemical oceanography,
c) Geological oceanography, and
d) Biological oceanography.

Physical oceanography is the basis for all branches of oceanography. Hence, in this lesson, let us
understand the components of Physical oceanography,

Physical oceanography

The Physical Oceanography is an essential part of oceanographic analysis. It is the study of physical
conditions that are prevailing in the seas and oceans. It deals with all large scale physical processes
and their effects that are happening within the oceans. the processes are very dynamic in nature. They
involve the water masses which have heterogeneous proportions and dimension. The properties of
water masses also vary with space and time. Physical oceanography considers all these aspects in
projecting the oceans. This branch has grown due to historical oceanographic explorations and
expeditions carried out by several scholars from almost all parts of the world. Very essential aspects
of physical oceanography are to be understood first.

Chemical Oceanography
Chemical Oceanography is the study of everything about the chemistry of the ocean ,
distribution and dynamics of the elements, isotopes, atoms and molecules. This ranges
from fundamental physical, thermodynamic and kinetic chemistry to two-way
interactions of ocean chemistry with biological/ geological and physical processes.
Chemical Oceanography attempts to analyse the interactions between oceans,
lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, sea water chemistry, controls in chemical
distribution, components of marine sediments and chemical controls in biological

1
production.
Biological Oceanography
The basic ecological concepts are central to many studies of biological oceanography.
The study of marine life, habitat, interactions, abiotic environment, phytoplankton and
primary production, zooplankton, migrations and changes, energy flow & mineral
cycling, marine food chains, food webs, nektons, marine reptiles, mammals, seabirds,
mariculture, Benthic plants and animals, inter-tidal environments, beaches, coral reefs,
estuaries and mangroves are all studied under biological oceanography. Deep sea
ecology and marine pollution are also the other two major important areas of study
under biological oceanography.

Geological Oceanography
Geological Oceanography is a division of oceanography mainly dealing with the basic
Concepts of lithosphere & hydrosphere. It includes the study of the oceanic crust,
continental margins, ocean bottom relief, ocean basins, oceanic ridges, rift-valleys,
Island arcs, sea water, marine sedimentation, geology of corals, beach forms and
processes, water masses , factors affecting ocean circulation, waves and currents, tides
and energy coastal erosion and drifting of sediments, sea level changes, depositional
environments and marine deposits. Geological oceanography is also concerned with the
occurrence of oil-traps and energy sources, tectonic movements- underwater eruptions,
mud volcanoes and impacts of tsunamis.

Essential Aspects of Physical Oceanography

The very essential parts of the subject of physical oceanography include the following aspects.
Physical oceanography invariably deals with the aspects like the Physical Setting of the seas and
oceans, Historical oceanographic explorations , Instruments used in oceanographic studies,
Atmospheric Influences of oceanic water masses , The Oceanic Heat Budget, Temperature, Salinity,
and Density of oceanic masses, The Equations of Motion and Equations of Motion With Viscosity,
Air-sea interface and response of the Upper Ocean to Winds, Geostrophic Currents and Wind Driven
Ocean Circulation, Vorticity and Deep Circulation in the Ocean, Equatorial Processes and their
effects, Ocean Waves and and Tides, Numerical Models, Coastal Processes and Ocean induced
hazards. It would be very appropriate to understand the evolution of the subject of physical
oceanography by knowing it through some of its historical explorations, made by the people.

Historical Explorations:

A lot of oceanographic expeditions and explorations have been conducted by several groups of people
under the support of ancient and modern kings and kingdoms. All those investigations have helped
people over the years to understand the nature of oceans to a great extent. It is progression with many
innovations and discoveries, even today. Still there are a lot of things found inside the deep oceans.
The unexplored regions are more than the explored domains. Oceans offer a lot of marine resources,
fisheries, mineral deposits, food resources and energy resources. These are much useful to the human
population of the whole globe to survive. It is necessary to understand the integrated aspects of the
subject of oceanography with all the available scientific facts, principles, findings and observations.

The Physical Setting

The oceans are very thin layer of water masses when we consider them on a global scale. The vertical
scale is very small when compared to the horizontal scale. Hence, for all graphical representation, the
vertical scale is to be exaggerated. The ratio of depth to width of the ocean basins, is also very small.
This ratio is very important for understanding the ocean currents. The Vertical velocities must be

2
much smaller than the horizontal velocities. Very small amounts of vertical velocities may have a
great influence on the water turbulence in these bodies.

World’s Oceans and Seas

The Earth has only one large marine water mass. It is distributed in the forms of seas, oceans, gulfs,
straits, basins and bays. The total area covered by these water masses is 361 million sq.km. The total
volume of this mass is 1370 million cu.km. It is higher than the volume of land above sea level
which is only 130 million cu.km. The total mass of the oceans is 1.5 x 10^18 tons, which is 0.25 %
mass of the earth. There are five major oceans on the earth as the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the
Arctic and the Antarctic Oceans. All these water masses cover about 70.8% of the surface of the
earth.

Dimensions of the ocean

The dimensions of oceans may range from 1500 Km to 13000 km along latitude or longitude. The
minimum width 1500 km is seen in the Atlantic ocean along east-west direction and it extends to
more than 13000 Km along its North-South extension. The surface area of the Pacific Ocean is
181.34 million Sq.Km. Its average depth 4282 m. The surface area of the Atlantic Ocean is 106.57
million Sq.Km. Its average depth is 3926m. The surface area of the Indian Ocean is 74.12 million
Sq.Km. Its average depth is 3963m. The overall average depth of oceans is 3800m. if we look at the
depth regions throughout the oceans, we can see that majority of the area is occupied by the depth
zone between 2000 and 6000m. But the deepest zones beyond 6000m depth are noticed only in a few
places in the west and northwest Pacific, mid-west Atlantic and a few isolated spots of the Indian and
other oceans.

Sea-Floor Features

Bathymetry is the mapping of ocean-water column. It provides depth-wise relief features. The depths
of the oceans are measured using acoustic echo-sounders housed on ships and altimeters housed in
Satellites. Bathymetrically, the relief of the oceans is divided into 3 distinctive regions as
Continental Shelf, Continental Slope and the deep ocean basins. All these three zones have unique
physico-chemical and biological conditions. They are also characterized by distinct geological
features and earth’s processes. The morphology and Relief of the Sea-Floor include a wide variety
of features. They include the submarine canyons, deep sea fans, abyssal hills, abyssal plains, mid-
ocean ridges, deep sea trenches, seamounts, rift-valleys, ocean fractures, oceanic troughs and island
arcs.

Crustal Plates

The earth’s crust is broken into various lithospheric plates that move relative to each other. There are
convergent and divergent plate movements. Both of these movements are responsible to create new
ocean floors at one side and subducting the ocean floors ate the other side. Altogether, the relief of
the oceans are under dynamic changes due to these continuing tectonic movements. Volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, rift-valleys, rising of ridges, crushing of continental margin materials, and
tsunamis are expected during these processes.

Study of Sun’s radiation

All dynamic processes in the oceans are directly or indirectly controlled by the Sun’s radiant energy
and the atmosphere. The dominant mechanisms are the role of Sun light, evaporation of sea water,
infrared emissions from the sea surface and the cooling (or) warming of ocean waters. The
atmospheric circulations are controlled by the oceans and the ocean water circulations are controlled
by the atmosphere. Oceans are also the dominant sources and sinks of heat. Oceans can absorb, re-
emit, store and transfer heat very effectively by its constituent water masses.

3
Solar Heating

Solar heating is an uneven energy source. This uneven heating controls the strength and direction of
winds in the atmosphere. The loss and gain of heat by the oceans produce winds in the atmosphere.
Evaporation and condensation are two more mechanisms enacted by the heat in oceans and cooling in
the atmosphere. About 50% of the Solar energy reaching the Planet Earth is absorbed by the ocean
and by the land. One-fifth of the solar energy absorbed by the ocean is released back to the
atmosphere, through evaporation and infra-red radiation. The balance is then transferred into sea and
is used for producing currents. The Heat Flux is the transfer of heat across the ocean and along the
sea surface. The flux of heat on water also changes the density of water and its buoyancy. It is
estimated that about 4000 joules of energy is required to heat 1.0 Kg of sea water by 1o C.

Effects of heat on oceans

Earth gains heat at the top of the tropical atmosphere, and it loses heat at the top of the polar
atmosphere. The Isolation is the term denoting the incoming solar radiation. It is determined by
latitude, season, time of the day and cloudiness. The Polar regions are heated very less than the
tropics. North-South movement is called as meridonial heat transport. Areas in winter are heated less
than the same area in summer. The heat in the morning time is less than the Noon hours. There is no
insolation at night. All these have an impact on the temperature of water in seas and oceans.

Atmospheric Pressure Zones

Due to these, high and low atmospheric pressure zones are also created. Warm and cold fronts are
generated out of these changes. The atmosphere within 100m above the sea surface is influenced by
the turbulent drag of the wind. This layer of atmosphere is called as the boundary layer.

Wind movements

Wind measurements, in seas and oceans, have been made for several centuries. The world’s oldest
wind reports were made as early as 1855. Wind speeds were understood through a convenient system
of reference as proposed by Sir. F. Beaufort in 1806. This is called as the Beaufort Wind Scale.
This scale is a graded level of denoting the force of the wind and its impact on water and on land. It
helps to know the severity and intensity of the wind on the sea. The force level ranges from 0 to 12,
representing calm wind to hurricane on water masses. Later, the conditions of the sea were also
determined using the modified Beaufort wind Scale proposed by Kent and Taylor. Weather
observations on ships including the Beaufort wind force are measured, normally four times a day, all
over the world. They are done at 0 hours, 6 AM , 12 noon and 6 PM at local times.

Ocean Water Properties

The properties of sweater are essential aspects of physical oceanography. The sea water has certain
physic-chemical properties which play a very significant role in the hydrodynamics and also on the
marine life. The notable properties are the temperature, salinity, density and light penetration.
Temperature and Salinity measurements with reference to depth are done using Bathythermography,
Expendable Bathythermography and Nansen Bottles.

Salinity of seawater

Salinity is the total amount of dissolved solids present in sea water. It is represented as gm per Kg of
sea water. It is a dimensionless quantity. It ranges from 34.6 to 34.8 parts per thousand. It is also
indirectly determined based on conductivity and chlorinity of waters. Sea water contains higher
concentrations of all cations and anions. However, sodium and chloride are the dominant species

4
present in seawater. Conductivity and Salinity are measured using conductivity meters. The mean
salinity of ocean water is found to be 34.7.

Density of seawater

The density of water at the sea surface is typically 1027 Kg/m3. Changes in density generates
vertical movement. Turbulence in the mixed layer mixes the heat downward.
The flow of heat, evaporation, rainfall, river water inflow, freezing and melting of the sea ice, all
control the distribution of temperature and salinity of the water in oceans. Changes in these two
properties can increase (or) decrease the density of water at the surface. It also promotes convection.
When the surface water sinks into the deeper ocean, it creates much pressure variations and generate
ocean currents.

Temperature of seawater

Sunlight heats the sea water, warms the surface layers, provides the energy for all phytoplanktons and
helps in the navigation of many marine animals. Warmest ocean water exits near the equator and the
coldest water exists near the poles. The mean temperature of ocean water is 3.5 0C. Below the mixed
layer, the water temperature decreases rapidly with depth.

Light penetration

Light penetration and absorption of light by oceanic waters are very important aspects for marine life
to survive.

Fluid Mechanics and Ocean Dynamics

Fluid mechanics and ocean dynamics are very essentials aspects in oceanography. Ocean waters are
subjected to internal and external forces. The fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics are the two major
concepts underlying many processes and life support systems in marine environments. The aspects
included in this component are Fluid mechanics, Newtonian mechanics, Conservation of Mass,
Conservation of momentum, Angular momentum and Conservation of energy.

Conservation laws

The other essential part of study in Physical oceanography is the Conservation of Mass and Salt.
These help in deriving the continuity equation and for understanding the dynamics of mass and force.
Many equations of Fluid motion are derived from the Conservation Laws. The approaches employed
under these concepts are:
1. Conservation of mass, which leads to the derivation of Continuity Equation.
2. Conservation of Heat Energy which leads to the computation of Heat Budgets.
3. Conservation of Mechanical Energy which leads to the formation of Wave Equation.
4. Conservation of Momentum which leads to the use of Navier Stokes Momentum Equation.
5. Conservation of Angular Momentum which leads to the use of Conservation of Vorticity.

Air-Sea Interface

Air-Sea Interface is a very unique zone on the earth. It is the zone which will have the
maximum atmospheric influences. The atmospheric influences come due to Sun’s
radiant energy on one side and the wind driven water movements at the other side.

Forces Acting On Masses

5
The forces which are essential to understand the Physical Oceanographic processes are, Gravity,
Friction and Coriolis force. Forces are vector quantities. They have both magnitude and direction.
Gravity is the dominant force. The weight of water in the ocean generates pressure. Due to solar
lunar influences, tides, tidal currents and tidal mixing all happen in the oceanic waters, regularly.
Buoyancy is another parameter to be borne in mind. It is the upward (or) downward force arising due
to gravity. It acts on a parcel of water. Density plays a catalytic role for enacting the Buoyancy.
Horizontal Pressure Gradients are also created due to the varying weight of water in different parts of
the oceans. Friction of wind blowing over the waves, force of water movement or air movement over
water may create the frictional forces. Wind stress is also created due to this motion. In addition to
these, Pseudo-forces and Coriolis Force are also acting on oceanic waters. Coriolis Force results from
motion in a rotating co-ordinate system.

Ocean Water Circulation

Ocean water circulation also includes, origin, and movements of Waves and Currents.
The following are the types of circulation seen in the oceans:
1. The General water circulation. This is a permanent, time-averaged circulation.
2. The Deep water circulation. This is driven by mixing in the deep ocean.
3. The wind-driven circulation. It is caused by local winds on the surface of oceans.
4. The Gyres. These are wind-driven cyclonic (or) anti-cyclonic currents of giant magnitude.
5. The Boundary Currents. These are currents flowing parallel to the coasts.
6. The Jet streams (or) Squirts. These are long narrow currents with dimension of few 100 Km
perpendicular to West Coasts.
7. The mesa-scale Eddies. These are turbulent or Spinning flows, running for a few 100 Km.

Motion with Viscosity

The role of friction in fluid flows and the stability of the flows to small changes in Velocity (or)
density are to be understood in Physical Oceanography. Viscosity is the tendency of a fluid to resist
shear. The influence of viscosity, especially the molecular viscosity which comes due to striking of
water with solid mass, is to be analyzed. The components of Stress at a point in a fluid having
pressure include normal stress and other shear stresses.

Turbulence

Turbulence is an important aspect in oceanic waters. Molecular viscosity is also effected by

turbulence. Turbulence in the oceans lead to mixing. Because the ocean has stable stratification,
vertical displacement must work against the buoyancy force. Vertical mixing requires more energy
than horizontal mixing. The vertical mixing is very important in oceans, as it brings up the deep
waters in some regions upward.

Stability of mass

In oceanic waters, stability is yet another parameter to be understood. Many kinds of instability occur
in these water masses. The kinds of stability to be understood are, static stability, dynamic stability,
and double –diffusion. The Static Stability is associated with change of density with depth. The
Dynamic Stability is associated with velocity shear and Double –diffusion is associated with Salintiy
and temperature gradients in the oceans.

Ekman Layer and Langmuir currents:

Steady winds blowing on the sea surface produce a thin, horizontal boundary layer called Ekman
Layer. This layer may be of few hundred meters in thickness. Ekman Layer transports water at right
angles to the wind direction and subsequently generate upwelling. This upwelling enhances
biological productivity to feed the fishers and other marine life. There is also a Deep Ocean Ekman

6
layer near the sea floor. A current that spiral around an axis parallel to the direction of the wind is
called as Langmuir circulation. It is customary to think that ocean currents are driven mainly by the
winds. Currents and ocean circulations are driven by not only the winds but also other factors and
forces caused by site, location and space on the globe.

Geostrophic Currents

The role of Geostrophic currents is yet another mechanism in physical oceanography. The theory for
wind-driven geostrophic currents was studied by the scientists Sverdrup, Stommel and Munk between
1947 and 1951. Satellite altimetric observations of the oceanic topography can give the time-variant
data of surface geostrophic currents. Hydrographic data are used to calculate the internal geostrophic
currents in the ocean. Flow in the ocean that is independent of depth is called barotropic flow and the
flow that depends on depth is called as baroclinic flow. Baroclinic flow can be determined by using
hydrographic data.

Types of Ocean Currents

There are several types of ocean currents existing in the oceans. They are:
1. Antarctic Circumpolar Current
2. Deep Ocean Density-driven Current
3. Western Boundary Currents
a. Gulf Stream
b. Kuroshio Current
c. Labrador Current
d. Oyashio Current
e. Agulhas Current
f. Brazil Current
g. East Australia Current
4. Eastern Boundary Currents
a. California Current
b. Canary Current
c. Peru Current
d. Benguela Current.

Vorticity

Vorticity is the rotation of the fluid. There are two types of vorticity as Planetary vorticity and
Relative vorticity. The sum of these two is known as Absolute vorticity. Vorticity strongly influences
ocean dynamics. The curl of the wind stress adds relative vorticity to central Gyres of each ocean
basin. In the oceanic waters, rotations and the conservation of vorticity stongly influence flow over
distances exceeding a few tones of kilometers.

Equatorial currents

The Deep circulation in the ocean is also an aspect to be understood. The Equatorial currents
moderate the air-sea interactions, through the phenomena known as El-Nino. It is an acronym for “the
child Jesus”. These are found to be counter currents existing along the Peruvian coasts. The east-
west temperature gradient on the equator drives a zonal circulation in the atmosphere. This is called
as Walker circulation. El Nino denotes a disruption of this entire equatorial system along the Pacific.
It causes changing weather patterns around the globe.

El Nino

The term El Nino is related to the southern oscillation (ENSO). El Nino is a sea-level pressure
anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific Region. The tropical and equatorial Pacific is a vast ocean.

7
It is a remote area which is seldom visited by ships. El Nino causes the biggest changes in equatorial
dynamics. During El Nino, trade winds weaken in the western Pacific. This generates the Kelvin
Wave eastward along the equator. These are the largest sources of annual fluctuations in global
weather patterns. Due to these drought occurs in the Indonesian area and Northern Australia.
Similarly, floods occur in Western, tropical South America.

Waves, Tides and Coastal Processes:

In physical oceanography, a detailed study of the ocean waves, tides and their impacts on the coastal
zone, is needed. Ocean waves are powerful systems shaping and reshaping the coastal zones. Waves
have energy. When we look at the sea from above, we can see thousands of waves on the sea surface
approaching the coast. These are undulations of the sea surface with a height of around a meter or
few meters. Waves break if the water is sufficiently shallow. The broken waves pour water into the
surf-zone, creating long-shore and rip currents.

Ocean Waves

Waves are the natural and outstanding phenomena of the oceans. Wave phenomena involve the
transmission of energy and momentum by means of vibratory impulses. For ocean-surface waves, the
direction of propagation is perpendicular to the wave crests in the positive direction. Ocean waves
are produced by wind. The faster the wind, the longer the wind blows. The bigger the area over
which the wind blows, the bigger the oceanic waves generated. Observations by mariners on ships
and satellites using sensors and altimeters help to prepare the global charts and maps of wave heights.
In addition to the wave heights and movements, the directions are also detected by the modern
sensors.

Wave properties

Each wave has a wave height which is the vertical distance between the bottom trough to the top crest
of the wave. The wave length is the distance between two prominent adjacent crests or troughs. The
wavelength may range from 50 to 100 m. When we watch these waves for a few minutes, we can
notice that the wave heights and wave lengths are not constant. They vary in space and time. Wave
period is the time taken by two successive waves to pass through a fixed point. All offshore waves
are generated by wind. It is also true that the sea level changes from hour to hour.

Tides

In addition to these, it is also necessary to understand the Coastal Processes and Tides.
Sea level increases and decreases during a day. The slow rise or fall of the sea level is due to the
tides. Tides have wavelengths of 1000s of km. They are generated by the slow, very small changes
in gravity as influenced by the moon and motion of the sun.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are yet another issues in oceans and coastal regions. The impacts of tsunamis are very
devastating. The recent Tsunamis have made the whole world population to think very seriously
about natural disasters. Tsunamis are low-frequency ocean waves generated by underwater
earthquakes. They are called as seismic-sea-waves. Sudden motion of sea floor over distances of a
hundred or more km generated Tsunamis with wave periods of 15-40 minutes. These may propagate
at a speed of 180 m/s with a wave length of 130 km in water. Tsunami’s may be 3.6 km deep and is
not noticeable at the seal surface. After nearing the coast, the surge may rise upto 10 or more meters
above the sea level. A Tsunami can travel thousands of kilometers and do serious damage. The first
wave of a Tsunami is not likely to be the biggest.

Tidal energy

8
 Oceanic Tides produce strong currents in many parts of the ocean. Their speed may go upto 5 m/s in
the coastal waters. Oceanic tides have a great energy. They modify the coastal geomorphic conditions
very often. Shorelines of submergence and Shorelines of emergence are two important aspects related
to these waves and tides. Coastal erosion, coastal sedimentation and tidal inflow are all the natural
effects of these processes.

Conclusion

The study of physical oceanography helps in understanding all these aspects in detail. Let us see most
of these factors and processes in our future modules. Mathematical models of all these
processes are also developed using these phenomena and mechanisms. The individual
aspects of all the elements of physical oceanography are to be studied in detail.

View publication stats