QUANTIFYING THE ANNUAL CYCLE OF ROAD

ACCIDENTS IN LIAN, BATANGAS: INPUTS

IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD
SAFETY INTERVENTIONS
AND POLICIES

MALVIN JOHN D. BAUTISTA

CHAD ERMON N. CHAVEZ
ELAINE O. HECITA
JAENA MAYE T. MATA

College of Arts and Sciences

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
The National Engineering University
ARASOF-Nasugbu

2023
 ii

QUANTIFYING THE ANNUAL CYCLE OF ROAD

ACCIDENTS IN LIAN, BATANGAS: INPUTS
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD
SAFETY INTERVENTIONS
AND POLICIES

A Thesis Presented to
the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
The National Engineering University
ARASOF-Nasugbu

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

MALVIN JOHN D. BAUTISTA

CHAD ERMON N. CHAVEZ
ELAINE O. HECITA
JAENA MAYE T. MATA

2023
 iii

Copyright © 2023

MALVIN JOHN D. BAUTISTA

CHAD ERMON N. CHAVEZ
ELAINE O. HECITA
JAENA MAYE T. MATA

All Rights Reserved

 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE FLY ……………………………………………………………... i

TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………… ii

COPYRIGHT PAGE …………………………………………………... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
iv
……………………………………………….

LIST OF TABLES
v
……………………………………………………...

LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………. vi

CHAPTER

I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction …………………………………………………. 1

Statement of the Problem ………………………………..... 11

Hypothesis of the Study …………………………………..... 12

Significance of the Study …………………………………... 12

Scope, Delimitation and Limitations of the Study ………... 14

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Conceptual Literature ………………………………………. 16

Research Literature ………………………………………... 29

 v

Synthesis ……………………………………………………. 37

Theoretical Framework …………………………………….. 42

Conceptual Framework ……………………………………. 45

Definition of Terms …………………………………………. 46

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design …………………………………………… 50

Data Gathering Instrument ……………………………….... 52

Statistical Treatment of Data ………………………………. 54

Data Analysis ……………………………………………….. 55

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………… 57
 vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1 Likert Rating Scale…………………

……………………. 53
 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

1 Paradigm of the Conceptual Framework ………..

…….. 45
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Road accidents are a major global issue that causes millions of

fatalities and injuries each year. On the roads, thousands of people are

killed and injured every day. Road accidents may destroy the lives of men,

women, or children traveling by foot, bicycle, or motor vehicle to work or

school, playing in the streets, or embarking on long journeys, leaving

behind devastated families and communities. Each year, millions of people

spend long weeks in hospitals after severe crashes, and many lose the

ability to live, work, or play normally as they used to. Incalculable suffering

results from injuries caused by automobile accidents for victims and their

families (Ahmed et al., 2023). According to the World Health Organization,

approximately 1.35 million people lose their lives to road traffic accidents

annually, and between 20 and 50 million more suffer non-fatal injuries.

These accidents are not only a leading cause of death but also a

significant source of physical and psychological trauma for victims and

their families.
 2

Millions of people worldwide die because of road accidents. Cars,

buses, trucks, motorbikes, pedestrians, animals, taxis, and other vehicles

all use the roads. Motorized transportation makes it possible to travel and

facilitates social and economic growth in numerous nations. People died

worldwide in collisions involving automobiles, buses, motorbikes, bicycles,

trucks, or pedestrians. Crash injuries are estimated to be the eighth

leading cause of death globally for all age groups and the leading cause of

death for children and young people (Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention Website, 2023).

Accidents are unpredictable but manageable social catastrophes.

Road accident deaths and injuries are a major concern for South and

Southeast Asian nations. The main cited causes of road accident deaths

and injuries include excessive speeding, poor road conditions, the

susceptibility of cars, and reckless driving. To encourage sustainable

safety, it requires an efficient avoidance strategy. Road traffic accidents

are ranked eighth among factors contributing to death. Road traffic

accidents cause more than 20 million injuries and about 1.2 million

fatalities annually due to the sudden, significant increase in the number of

 3

motor vehicles and the growth of cities and towns, road incidents are on

the rise (Vinish, 2023).

The Philippines has one of the highest rates of road traffic fatalities

in the Western Pacific region, with an estimated 10,379 deaths in 2019.

One of the main causes of death and injuries is road accidents. The road

crashes are a result of the rising number of motor vehicles and the

increased volume of traffic. The causes of road deaths in the Philippines

are varied and include factors such as driver error, speeding, drunk driving,

poor road conditions, inadequate law enforcement, and a lack of road

safety infrastructure. Motorcycles are responsible for a significant

percentage of fatal road accidents in the country which is the inability to

wear a helmet and reckless driving are the main causes (nakedexpat

Website, 2023).

In the 2020 Metro Manila Accident Recording and Analysis System

(MMARAS) Annual Report by the Metro Manila Development Authority

(MMDA), there had been a total of 7,319 road accidents on EDSA, 6,067

of which resulted in damage to property, 1,226 resulted in injuries, and 26

resulted in death. The average number of road accidents resulting in

property damage per day is 137, whereas the average number of road
 4

accidents resulting in non-fatal injuries is about 39 per day. EDSA, the

metro's longest and busiest thoroughfare, has an immense number of cars

passing through, increasing the possibility of a collision. According to the

MMDA data, the deadliest road accidents on EDSA frequently happen

when the road is less congested. Jaywalkers and speedy vehicles

disregard traffic signs and restrictions (Zoleta, 2022).

Road accidents in the Philippines are increasing, with fatalities

increasing from 7,938 in 2011 to 11,096 in 2021. Factors contributing to

these accidents include road impediments, pedestrians, crossings, loitering

animals, and stationary obstructions. The top five reasons for road

accidents include over speeding, irresponsible driving, overtaking too

closely, technical problems, and losing control of the vehicle. In the

National Capital Region, sideswipes and rear-enders were the most

prevalent forms of accidents. The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA)

reported nearly 58,000 road crashes in 2022, with an average of 157

incidents per day. The MMDA initiated various programs to make roads

safer, such as the re-implementation of the Motorcycle Lane in Quezon

City. The Philippine National Police Highway Patrol Group (PNP-HPG)

 5

blamed defective design and obsolete policies for road accidents, resulting

in at least 4,000 motorbike wrecks in 2023.

Road accidents can result in significant injuries, including life-

threatening ones. Impaired driving, particularly drunk driving, is a

significant cause of fatalities, with over 10,000 deaths in 2015 due to

impaired driving. Speeding is a significant factor in traffic fatalities, with

29% of all fatalities in 2021 attributed to speeding. Distracted driving, such

as using mobile phones while driving, increases the risk of crashing. This

distraction reduces a driver's ability to stay in the appropriate lane, detect

changes, and respond in time. Texting while driving is also dangerous due

to delayed reaction time and the inability to maintain appropriate lane

positions. Weather changes, such as rain, extreme heat, and fog, can

affect roads and highways, leading to slippery roads, traffic accidents, and

impaired visibility. Floods can deteriorate road layers and require

pavement reinforcement. Despite advancements in automotive technology,

car accidents continue to occur, causing wage loss, pain, suffering, and

lasting impairments.

Road accidents are common but often caused by human error, such

as over speeding, alcoholic driving, distractions, red light jumping, and

 6

ignoring safety equipment. Climate change, such as warmer temperatures,

rain, and less snow, can increase road safety difficulties. In the Philippines,

excessive speeding is a common cause due to traffic congestion and a

lack of authorized officers. Weather conditions, such as fog, water levels,

and wind speed, can also cause accidents. Poorly maintained roads

increase the likelihood of a popped tire and impair a driver's ability to brake

effectively. Cars, with their numerous moving parts, can malfunction,

making it crucial to address these issues and develop suitable adaptation

strategies.

The Philippine National Police (PNP) has launched a summit to

promote road safety and reduce accidents and fatalities. The summit

underlines the importance of investing in road safety measures and

strengthening rules. The PNP is actively engaging the public to promote

awareness of road safety issues. The summit is part of the UN's efforts to

connect with stakeholders worldwide and support the Global Plan for the

Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021–2030, which aims to decrease

road deaths and injuries by half by 2030. The Global Plan advocates for a

new vision for mobility that prioritizes safety, takes a holistic and systems-

oriented approach, and ensures all stakeholders fulfill their responsibilities.

 7

It must urgently transition from an outmoded model of drab, unclean, and

dangerous streets intended and built for automobiles to safe, green, and

vibrant areas created and built for people. The summit also emphasizes

the need to reduce air pollution, tackle climate change, reduce poverty,

and address inequities by emphasizing the safety of vulnerable road users.

The Convention was prepared and opened for signature by the

United Nations Conference on Road Traffic, held in Vienna from October 7

to November 8, 1968. The 1968 Convention on Road Signs and Signals,

which counts 66 Contracting Parties in Europe, Africa, the Middle East,

Asia, and Latin America, prescribes a harmonized system of signs and

signals based on the use of shapes, colors, and graphic symbols. This

convention also sets out the requirements for road markings and defines

the different types of markings and their colors (CLEPA Website, 2018).

The 1968 Convention on Road Signs and Signals provides over 250

commonly agreed-upon road signs and signals, road markings, and

specifications for the norms of traffic lights. It also classifies road signs into

three classes, which are danger warning, regulatory, and informative and it

describes their physical appearance to ensure visibility and legibility. It

 8

focuses on safe infrastructure, which will contribute to safer roads and

mobility (United Nations Road Safety Interventions Website, n.d.).

Bill No. 3149 or the ‘Reckless Driving Prevention Act’ seeks to make

reckless imprudence behind the wheel a more grievous offense by adding

a few more penalties to the ones already indicated in Article 365 of the

Penal Code (Tipan, 2016). The Penal Code, Article 365, on imprudence

and negligence is the law that governs vehicular accidents resulting in

damage to persons, property, or both. Due to the frequency of vehicular

incidents, judges all over the country have voiced the need to increase the

present penalties for those acts that are outright malicious, intentional,

grossly irresponsible, or unlawful, resulting in damage to property and

physical injuries or death, or both.

A car accident is classified as a traumatic event and might result in

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Emotional problems, cognitive

deficiencies, poor social connections, difficulties fulfilling work obligations,

and physical stress symptoms are the most common psychological effects

of road accidents. Additional resources, such as instructional materials,

webinars, and a therapist finder, are available from the Anxiety and

Depression Association of America (ADAA). A person can also go to the

 9

National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) to learn more

and to discover specialists that specialize in therapy regarding Post-

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). A mental health professional can assist

in processing the accident, reducing anxiety and tension, and getting back

into the regular routine. It is possible to work up to being able to drive

again and face reality with the aid of friends, family, a mental health

professional, and a little exposure (Apollon, 2019).

Road accidents are a global concern that transcends national

borders and affects the well-being of communities worldwide. The

Philippines, including the Municipality of Lian, is no exception to this

challenge. The impact of road accidents on Lian calls for a comprehensive

approach to address this issue. Conducting an annual cycle analysis of

road accidents in Lian, Batangas, is a necessity for several reasons. It

offers a data-driven approach to understanding the dynamics of road

accidents throughout the year. The residents of Lian stand to benefit

significantly from this study, as it can provide them with a sense of security

and well-being on their local roads. With the knowledge gained from this

research, local authorities can develop targeted and effective road safety

interventions and policies that address the unique challenges and

 10

characteristics of Lian, ultimately enhancing the safety of its residents and

visitors.

The Annual Cycle of Road Accidents is intricately linked to the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development. This goal has the same agenda as this

research, which is to lessen the number of accidents in society. Within this

framework, two specific targets directly address road safety. Target 3.6,

focusing on good health and well-being, aims to halve the global deaths

and injuries from road traffic crashes. Simultaneously, Target 11.2 under

sustainable cities and communities emphasizes the need to provide

access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport systems

while enhancing road safety for everyone (United Nations Development

Programme Website, 1949).

Accidents can be characterized as unforeseeable yet controllable

events in society. The causes of road deaths are varied and include factors

such as driver error, speeding, drunk driving, poor road conditions,

inadequate law enforcement, and a lack of road safety infrastructure. In

order to ensure safety, it is imperative to establish an efficient mechanism

for preventing accidents. The assessment of the annual cycle of road

 11

accidents is undertaken with the objective of generating valuable insights

to facilitate the development of focused road safety actions and policies

that can be a way to prevent and lessen road accidents. Although it

provides related information, that information cannot formulate the data

regarding the temporal pattern of road accidents in the municipality of Lian.

Aside from that, generating the annual cycle of road accidents in the said

municipality is impossible without conducting a study.

Statement of the Problem

This study generally aims to assess the annual cycle of road

accidents in the municipality of Lian, Batangas with the end goal of

providing inputs to develop targeted road safety interventions and policies

of the municipality.

Specifically, it seeks answers to the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the municipality of Lian as regards the temporal

pattern of road accidents in the last five years?

2. What are the respondents' insights on the discernible trends or

fluctuations in accident frequency?

 12

3. How do the following factors affect the annual cycle of road accidents in

Lian, Batangas in terms of:

3.1. weather condition;

3.2. holidays;

3.4. road infrastructure changes; and

3.5. others variables

4. Based on the identified high-risk periods relative to the quantified annual

cycle of road accidents, what inputs to develop targeted road safety

interventions and policies in the municipality of Lian may be proposed?

Hypothesis

The hypothesis of the study is that there is a significant relationship

(H1) between the factors and road accidents. The factors are weather

conditions, holidays, road infrastructure changes, and other variables that

have a significant effect on the annual cycle of road accidents.

Significance of the Study

 13

The study aimed to determine the Annual Cycle of Road Accidents

in Lian, Batangas. Inputs in the Development of Road Safety Interventions

and Policies. The result of this study may be beneficial to the following:

The University. University's mission statement is to produce

globally competitive leaders by providing a 21st-century learning

environment through multidisciplinary research collaboration. It may also

help the university achieve one of its goals in community partnership by

offering its professional expertise to help in transform lives and build the

nation.

The College of Arts and Sciences. This study may support the

College of Arts and Sciences in achieving its goal of providing leadership

in quality research and scientifically trained and environmentally aware

citizens. This could also help in achieving the college’s objective to hone

research enthusiasts and promote the area of research and extension by

disseminating meaningful research findings that are useful and are not

only limited to their relevant stakeholders.

The Faculty Members of the Bachelor of Science in

Criminology. This study may help the faculty members of the Bachelor of

Science in Criminology by utilizing this paper as supplemental research

 14

material in teaching. It may also increase the competency of the faculty by

serving as professional experts in the development of road safety

interventions and policies that could alleviate road accidents in Lian,

Batangas.

The Students of Bachelor of Science in Criminology Program.

This study may benefit the students by providing a basis for conducting

their empirical research relevant to road accidents. This may also enable

them to look at the benefits and impacts of the Development of Road

Safety Interventions and Policies through the lens of research.

The Municipality of Lian. This research will provide valuable

support to the Municipality of Lian in the formulation and implementation of

road safety measures and policies. The findings of this study have the

potential to assist the inhabitants of Lian in mitigating the occurrence of

accidents, thereby yielding benefits for the entire community.

The Researchers. The researchers learn to value the importance of

knowing the factors in road accidents to develop proper safety

interventions and policies. The findings of this study will help the

researchers gain a more comprehensive understanding of relevant

knowledge and identify potential enhancements for their research.

 15

The Future Researchers. This study will serve as a guide and

reference for future researchers who intend to explore along the same line

of study. This would expand additional knowledge and information in this

research since numerous data points would be learned from the study's

finding.

Scope, Delimitation, and Limitation of the Study

The main objective of this study is to determine the annual cycle of

road accidents in Lian, Batangas. It focused on the profile of the

municipality of Lian with regards to the temporal pattern of road accidents

in the last five years and on the insights of the law enforcers into the

fluctuations in accident frequency. This will determine the effects of

weather conditions, holidays, road infrastructure changes, and other

variables on the annual cycle of road accidents, which can also help

determine the inputs needed to develop road safety interventions and

policies.

The study utilized a quantitative method of research. The

respondents to the study are the law enforcers in Lian, Batangas.

The study is limited to the law enforcers in Lian, Batangas.

Purposive sampling is used in this study, with criteria for the respondents
 16

including being PNP Personnel with at least 2 years of service, Philippine

National Police Duty Traffic Investigators, and those PNP Road Safety

Officers who encode entries of all road incidents. In addition, the

researchers have no control over the responses of the respondents in

terms of venue, time, or state of mind. To mitigate the uncontrolled

variable, measures were applied in conducting proper orientation and

setting up the respondents and environment.

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of conceptual literature with the

end view of identifying the constructs of the study. Likewise, it contains the

synthesis of the literature reviewed, the theoretical and conceptual

frameworks, and the conceptual and operational definitions of terms.

Conceptual Literature

The review of conceptual literature yields four constructs used in the

analysis and interpretation of the data in the study. These constructs

include Annual Cycle of Road Accidents, Temporal Patterns and

Discernable Trends or Fluctuations in Accident Frequency, Factors

Affecting the Annual Cycle of Road Accidents and Development of Road

Safety Interventions and Policies.

Annual Cycle of Road Accidents. Road accidents occur when a

vehicle collides with another vehicle. The occurrence of these events can

be attributed to various factors, including road impediments, pedestrians,

crossings, loitering animals, or stationary obstructions such as trees or

utility poles. The common types of road accidents are vehicle rear-end

collisions, side-impact collisions, vehicle rollovers, sideswipe collisions,

 17

head-on collisions, single-car accidents, and multiple vehicle pile-ups

(Crash Test Website, n.d.).

A data report from the Land Transportation Office's Motor Vehicle

Crash Investigation Program revealed that from January 1 to July 31,

2019, there were about 65 road crash accidents in Calabarzon. The

province of Quezon had the most fatalities with 30, followed by Batangas

with 14, Cavit and Rizal with 5, and Laguna with 2. Additionally, 357

injuries were reported. Over speeding, irresponsible driving, overtaking too

closely, technical problems, and losing control of the vehicle are the top

five reasons for road accidents (Pino, 2019).

Road traffic deaths are rising in the Philippines. According to data

from the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), the number of fatalities due

to road traffic accidents increased by 39% from 2011 to 2021. The leading

cause of death among Filipinos is road traffic accidents, which also pose a

serious threat to young people. The COVID-19 pandemic likely caused the

population's decreased mobility during that year, which is why the death

toll fell in 2020 (Junio, 2023).

Sideswipes and rear-enders were by far the most prevalent forms of

accidents in the National Capital Region (NCR) last year, according to data
 18

from the 2021 Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System

(MMARAS). That's 16,395 incidents of the former and 11,039 incidents of

the latter. The MMARAS also investigates many sorts of accident

causation, although there's little value in delving into it. According to police

blotters, 51,345 of the 58,447 documented road crashes in 2021 had no

accident factors. In addition, 6,909 incidents were roughly attributed to

human error. The remainder of the amount is allocated to other variables,

such as car flaws and poor road conditions (Laurel, 2022).

In the report by Rosales (2023) the Metropolitan Manila

Development Authority (MMDA) recorded a significant number of road

crashes for the entire year. The analysis of the recent MMDA report

indicates that, during the first seven months of the year, Metro Manila

experienced nearly 211 daily road accidents. Out of the reported incidents,

a considerable portion resulted in property damage, while others were non-

fatal, with a regrettable number of fatal road crashes. In 2023, the MMDA

has implemented various initiatives to enhance road safety, including the

reinstatement of the Motorcycle Lane along Commonwealth Avenue in

Quezon City.
 19

The Philippine National Police Highway Patrol Group (PNP-HPG),

defective design and obsolete policies were to blame for road accidents

that resulted in at least 4,000 motorbike wrecks in the first four months of

2023. According to PNP-HPG data, there were 4,029 motorbike crashes

reported from January to April this year, compared to 8,342 events in

2022. A transport advocate and planner are concerned that the roads are

unsafe for drivers. The number of crashes did not include the number of

bicycles and pedestrians injured in traffic accidents (Cariaso, 2023).

Temporal Patterns and Discernable Trends or Fluctuations in

Accident Frequency. Anyone involved in a traffic incident is at risk of

suffering significant injuries, some of which may be life-threatening. One of

the most terrible parts of drunk driving accidents is that it is frequently the

occupants of the other vehicle who are critically injured or killed, rather

than the intoxicated driver. A proper accident scene evaluation is critical for

families dealing with the loss of a loved one or a victim suffering from

catastrophic injuries. Over 10,000 people died in 2015 as a result of

impaired driving, with alcohol-related accidents accounting for

approximately 16% of all fatal incidents involving children. Understanding

 20

the causes of accidents and how to handle them is critical (Ferguson,

2017).

Speeding is a significant factor in traffic fatalities, with 29% of all

fatalities in 2021 attributed to speeding. This reduces the time a driver has

to react, increases vehicle stopping distance, and limits the effectiveness

of road safety structures. The proportion of speeding-related crashes

decreased with driver age, with young male drivers in the 15-20 and 21–24

year age groups being more likely to be speeding at the time of fatal

crashes. Speeding-related deaths increased 7.9% from 2020 and were the

most deaths recorded since 2007. The percentage of deaths involving

speeding is above the historic low set in 2019, and it becomes increasingly

important for drivers involved in fatal crashes as roadway surface

conditions deteriorate (Injury Facts Website, 2023).

Distracted driving is a leading cause of road traffic crashes the world

over. One of the most common causes is the use of mobile phones while

driving. Whether that's talking on a phone, texting, checking your social

media profiles, or simply browsing, the risks of crashing rise dramatically.

A driver is distracted when they pay attention to something else while

driving. People simply cannot multi-task, especially while driving, which is

 21

considered a cognitively demanding task. Doing something else while you

are driving puts extra demands on the driver, which may reduce his or her

driving capabilities. For example, it may cause the driver to become less

observant or to make worse decisions about how to control the vehicle

safely. This lower standard of driving means that a driver is more likely to

fail to anticipate hazards, which means accidents can occur due to the

distraction. The result is that drivers using a phone to talk, text, or browse

the internet are less able to stay in the appropriate lane, detect any

changes around them, and respond in time. Drivers talking on the phone

are also more likely to exceed the speed limit and not maintain a

consistent speed. When texting, people often drive at lower speeds, but

their delayed reaction time and inability to maintain appropriate lane

positions and assess traffic conditions still make texting while driving

extremely dangerous (YOURS Website, 2009).

Weather changes significantly impact various aspects of life,

including daily commutes and work. In the Philippines, weather events can

affect roads and highways, leading to slippery roads, traffic accidents, and

impaired visibility. Rain can aggravate existing road deterioration, causing

pavement to weaken and develop more cracks. Extreme heat can cause
 22

asphalt to soften, causing rutting and buckling. Fog can also affect

visibility, making it difficult for drivers to see other vehicles and road

hazards. To prevent accidents, drivers should use low beams or turn on

fog lights when driving through foggy areas. Floods, often caused by heavy

rain, can deteriorate road layers and cause cracks over time. If flooded

areas are frequent, pavement may need reinforcement to prevent further

damage (Rua Seguridad Website, 2006).

When buying a new car, expect it to be free of flaws. However, there

may be unnoticed flaws that pose hazards on the road. Every year, many

people suffer terrible injuries because they believe their vehicle is

constructed and manufactured in such a way that it would not damage

them, only to be disappointed when a part fails and causes an accident.

Several parts may be defective due to design or manufacturing flaws,

impairing a driver's ability to brake, steer, or accelerate, resulting in a car

accident with serious injuries. In this instance, you may be able to seek

compensation for your losses from those responsible defects. A defective

product in a vehicle is one that was designed for a specific purpose but

ends up malfunctioning. For example, airbags were created to provide

passengers with extra protection during a collision. However, if the airbags

 23

fail to deploy in an accident, this could indicate a defect (Beckham et al.,

2023).

Despite advancements in automotive technology such as backup

cameras, adaptive lighting, and forward collision systems, car accidents

continue to occur. Accidents, whether mild or severe, can radically alter a

person's life and require medical attention. It can cause wage loss, pain

and suffering, and lasting impairments. There are two types of traffic

accident reasons. The first category is human error, and the second is

everything else. Rather than a lack of driving skills, decisions made while

driving are what cause most traffic accidents. In truth, human error is the

root cause of all traffic accidents. Several drivers will find themselves guilty

of some of the most common causes of traffic accidents at some point.

Raising awareness for these issues, on the other hand, can help educate

and, perhaps, inspire drivers to be more cautious on the road (Winingham,

2023).

Factors Affecting the Annual Cycle of Road Accidents. A road

accident is the worst thing that can happen to a road user, but it happens

all the time. The worst part is that we don't learn from our mistakes on the

road. Most road users are aware of the general regulations and safety
 24

precautions to take when driving, but it is their negligence that causes

accidents and wrecks. Human error is the leading cause of accidents and

crashes. Over speeding, alcoholic driving, distractions to the driver, red

light jumping, ignoring safety equipment such as seat belts and helmets,

non-adherence to lane driving, and improper overtaking are some of the

prevalent human behaviors that cause accidents (Transport Department of

Jharkhand Website, n.d.).

Every year, almost 1.24 million people die in traffic accidents around

the world. Shifting weather patterns caused by climate change, such as

warmer temperatures, more rain, and less snow, may increase road safety

difficulties. Snowfall and rainfall, for example, are commonly recognized to

limit vision and make braking more difficult, and temperatures may

influence the mode, frequency, and sorts of travel that people take. To help

better assess the costs of climate change and facilitate the development of

suitable adaptation strategies, we measured increases in US traffic

fatalities, injuries, and property damage that are projected to occur as a

result of climate change (Leard et al., 2016).

The leading causes of road accidents in Africa are drunk driving,

speeding, tiredness, negligence, failure to utilize seat belts and helmets,

 25

and failure to follow traffic regulations. Other contributory reasons included

an aging public transportation vehicle fleet, fake licenses, a lack of penalty

enforcement, and a lack of rigorous technical inspections. Among the

remedies to be adopted are improved health services for collision victims

and adherence to the African Road Safety Charter and the United Nations

Basic Conventions on Road Safety (United Nations Website, 2023).

Excessive speeding is a common cause of road accidents, and it is

also one of the leading causes of road-related deaths and injuries in the

Philippines. It is not only because there are no authorized officers to

apprehend speeders, but also because some drivers are unaware of the

usual speed limit law in the Philippines. Because of traffic congestion in the

Philippines, some vehicles may overspeed. Drivers become impatient as a

result of severe traffic and lengthy hours on the road, and when they have

the option to drive faster to arrive at their destination on time, they do so

(Kim, 2019).

Car accidents that are not the result of human error frequently result

from weather conditions, which affect tire traction and cause vehicles to

slide off the road or collide with other objects or vehicles. Fog, water levels,

and wind speed can also be the cause of weather-related accidents.

 26

Poorly maintained roads increase the likelihood of a popped tire and impair

a driver's ability to brake effectively. Cars are made up of hundreds of parts

that work together to keep them running safely and smoothly. However,

with so many moving parts, it's not uncommon for them to go berserk and

malfunction (Winingham, 2023).

Development of Road Safety Interventions and Policies. Safe

road interventions are recommended for adoption, including integrated

public transport, roadside and central barrier systems, medians,

infrastructure to support appropriate operational speed for road users,

roundabouts, grade separation and interventions to reduce exposure to

risk at intersections, pedestrian footpaths, and crossings, separated

bicycle and motorcycle facilities, and traffic signs and line marking. Some

of these are highly effective, with up to a 70 or 80 percent reduction in

fatalities and severe injuries. A variety of road user-based interventions

have been implemented over many years, with effective examples

including extensive supervised on-road practice and/or graduated licensing

systems as part of the driver-licensing system, increased age for driving

license eligibility, hazard perception training and testing, public education,

and campaigns as part of an integrated strategy, enforcement, penalties,

 27

alcohol interlocks, fatigue and speed monitoring, and increased helmet

wearing rates (Global Road Safety Facility Website, 2006).

Management of risk exposure to land use is one of the main areas of

prevention strategies. Exposure to possible road traffic injuries has

increased in developing countries, owing to fast motorization, bad road

conditions, rapid population expansion, a lack of safety measures in cars,

crowded roads, inadequate road maintenance, and a lack of police

enforcement. Promoting effective land use patterns and creating quicker,

safer routes for vulnerable road users can lessen their vulnerability.

Providing visible, crashworthy, and smart automobiles Creating more

crashworthy motorized vehicles is an important intervention in developing

nations where automobile safety standards are laxer than in industrialized

countries (Worley, 2006).

The Philippine Road Safety Action Plan is constructed on five pillars,

each with its own set of tactics for making roads safer. The first pillar, road

safety management, emphasizes collecting high-quality data, improving

research, involving stakeholders, promoting multimodal public

transportation and land-use planning, and advocating for adherence to

applicable international agreements and the adoption of global best

 28

practices in road safety. The second pillar, safer roads, addresses

infrastructure safety in design, building, operation, and maintenance, with a

focus on meeting the safety and mobility needs of vulnerable road users.

The third pillar focuses on safer automobiles by improving vehicle

registration and inspection procedures and ensuring compliance with

harmonized vehicle norms and regulations. The fourth pillar, safer road

users, places an emphasis on raising public knowledge and support for

road safety. It recognizes the role of media and communications and

emphasizes the importance of stricter enforcement of road safety

legislation. Finally, the fifth pillar, post-crash response, focuses on

enhancing access to pre-hospital care, trauma care, and rehabilitation for

road crash victims (Junio, 2023).

The Philippine National Police Public Information Office (PIO), the

two officials met on Wednesday at the PNP headquarters in Camp Crame

to promote awareness of road safety issues and explore strategies to

reduce road accidents and fatalities. To ensure safer roads for all, the

summit underlined the significance of investing in road safety measures

and strengthening road safety rules. The Philippine National Police's

efforts to boost law enforcement and improve road infrastructure were

 29

recognized, and the PNP was actively engaging the public to promote

awareness of road safety issues. The conference is part of the UN's

continuous efforts to connect with stakeholders throughout the world and

support the UN's Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety

2021–2030, which aims to decrease road deaths and injuries by half by

2030 (Caliwan, 2023).

The Global Plan for the United Nations Decade of Action for Road

Safety 2021–2030 provides a framework for policymakers to develop

national and local road safety policies. It advocates for a new vision for

mobility that prioritizes safety, takes a holistic and systems-oriented

approach, and ensures that all stakeholders fulfill their responsibilities. It

must urgently transition from an outmoded model of drab, unclean, and

dangerous streets intended and built for automobiles to safe, green, and

vibrant areas created and built for people. Many other facets of public

health and development rely on mobility. We can cut air pollution and

tackle climate change by making walking and cycling safer. We can reduce

poverty and address inequities such as access to jobs, schools, and

gender equality by emphasizing the safety of vulnerable road users such

as walkers and cyclists (Taylor, 2023).

 30

Research Literature

The following studies were reviewed because these contain findings

that are relevant to the present study:

Rodriguez et al. (2023) assess the factors that affect road traffic

accidents and to determine the significant relationships between causal

factors and accidents. The methodology used was the qualitative method.

The researchers interviewed a police officer in charge of the road traffic

accident to know how data is being collected during road traffic accidents

in the Philippines. Based on the hypothesis testing, there is a significant

relationship between the road character and the vehicle's type. The driver's

gender has a significant relationship with the type of vehicle. Therefore, the

hypothesis testing for the relationship between the vehicle factor and user

demographic is accepted. The use of regression to the factors was found

to have a clear influential factor in road traffic accidents. The factors found

to be significant are the driver's age, gender, vehicle age, road character,

road lane character, traffic condition, type of vehicles, driving experience,

and time of accidents. These are the main factors that influence road traffic

accidents.
 31

Kelacha (2021) was concerned with the assessment of traffic safety

problems and the awareness of road users in Shashemene town. The

study used questionnaires that were designed and distributed to those

selected as a sample in the study area to identify the road users'

awareness. This enables the researcher to select participants, including

pedestrians, drivers, passengers, and other stakeholders like traffic police

and transport authorities. In general, road traffic accidents are causing a

high impact on human life and the economy in Shashemene town,

especially in those areas selected as black spots.

The major contributing factors for road accidents in the study are

excessive speed, inefficiency of drivers skills, failures to give priority to

pedestrians, drivers not respecting the right hand rule, pedestrians not

respecting traffic rules, drivers not respecting other road users, inadequate

pedestrian awareness on traffic safety problems, poor road safety

furniture, the unavailability of sufficient walkways, narrowness of lane, lack

of speed limit, and due to vehicle condition. The study also identified the

problem of underreported traffic accidents, especially injuries caused by

motorcycles. The problems behind not reporting the traffic accident were

the interference of government politics into the reporting bodies, the poor
 32

recording method of traffic accidents, the lack of good relations with those

who do on the field and prepare reports in the office, and the lack of

computer database management to record all the accidents.

Topolšek et al. (2019) evaluate the effect of the Slovenian

educational program “I still drive, but I cannot walk”. The questionnaire was

designed to evaluate the effect of certain control variables on behavioral

factors. The sampling strategy was intended to gather data from two

different driver groups, which consisted of people who had participated in

the road safety educational program and young drivers who did not attend

the education program. The results of a multi-group analysis indicated that

the relationships between violations and accidents are different between

the two groups of drivers who participated in the program and those who

did not, indicating that the drivers who participated in the program may

cause fewer violations resulting in accidents. Results also indicate that the

relationships between errors and accidents do not present significant

differences between the groups.

From all the above, it may be concluded that the program had a

positive effect on the behavior of young people who participated in it,

meaning that they may ultimately be more responsible drivers and thus
 33

cause fewer accidents. These results show that more personal contact

based on empathy, emotions, and mutual understanding may be more

efficient in increasing awareness among young drivers. Ultimately, this

study represents a positive methodology for evaluating a road safety

educational program and, as such, provides a significant scientific

contribution.Velasco et al. (2021) explored the relationship of multiple

factors on the criticality of road traffic accidents in CALABARZON

Philippines. In this study, the researcher analyzed 19,202 reported hospital

admissions caused by traffic accidents in CALABARZON from 2016 to

2018. However, several entries were incomplete, and only 5384 completed

entries were utilized in Calamba, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon.

This study investigated relevant factors that affect the criticality level of

road traffic accidents. Significant factors that affect the criticality of road

traffic accidents were identified to be driver age, driving time, driving day,

and province. Results showed that there is no significant difference

between male and female drivers in the criticality of the accident. This

study breaks the current stigma that female drivers are more likely to have

a critical accident than male drivers. However, the driver’s age proved to

have a significant effect on the criticality of the accident. The regression

 34

analysis verified that the criticality of the road traffic accident increased as

the driver’s age increased.

Agustin et al. (2023) determined the correlation of factors that

affected road traffic accidents on this highway. The study utilized a mixed-

method research design involving both quantitative and qualitative data.

The study was conducted in Barangay Sampaloc, Apalit, Pampanga in

which the target location under study was the MacArthur Highway, also

known as the Manila North Road. The paper concluded that driver

demographics, weather conditions, and road infrastructure were the most

common factor why many people have been in a road traffic accident. With

this, an improved driver education and awareness campaign should be

imposed and practiced, mostly with male drivers ages 29–54. To prevent

such accidents, real-time monitoring, and driver education on adjusting

behavior based on the time of day could also be effective. Overall, the

study provides valuable insights that can inform the development of

effective measures to prevent road traffic accidents on MacArthur

Highway.

Mohamed et al. (2023) determined the prevalence and factors

associated with traffic-related incidents in Hargeisa City. A cross-sectional

 35

study was conducted between January and March 2022, utilizing a mixed

approach involving quantitative and qualitative research approaches.

Cluster sampling and purposive sampling were employed to select drivers

and government officials, respectively. The study revealed that 28.17% of

public and private car drivers in Hargeisa reported involvement in a road

traffic accident within the previous two years. Key informant interviews

provided valuable insights into the specific causes of RTAs in Hargeisa

City. Poor road conditions, inadequate vehicle maintenance, insufficient

road signs and traffic lights, unsafe driving behaviors, failure to wear seat

belts, and distracted driving were identified as significant contributors to

road traffic accidents. Additionally, certain vehicle types, including khat,

water trucks, buses, Vitz, and cargo vehicles, were found to be more

commonly involved in accidents.

Raga et al. (2022) describe the magnitude of motorcycle accidents

and associated factors among commercial motorcycle drivers. A

community-based cross-sectional study design and a structured

questionnaire were used to collect the data. The participants were

motorcycle drivers from April 1 to 22, 2021. The magnitude of the

motorcycle accident was very high. Driving at speeds greater than 60

 36

km/h, driving at night and during the day, using a cell phone while driving,

having a history of punishment, drinking alcohol, and having a license were

all risk factors for road traffic accidents among commercial motorcycle

drivers. On the other hand, ownership of a motorcycle, having a driver's

license, driving experience, and awareness of rules and regulations were

all negatively associated. Continuous awareness creation and intense

training should be given, and the licenses of the drivers should be checked

for their originality. Controlling the speed limit, the number of passengers

served at once, mobile phone use while driving, and enforcing all traffic

rules and regulations require special attention. In order to provide the

precautionary measures that could proactively prevent accidents from

happening.

Puratmaja et al. (2017) assess motorcycle risk behavior among Thai

students at Khon Kaen University. The research was conducted a cross-

sectional questionnaire of Thai students at Khon Kaen University. The

respondents to the research are students at Khon Kaen University. This

study shows that sex and riding history were significantly associated with

motorcycle risk behavior. The four most common unsafe behaviors of a

Thai student riding a motorcycle are risk factors for crashes. Nevertheless,
 37

improving knowledge is an important factor in decreasing risky motorcycle

driving behavior. Additionally, the need to provide intervention programs,

promotion, and awareness related to student safety riding behavior could

be recommended based on this information.

Synthesis

The review of conceptual literature has provided the present study

with some constructs that helped build up the conceptual framework of the

study. These constructs were drawn from the theories, concepts, and

ideas of researchers, scholars and critics. From these insights, the

researchers drew out four general concepts which, in themselves, were

constructs such as annual cycle of road accidents, temporal patterns and

discernable trends or fluctuations in accident frequency, factors affecting

the annual cycle of road accidents and development of road safety

interventions and policies.

With reference to the first construct, the insights of Crash Test

Website, Pino, Junio, Laurel, Rosales, and Cariaso provide the necessary

content on the Annual Cycle of Road Accidents, which is all about the
 38

problems faced by the Philippine National Police Highway Patrol Group

while facing this road accident. The insights and discussion on the

Philippine Statistics Authority were the structural bases for the first

construct.

Relative to the second construct, which is centered on Temporal

Patterns and Discernable Trends or Fluctuations in Accident Frequency,

concepts cited by the Ferguson, Injury Facts Website, YOURS Website,

Rua Seguridad Website, Viles, and Winingham show their connection to

the study. The selected websites afforded the researchers necessary data

to show the factors that can affect the increase of road accidents. The

third construct made use of the Transport Department of Jharkhand

Website, Leard, United Nations Website, Kim, and Winingham insights on

providing the necessary content on the Factors Affecting the Annual Cycle

of Road Accidents. The significant discussion is about the factors that can

cause road accidents every year.

Finally, about the fourth and final construct, the Global Road Safety

Facility Website, Worley, Junio, Caliwan, and Taylor put ideas on the

Development of Road Safety Interventions and Policies, affording insightful

discussion and an outline for understanding the meaning of preventing

 39

strategies for road accidents. Likewise, World Health Organization insights

on recognizing the role of media and communications emphasize the

importance of stricter enforcement of road safety legislation. Additional

concepts in the discussion on promoting land use patterns and creating

quicker, safer routes for vulnerable road users can lessen their

vulnerability.

Rodriguez et al. (2021) study concords with the present study on the

account that both dealt with road accidents in the Philippines. The

methodology used in both studies was the qualitative method. However,

they differ in the sense that the previous study underscored the factors that

affect road traffic accidents and determined the significant relationships

between causal factors and accidents, while the present study highlighted

the factors affecting the annual cycle of road accidents. Kelacha (2021)

accord with the present study on the account that both dealt with road

users’ awareness in a town. However, they differ in the sense that the

previous study centered on the assessment of traffic safety problems and

the awareness of road users, while the present study focused on the

development of road safety interventions and policies.

 40

Topolšek et al. (2019) study is in consonance with the present study

because both dealt with the different factors or variables that may affect

the annual cycle of road accidents. However, they differ in the sense that

the previous study emphasized the effect of road safety educational

programs on drivers' errors, violations, and accidents, while the present

study concentrated on the possible road safety interventions and policies

to be proposed in the locale of the study.

Velasco et al. (2021) study runs parallel to the present study owing

to the fact that both dealt with significant factors that affect the criticality of

road traffic accidents and may affect the annual cycle of road accidents.

However, they differ because the previous study emphasized driver age,

driving time, driving day, and province, while the present study

underscored that there is no significant difference between male and

female drivers in the criticality of the accident.

Agustin et al. (2023) study is in congruence with the present study in

the sense that both dealt with the correlation of factors that affected road

traffic accidents. However, they differ in the sense that the previous study

focused on the driver education and awareness campaign that should be

imposed and practiced, mostly with male drivers ages 29–54, while the
 41

present study centered on the development of effective measures to

prevent road traffic accidents on MacArthur Highway. Mohamed et al.

(2023) study is in harmony with the present study on the account that both

dealt with specific factors contributing to road traffic accidents, such as

unsafe driving behaviors and vehicle-related factors. However, they differ

because the previous study concentrated on accidents among commercial

drivers and was conducted in a different location, with a specific emphasis

on motorcycle risk behavior, while the present study focused on the

various contributing factors, including poor road conditions, vehicle

maintenance, road signage, and specific driving behaviors, shedding light

on the challenges and issues related to road safety in the area.

Raga et al. (2022) study is analogous with the present study

because both dealt with road safety interventions and policies that

emphasize the importance of awareness and training to mitigate accidents.

However, they differ in the sense that the previous study highlighted risk

factors associated with accidents specific to their target groups,

highlighting unique challenges and prevention strategies, while the present

study stressed the magnitude of motorcycle accidents and associated

factors specifically among commercial motorcycle drivers.

 42

Puratmaja et al. (2017) study bears semblance with the present

study due to the fact that both dealt with motorcycle-related behavior,

specifically focusing on risk behavior among certain groups. However, they

differ because the previous study emphasized that the study addresses

different populations and contexts, which may result in varying risk factors

and recommendations for intervention programs, while the present study

puts emphasis on the significance of knowledge and awareness in

mitigating risky motorcycle behavior. It offers unique insights and

recommendations tailored to their respective groups, emphasizing their

individual characteristics and needs.

The research reviewed tends to point out that all of them are related

in as many ways to the present study’s viewpoint. In light of the differences

among the theses and dissertations reviewed, it can be safely manifested

that this study does not in any way duplicate earlier research.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the study is hinged on two theories,

Causal Theory and Behavioral Theory.

The Causal Theory seeks to elucidate the fundamental reasons and

contributing elements that give rise to incidents of traffic collisions. The

 43

process entails a comprehensive examination of multiple aspects, which

include road infrastructure, vehicle conditions, environmental variables,

and human behavior, in order to ascertain the primary and secondary

reasons contributing to accidents. This theory helps policymakers, law

enforcement, and safety advocates come up with more effective ways to

reduce car accidents by looking at the causes and effects of these

connections. By addressing the underlying determinants and implementing

proactive interventions, this framework ultimately contributes to the

improvement of road safety and the preservation of human lives (Jamroz,

2008).

The application of causal theory to the annual cycle of road

accidents centers on understanding the specific factors that contribute to

accidents' occurrence, which is necessary for their prevention, which

makes them extremely relevant in the context of accidents. There are two

primary trends in theory regarding causal accidents: deterministic theories

and probabilistic theories. These theories suggest that accidents are not

isolated incidents but rather are interconnected with a series of

occurrences. The study of human factors is a significant area of research

inquiry. According to estimates, a significant proportion of accidents in

 44

many sectors can be attributed to human factors. There exist two distinct

methodologies for analyzing human factors, namely the causal approach

and the systemic approach. The causal approach to accident analysis is

based on the idea that careful examination of individual accidents and the

events that preceded them is the only way to gain a thorough

understanding of accidents and their underlying causes. Finally, it is

imperative to conduct thorough research on the various issues arising from

new cars and parts of transport infrastructure, as well as their impact on

road user behavior and safety, to develop effective road safety

interventions and policies.

The Behavioral Theory in the realm of road accidents centers on

comprehending the influence of human behavior on the occurrence or

prevention of traffic incidents. This study investigates the impact of drivers'

decision-making, attitudes, and reactions to diverse road conditions, as

well as their interactions with fellow road users, on the likelihood of

accidents. This theory seeks to enhance interventions and educational

initiatives that foster safer driving practices, mitigate hazardous behaviors

like speeding or distracted driving, and enhance overall road safety by

 45

addressing the human elements implicated in accidents through an

analysis of these behavioral features (Jamroz, 2008).

The application of behavioral theory to the annual cycle of road

accidents centers on comprehending the role of human behavior in the

varying patterns of accidents observed over the course of a year. This

study examines several elements, including driver behavior, psychology,

and decision-making, in relation to the dynamic nature of situations and

circumstances. For instance, it investigates the heightened propensity for

risk-taking during holiday seasons and the impact of weariness and

attention on driving performance. This theory seeks to analyze behavioral

elements in order to devise interventions and methods that can effectively

enhance driving safety, increase awareness, and mitigate road accidents

throughout the year. It places particular emphasis on the significance of

human actions and choices in preventing accidents.

Conceptual Framework

Below is the conceptual paradigm of the conceptual framework of

the study. This used the system approach which incorporated by Input,

Thru-put, and Output as a framework.

Input Thru-put Output

 The profile of the
municipality of
Lian as regards
the temporal  Data Gathering
pattern of road - Questionnaire
 46

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Conceptual Framework

Figure One shows the input of the study. This frame includes the

profile of the municipality of Lian as regards the temporal pattern of road

accidents in the last five years, insights on the discernible trends or

fluctuations in accident frequency, and the factors that affect the annual

cycle of road accidents.

Frame Two is the thru-put of the study, which includes the gathering

of the data, presentation of data, analysis of data, interpretation of data,

and tabulation of data.

Frame Three stands as the output of the study which is the

Development of Road Safety Interventions and Policies in Lian, Batangas.

 47

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined conceptually and/or operationally for

a better understanding of this study:

Accidents. The term refers to an unexpected event, typically

sudden in nature and associated with injury, loss, or harm (Anderson,

2023). As used within the context of this study, the term means to an

unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally.

Distracted Driving. The term denotes any non-driving activity that a

driver engages in while behind the wheel (Garrison, 2000). Operationally,

the term refers to driving while doing another activity that takes the driver’s

attention away from driving.

Drunk Driving. The term pertains to driving under the influence, or

impaired driving, which refers to drinking alcohol and then operating a

motor vehicle (Juergens, 2023). In the study, the term was used to mean

driving under the influence of alcohol or driving while intoxicated.

PNP-HPG stands for Philippine National Police - Highway Patrol

Group. The term pertains to the special unit of the Philippine National

Police responsible for ensuring road safety and security, reducing crime

incidents on highways, and promoting efficient traffic flow (Isla, 2023). In

 48

the study, the term is used to mean that it is a unit responsible for ensuring

road safety and reducing crime incidents on highways.

Philippine Road Safety Action Plan (PRSAP). The term is used to

mean a comprehensive document that serves as a roadmap for road

safety in the country (De Leon, 2023). As used in the context of this study,

the term suggests a comprehensive and strategic plan that aims to reduce

road traffic accidents and improve road safety throughout the Philippines.

Road Accident. The term is used to mean an accident that took

place on the road between two or more objects, one of which must be any

kind of moving vehicle (Hamisi & Juma, 2019). As used in the context of

this study, the term suggests any incident that involves a vehicle or

vehicles on a road or highway that results in damage, injury, or death.

Road Condition. The term means the state and characteristics of

the road surface, considering weather, traffic, maintenance, and

construction factors (Patel, 2023). Operationally, the term is used to refer

to the physical state of a road, including its surface, structure, and other

relevant features such as drainage and safety features, as well as the

overall quality and condition of the roads that motorists and travelers

encounter.
 49

Road Safety. The term refers to the methods used to prevent road

accidents and to protect road users such as pedestrians, cyclists, bikers,

and other vehicle passengers and drivers from being injured or killed on

the road (Menonimus, 2023). Operationally, the term is used to refer to

various strategies such as educating road users on the proper use of

roads, improving road infrastructure, enforcing traffic laws, and promoting

safe driving behaviors.

Speeding. The term denotes the act of driving a vehicle faster than

its legally allowed speed limit (Winingham, 2023). As used within the

context of this study, the term means driving beyond the posted speed limit

or driving too fast for the road's conditions.

Weather Condition. The term means slippery roads from rain,

snow, or ice, fog, water levels, and wind speed may contribute to weather-

related accidents (Winingham, 2023). Operationally, the term is used to

refer to a significant role in causing or contributing to road accidents, as

they can affect visibility, road surface conditions, and driving behavior.
50
 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research methodology in terms of the

research design, sampling design, respondents of the study, data-

gathering instruments, data-gathering procedure, and statistical treatment

of data.

Research Design

This study employed a descriptive quantitative approach in research

to measure the factors that affects the annual cycle of road accidents in

Lian, Batangas. With reference to quality principles, the study adhered to

Frambach et al.’s Quality Criteria in Quantitative Research (2013) which

underscored the truth value of the evidence, applicability of evidence,

consistency of evidence, and neutrality of evidence. Additionally,

descriptive studies examine a population, organization, or nation's

features, problems within a unit, or differences in attributes or practices

between institutions (Siedlecki, 2020).

Quantitative research gathers a range of numeric data. The

collection of quantitative information allows researchers to conduct simple

to extremely sophisticated statistical analyses that aggregate the data,

 51

show relationships among the data, or compare aggregated data.

Quantitative research includes questionnaires, structured observations,

experiments, and stands (Coghlan et al., 2014).

In this study, a quantitative approach was utilized. It uses surveys as

a means of data collection to answer questions concerning the annual

cycle of road accidents in Lian, Batangas. This type of research method is

the most appropriate way to determine the inputs needed to develop road

safety interventions and policies.

Sampling Design and the Subjects/Respondents

The respondents were the law enforcers of Lian, Batangas in charge

of the records regarding the annual cycle of road accidents. The

researchers used purposive sampling, also known as selective or

subjective sampling. The qualifying criteria to select a respondent are

being PNP Personnel with at least 2 years of service, Philippine National

Police Duty Traffic Investigators, and those PNP Road Safety Officers who

encode entries of all road incidents. Purposive sampling is the deliberate

choice of informants based on their ability to explain a certain theme, idea,

or event (Robinson, 2014). It is a sampling technique wherein researchers

 52

select participants based on the profession that is connected to road

accidents.

Data Gathering Instrument

The study used a quantitative research approach to generate data

for the study. The data gathering instrument includes the use of survey

questionnaires.

Questionnaire.

Construction. The researchers divided the questionnaire into three

(3) parts. Part I aimed to get the profile of Lian with regards to the temporal

pattern of road accidents. Part II aimed to know the insights on the

discernible trends or fluctuations in accident frequency. Part III, on the

other hand, aimed to determine the factors that affect the annual cycle of

road accidents.

Validation. The Criminology Instructor or Professor validated the

researcher-made questionnaire. After the validation process, the

developed questionnaire was administered to the respondents. The

 53

responses from the respondents were used in the data-gathering

procedure.

Administration. Prior to distribution, permission from the Chief of

Police under the Lian Municipal Police Station was sought, and the

distribution of questionnaires involved certain steps, which were

considered. The administration of questionnaires involved certain

elements, which were considered. This includes the place of the survey,

the sample targeted, and the authority from whom permissions need to be

sought. Discussing the entire process of data gathering and ensuring strict

observance of the ethical considerations of respondents. This required the

introduction of the researchers and the research institution’s name, the

subjects on which views are to be taken, the information about the

anticipated time required for the survey and directions to be followed, the

presentation of the questionnaire to the respondent, the clarification of the

questions along with the instructions in cases wherein the respondents

face any difficulty in understanding items, noting on the back of the sheets

any questions the respondents had about the items or any comments or

remarks concerning the questionnaire, and the expression of gratitude to

the respondents when they have answered the questionnaire.

 54

Scoring Responses. To determine the factors that affect the annual

cycle of road accidents, the study used the Likert Scale.

Likert Rating Scale

Option Scale/Range Verbal Interpretation

5 4.50 -5.00 Strongly Disagree
4 3.50 - 4.49 Agree
3 2.50 - 3.49 Neutral
2 1.50 - 2.49 Disagree
1 1.00 - 1.49 Strongly Disagree

The raw scores can only be interpreted through analysis based

on the given mean and standard deviation, whereas the higher the

score, the greater the factors that affect the annual cycle of road

accidents.

In scoring the self-made questionnaire to measure the factors

that affect the annual cycle of road accidents, the scores were

categorized into two (2) levels: high and low. In scoring the overall

factors that affect the annual cycle of road accidents, scores ranged

from 3.50 to 5.00 as a high level and 1.00 to 2.49 as a low level.

Statistical Treatment of Data

To interpret the data collected, the following statistical tools were

used to answer the research question:

 55

Frequency. This was used to determine the occurrences of values

within the profile of the municipality of Lian as regards to the temporal

pattern of road accidents in the last five years.

Percentage. This was used to determine the degree of the frequency

concerning the whole response in a condensed manner.

Weighted Mean. This was applied in identifying the factors that affect the

annual cycle of road accidents.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is about identifying, describing, and explaining

patterns. The researchers utilized the significant phases for data

analysis. The first is the creation of a codebook phase. A codebook is a

written record that describes the process by which survey researchers

convert their verbal data into numerical data. No matter the response

rate, after they had the pile of completed questionnaires, the

researchers reduced their data into manageable and analyzed portions.

The ability of the quantitative approach to represent and condense vast

amounts of data into numbers allowed researchers to describe them,

which is a great advantage.

 56

Additionally, each question received a brief variable name or

label to translate response choices into numerical values. The second

is the data entry phase. Since data entry mistakes can compromise

study results, the researchers took care to ensure that all their data was

entered accurately. The phase of pattern identification is covered in the

third stage. The researchers only discussed patterns pertaining to one

variable in this form. Frequency distributions and central tendency

measurements are part of the univariate analysis. One technique to

summarize the distribution of answers to a single survey question is to

use a frequency distribution. Central tendency measures are an

additional type of univariate analysis that survey researchers use for

single variables. Measures of central tendency can be taken for

variables at any level of measurement. There are three measures of

central tendency: modes, medians, and means. Though it is used for

interval or ratio variables whose distribution contains outliers or

extreme scores that would skew the mean higher than the true center

of the distribution, the median is the appropriate measure of central

tendency for ordinal-level variables.

 57

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