COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Short Note of All 15 Exit Exam Courses

Based on the Blue Print

For 4th Year Students

Compiled By: Course Teachers of DEEL

June, 2023

Bonga, Ethiopia
 Table of Contents
1. Listening Skills ....................................................................................................................1
2. Spoken English .....................................................................................................................10
3. Advanced Speech .................................................................................................................20
4. Reading Skills ......................................................................................................................28
5. Sophomore English ..............................................................................................................35
6. Advanced Writing Skills ......................................................................................................45
7. Grammar in Use ...................................................................................................................57
8. Introduction to Language and Linguistics ............................................................................73
9. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................90
10. Translation and interpretation ............................................................................................101
11. Fundamentals of literature ..................................................................................................110
12. Literary Theory& Criticism ...............................................................................................122
13. Editing ................................................................................................................................134
14. Public Relations..................................................................................................................139
15. Research and Report Writing .............................................................................................149

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 1. Listening Skills

1.1 Hearing vs. Listening

HEARING
LISTENING

Hearing is the act of perceiving sound and

Listening is the act of hearing a sound
receiving sound waves or vibrations through your
and understanding what you hear.
ear.

Listening Requires concentration so that Hearing is one of the five senses and it just
your brain processes meaning from words happens all the time – whether you like it or
and sentences. not – unless you have a hearing problem

Listening leads to learning. Hearing simply happens.

Listening uses different senses, like the Hearing is a skill where you use your ears only.
sense of hearing, seeing, or sense of touch. It is one of the five senses.

Listening is a skill that lets the sound you

Hearing is an involuntary act where you simply
hear go through your brain to process the
receive vibrations through your ears.
meaning of it.

Psychological Physiological

Conscious level Subconscious level

Concentration is required Concentration is not required

1.2 Listening Characteristics

There are five key elements of active listening:
1.2.1 Pay attention
Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognize that
nonverbal communication also "speaks" loudly. Look at the speaker directly. Put aside distracting
thoughts. Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. "Listen" to the speaker's body
language. Refrain from side conversations when listening in a group setting.
1.2.2 Show that you are listening
Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention. Nod occasionally. Smile and
use other facial expressions. Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting. Encourage
the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like ―Yes‖ and ―Aha‖.
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1.2.3 Provide feedback
Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. As a listener,
your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you to reflect what is being said
and ask questions. Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is" and
"Sounds like you are saying" are great ways to reflect back. Ask questions to clarify certain
points. "What do you mean when you say", "Is this what you mean?" Summarize the speaker's
comments periodically.
1.2.4 Defer judgment
Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding of the
message. Allow the speaker to finish. Don't interrupt with counter arguments.
1.2.5 Respond appropriately
Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. You are gaining information and
perspective. You add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise putting him or her down. Be
candid, open, and honest in your response. Assert your opinions respectfully. Treat the other
person as s/he would want to be treated.
1.3 Characteristics of Effective and Ineffective Listening

EFFECTIVE LISTENING INEFFECTIVE LISTENING

Listener maintains positive posture; Non-Verbal Listener looks bored,
avoids distracting mannerisms; keeps Behavior uninterested, or judgmental;
attention focused on speaker; maintains avoids eye contact; displays
eye contact; nods and smiles when distracting mannerisms (doodles,
appropriate plays with a paper clip, etc.)
Listener keeps focus of her comments Listener shifts focus of attention
on the speaker: "When that happened Focus of to himself: "When something like
what did you do?" Attention that happened to me, I . . . "
Listener accepts ideas and feelings: Listener fails to accept speaker's
"That's an interesting idea; can you say Acceptance ideas and feelings: "I think it
more about it? would have been
better to . . . "
Listener empathizes: "So when that Listener fails to empathize: "I
happened, you felt angry." Empathy don't see why you felt that . . . "
Listener probes in a helpful way (but Listener fails to probe into an
does not cross examine): "Could you tell area, to
me follow up on an idea or feeling
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more about that? Why did you feel that Probing
way? Listener follows up: "A few
minutes ago you said that . . . "
Listener paraphrases to guarantee that Listener fails to check the
she has understood correctly and to accuracy of communication by
assure speaker that this is so Paraphrasing restating in his own words
important statements made by
the speaker
Listener summarizes the progress of the Listener fails to summarize
conversation from time to time Summarizing
Listener broadens the range of ideas by Listener narrows the range of
suggesting (or asking the speaker for) a alternatives by suggesting one
number of alternatives Advice "correct" course of action

1.4 Strategies for Effective Listening

1. Be open-minded: The speaker and the listener should be open-minded.

2. Control Emotions: While listening, it is important to keep emotions in control. Neither
the speaker nor the listener should react impulsively.
3. Listen for the gist or the central theme: The listener should not stress only on facts and
must listen for the gist or the central theme of what the speaker says.
4. Concentrate on the non-verbal cues: The listener must concentrate on the non-verbal
cues of the speaker in addition to the content of what is being said.
5. Attention to implied content: The speaker may make certain presumptions about the
knowledge of the listener and his/ her familiarity with the subject being discussed. The
listener must pay attention to such implied content in the message and ask for necessary
clarifications wherever required.
6. Make a note of the major points: A good listener takes notes. It is difficult to remember
everything that a speaker communicates, so make a note of the major points, key words,
etc., as this will help you retain information for future use.
7. Feedback: Feedback is essential to keep the communication process going: A good
listener gives immediate feedback in the form of queries, clarifications or requests for extra
information.

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 8. Maintain eye contact: Maintain eye contact with the speaker to show interest and
attentiveness. The listener should have the right body language to indicate his/her
attentiveness, understanding and agreement with the speaker‘s ideas.
9. Avoid distractions: The listener should try to avoid or eliminate distractions.
10. Understand the speaker‘s point of view: Try to understand the speaker‘s point of view
and empathize with him/her.

1.5 Qualities of a Good Listener:

A good listener is one who overcomes all the barriers, which hinder listening. (S)he makes
conscious attempts to keep the communication happening. Given below are some characteristics
of a good listener.

A. Proficient: A good listener has good command over language in which the communication is
taking place, whether it is English or some other language. (S)he is able to guess the meanings of
unfamiliar words from the context or sometimes (s)he clarifies the meanings from the speaker by
asking questions.
B. Knowledgeable: To be able to understand a talk, one needs to have background knowledge
about the topic. (S)he does not jump to conclusions and accept or reject the speaker without any
reason. (S)he is prudent and knowledgeable.

C. Active: An effective listener involves actively in listening to anybody. (S)he is critical about
speaker‘s‘ thoughts and ideas. An effective listener involves himself in thinking, evaluating the
ideas and taking notes.

D. Composed: An effective listener is never in a hurry to know what the speaker is going to say.
He is cool, composed and quiet. S/he waits patiently till the speaker completes his talk and
evaluates the speech. Only then, he forms an opinion about the speech.
In addition to all these an effective listener:
i) Does not sit too close or too far from the speaker;
ii) Does not sit close to air conditioners or any such equipment which may disturb

1.6 How to Listen Effectively?

1. Stop Talking – Be Silent
2. Show Interest
3. Empathize
4. Ask Questions
5. Maintain Eye Contact

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6. Take notes
7. Listen Creatively
8. Put Your Entirety
9. Send feedback
10. Avoid or eliminate distraction
11. Try to gather information about the topic to develop interest and familiarity.

1. LISTENING STRATEGIES
Two processes are involved in listening. Top-down listening uses background knowledge and
contextualize words to aid comprehension. Bottom-up listening uses sounds, words, and other
small units to create meaning. These processes are complementary; listening for only the big
picture but not the details can be as ineffective as trying to understand every single word your
lecturer says.
2.1 Top-down/Using background Knowledge
Do you ever get your students to predict the content of a listening activity beforehand, maybe
using information about the topic or situation, pictures, or key words? If so, you are already
helping them to develop their top-down processing skills, by encouraging them to use their
knowledge of the topic to help them understand the content. This is an essential skill given that, in
a real-life listening situation, even advanced learners are likely to come across some unknown
vocabulary. By using their knowledge of context and co-text, they should either be able to guess
the meaning of the unknown word, or understand the general idea without getting distracted by it.
Other examples of common top-down listening activities include putting a series of pictures or
sequence of events in order to listening to conversations and identifying where they take place,
reading information about a topic then listening to find whether or not the same points are
mentioned, or inferring the relationships between the people involved.
2.2 Bottom-up/ Listening for Main Ideas
The emphasis in EFL listening materials in recent years has been on developing top-down
listening processes. There are good reasons for this given that learners need to be able to listen
effectively even when faced with unfamiliar vocabulary or structures. However, if the learner
understands very few words from the incoming signal, even knowledge about the context may not
be sufficient for her to understand what is happening, and she can easily get lost. Of course, low-
level learners may simply not have enough vocabulary or knowledge of the language yet, but
most teachers will be familiar with the situation in which higher-level students fail to recognise
known words in the stream of fast connected speech. Bottom-up listening activities can help
learners to understand enough linguistic elements of what they hear to then be able to use their
top-down skills to fill in the gaps.
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The following procedure is for developing bottom-up listening skills, and is designed to help
learners recognise the divisions between words, an important bottom-up listening skill. The
teacher reads out a number of sentences, and asks learners to write down how many words there
would be in the written form. While the task might sound easy, for learners the weak forms in
normal connected speech can make it problematic, so it is very important for the teacher to say
the sentences in a very natural way, rather than dictating them word-by-word.
2.3 Listening for Main Ideas
The main idea of a speech is often repeated. Listen carefully to the introductory and concluding
remarks of the speech and remember which points are mentioned in both. If the main points are
mentioned in the introduction or in the conclusion, they should also be expanded and emphasized
in the main body of the speech.
2.4 Listening for Specific Ideas
Specific information is often factual in nature, for example, a name, a place, a profession, an
object, a number or a quantity. When you listen for specific information, you need to have some
idea of what you‘re listening for before you listen and while you‘re listening. In an exam situation,
predict and anticipate the kind of information that will answer the question, being aware that the
idea you‘re listening for could be expressed in the recording in a number of different ways. As you
listen, you need to recognise when the information is about to be given, and pay particularly close
attention at that point. Sometimes, listening for specific information also involves listening to
determine whether information is stated or not.
2.5 Listening for Details
Listening for detail refers to the type of listening we do in which we can‘t afford to ignore
anything because we don‘t know exactly what information of the listening passage will be
necessary to complete the task.
This term is sometimes confused with listening for specific information which is applied to
occasions in which we don‘t have to understand everything that‘s being said, but only a very
specific part
2.6 Listening for Organization
Organizational listening is the process of understanding the thoughts and feelings of employees
to create a better workplace.
2. TYPES OF LISTENING
1. Active listening/Comprehensive Listening.
2. Sensitive/Empathetic Listening.
3. Critical Listening.
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 4. Appreciative Listening.

3.1 Active/Comprehensive listening:

i. This is the best and most important type of listening. The listener undergoes all the steps of
the listening process. This is also called Comprehensive Listening.
ii. The listener not only understands everything but also attempts to verify all that she/he has
been listening to.
iii. The queries and clarifications on the part of the listener in the form of feedback keep the
communication process going.
iv. The goal is to evaluate the message at all levels: the logic of the argument, strength of
evidence, validity of the conclusions, the implications of the message to the listener and his /
her organization and the Speaker‘s intentions and motives.
v. However, the speaker too has a responsibility in facilitating active listening! The speaker has
to convey his/her message in such a way that the listener does not get bored or is distracted.

3.2 Sensitive/Therapeutic/Empathic Listening:

i. Sensitive listening is also referred to as empathic listening as the listener puts himself/herself
in the position of the speaker and tries to understand the viewpoint of the speaker as intended by
him/her.
ii. The listener attempts to decipher the meaning of the statements made by the speaker in
relation to the perceptions and experiences of the speaker.
iii. Empathic listening helps to build healthy human relations. Counselors and psychologists
adopt this type of listening.
iv. Though sensitive listening is a desirable type of listening, the only disadvantage we
encounter is the ‘one-sided sympathetic stand‘ Which can lead to misinterpretation of the
message due to misplaced empathy.
v. However, sensitive listening taken in combination with active listening, where the
viewpoints/frames of reference of the speaker and listener match, can prove to be an excellent
and effective form of listening.

3.3 Critical Listening:

(Listening to Evaluate and Analyses)
i. Critical listening is a highly active type of listening. It is used when great focus is needed to
solve a problem, to decide, to evaluate what is being said or scrutinize a work.

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 ii. Critical listening is similar to critical reading. In critical listening, receiving information is
not the Objective. It involves analyzing the information based on previous knowledge in order
to pass judgment.
iii. In critical listening, the listener asks himself questions like 'what is the speaker trying to say‘
what is the main argument being presented‘, is what I am listening different from what I
know/believe‘, etc.
iv. It is important in critical listening to have an open mind. A listener with biases,
preconceived ideas, and other stereotypes cannot be a critical listener.
v. Critical listening is important in problem solving, broadening one‘s knowledge and
improving relationships through better understanding.

3.4 Appreciative Listening:

(Listening to Enjoy)
i. Appreciative listening is exactly what the name implies listening to enjoy the story, music or
information.
ii. The person listens to the matter that he appreciates. This is to understand the speaker‘s mind-
set, needs, tone, and mood to appreciate a point of view. This type of listening involves Skills
such as interpreting, visualizing, and understanding.

4. INTERPRETIVE LISTENING
4.1 Author‘s Attitude/Tone/Mood
Attitude is the author‘s personal feelings about a subject.
Attitude can be difficult for students to grasp if they do not have at least some background
information about the topic and/or the author.
Tone is the use of stylistic devices to reveal that personal feeling.
Mood-The reader will come away from the text with some kind of feeling, happy, sad, inspired, or
even bored. The careful reader will use his/her skills to grasp the author‘s attitude and tone, and
thereby will respond with the mood the author intended.
4.2 Context
Imagery –development of vivid mental impressions by appeals to the senses. Appeals to Sight,
Sound, Touch, Smell, and Taste depending on the text. Any combination of these can be used.
Techniques: metaphors, similes, metonymy, synecdoche, and literal, concrete descriptions.
Details –information emphasized or excluded. Does the writer allude to important information
without directly discussing it? Does he repeat certain concepts? Techniques: repetition, allusion,
etc.
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Language –general written communication techniques reveal author‘s attitude through his/her
written expression in general.
Syntax –effect of sentence structure on intended meaning shows the author‘s intended
perspective through his writing format: Simplistic/Complex structure –Is the structure of the
sentences basic to reveal simplicity of the topic, character, or theme; or is it complex to show
topic importance, character intelligence/depth, or seriousness of the theme?
4.3 Para linguistics
Paralinguistic has to do with the aspects of language that do not relate to the formal systems of
language such as phonology, syntax, grammar etc. The features of paralinguistic fall into two
categories. The categories are vocal-paralinguistic and body paralinguistic features
Vocal Paralinguistic Features
A high tone can indicate nervousness or a question and even anger in some people. A low tone
indicates doubt or authority in some people. All of these features convey intention and are
influenced by circumstance
Body Paralinguistic Features
Paralinguistic Features of the body is how we communicate meaning through the use of our
bodies. Facial expression is one example. When we frown, smile, raise our eyebrows, etc. these
all share different forms of information.
Proximity is how close two people are when communicating. Normally, the closer two people
are the more intimate. Many people keep a certain distance from their boss when communicating.
Posture is another feature. Slouching indicates laziness. When a person holds their head down it
is often a sign of inferiority.

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 2. Spoken English
Identifying main idea of a conversation
Main idea is a general statement about a conversation (or reading selection). The main idea is a
sentence that provides the subject for discussion; it is the topic. It is usually supported by a list of
details. If you can tell what the supporting details have in common, you can discover the main
idea. A main idea is important information that tells more about the overall idea of a
conversation.
There are two types of main idea.
1. Stated main idea is a main idea that the author directly states in the passage.
2. Implied main idea is a main idea that the author doesn‘t directly state, but you are able to
figure it out from the details in the passage.
By following these steps, you should be able to identify the main idea of a conversation.
1. Listen carefully: Pay attention to what the speakers are saying and try to understand the context
of the conversation.
2. Look for repeating themes: Identify any recurring topics or ideas that are mentioned throughout
the conversation.
3. Identify key phrases: Look for important words or phrases that summarize the main idea of the
conversation.
4. Consider the tone: Consider the tone of the conversation and how it may relate to the main idea.
5. Summarize: Once you have listened to the conversation, try to summarize the main idea in one
or two sentences.
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. What is the first step in identifying the main idea of a conversation?
A. Look for repeating themes
B. Identify key phrases
C. Listen carefully
2. What should you do if there are recurring topics or ideas in a conversation?
A. Ignore them
B. Write them down
C. Identify them
3. How can the tone of a conversation relate to the main idea?

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 A. It can indicate whether the main idea is positive or negative
B. It has no relation to the main idea
C. It can indicate the level of importance of the main idea
4. What should you do once you have listened to a conversation?
A. Repeat everything back to the speakers
B. Try to summarize the main idea in one or two sentences
C. Ask the speakers to repeat themselves
5. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "I heard there's a new restaurant that opened downtown."
Person B: "Yes, I went there yesterday. The food was delicious!"
Person C: "I should check it out too. What type of cuisine do they serve?"
Person D: "I'm not a fan of restaurants. I prefer cooking at home."
A. Person A's recommendation to try a new restaurant
B. Person B's positive review of the restaurant
C. Person C's interest in the restaurant's cuisine
D. Person D's preference for cooking at home
6. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "I can't believe how much traffic there was today."
Person B: "Yeah, the roads were completely jammed. I was late for work."
Person C: "I think there was an accident on the highway."
Person D: "Traffic seems to be getting worse every day."
A. Person A's frustration with the traffic
B. Person B's tardiness due to the traffic
C. Person C's explanation for the traffic congestion
D. Person D's observation about increasing traffic
7. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "Did you watch the game last night?"
Person B: "Yes, it was an intense match. The final score was 3-2."
Person C: "I missed it. Who scored the winning goal?"
Person D: "I'm not a big sports fan. I prefer watching movies."
A. Person A's question about watching the game
B. Person B's comment on the intensity of the match
C. Person C's interest in the winning goal scorer
D. Person D's preference for watching movies
8. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
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 Person A: "I'm thinking of taking a trip to Europe next summer."
Person B: "That sounds like a great idea! Which countries are you planning to visit?"
Person C: "I've always wanted to see Paris and Rome."
Person D: "I prefer staying closer to home and exploring local destinations."
A. Person A's plan to travel to Europe
B. Person B's enthusiasm for the trip
C. Person C's desired destinations in Europe
D. Person D's preference for local travel
9. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "I'm so tired. I didn't sleep well last night."
Person B: "You should try drinking some herbal tea before bed."
Person C: "I find that reading a book helps me relax and fall asleep."
Person D: "I don't have any trouble sleeping. I can sleep anywhere!"
A. Person A's complaint about not sleeping well
B. Person B's suggestion to drink herbal tea
C. Person C's recommendation to read before bed
D. Person D's statement about easy sleep
10. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "Did you hear about the new museum that opened downtown?"
Person B: "Yes, it's supposed to have a great collection of modern art."
Person C: "I'm planning to visit this weekend. I love contemporary art."
Person D: "I'm not a big fan of museums. I find them boring."
A. Person A's mention of the new museum
B. Person B's comment on the museum's art collection

1. Drawing inference from a dialogue

Drawing inferences from dialogue involves using context clues, tone, and nonverbal cues to
understand the underlying meaning of what is being said. Meaning is very closely related to the
human capacity to think logically and to understand. If a reader goes through any word, he/she
needs to understand the meaning of this particular word and understand the meaning correctly.
There are at least seven types of meaning in semantics.
1. Conceptual Meaning
2. Connotative Meaning
3. Social Meaning
4. Affective Meaning

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 5. Reflected Meaning
6. Collective Meaning
7. Thematic meaning
1. Conceptual/ denotative meaning
The denotative meaning of a word is its main meaning, not including the feelings and ideas
that people may connect with that word. Denotative meaning is dictionary/ direct/ literally
meaning of a word.
Example:
 donkey------ domestic animal
 lion ------ wild animal
 kid--- under age children
 hyena---- wild animal
2. Connotative Meaning
Connotation points to a meaning that uses a particular word beyond its conceptual meaning. That
means when a word has more than one meaning, it is called connotative meaning. It is also called
implied meaning.
Example:
 Donkey----- idiot
 Lion--- brave
 Kid--- innocent
 Hyena---- big eater
3. Social Meaning
It is a type of meaning based on the aspects of society. When people from a particular society
define language in their way, that is called social meaning. This meaning is based on dialect.
4. Affective Meaning
It refers to the speaker‘s feelings, emotions, attitude towards the ongoing context: the pitch level,
intonation, and tone of the speaker changes based on the situation.
For example, if we talk with a motherless child, we will be very emotional, and we will talk in a
very soft manner. In the same way, when we become angry, our voices become louder.
5. Reflected Meaning
In semantics, reflected meaning is an event whereby a particular word or phrase is correlated with
multiple sense or meaning. It is a kind of irony.

6. Collocative Meaning

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A collocation is a familiar grouping of words, especially words that habitually appear together and
convey meaning by association. In collocative meaning, a particular word goes with another
particular word.
Pretty and handsome share familiar ground in the meaning ‗good-looking,‘ but these words are
different at their appropriate use case.
Example:
1. Pretty is appropriate for – girl, woman
2. Handsome is appropriate for – boy, man
7. Thematic Meaning
Thematic meaning is a preference between alternative grammatical structures like active-passive,
simple to complex, complex-compound, etc. That means the meaning of a sentence will be the
same, but the structure will differ from each other. It deals with how the speaker portrays the
message through word choice, the order of words used, and emphasis.
Example:

1. He is so week that he cannot work. (This is a complex sentence).

2. He is too week to walk. (This is a simple sentence).
Here the structures of the sentences are different, but the meaning is the same.

By following these steps, you can draw inferences from dialogue that go beyond the literal
meaning of the words spoken.
1. Pay attention to the tone of the conversation. Is it friendly, hostile, or neutral? This can give you
a clue about the speaker's intentions.
2. Look for nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, and gestures. These can
reveal emotions or attitudes that may not be explicitly stated.
3. Consider the context of the conversation. What is the setting? Who are the speakers? What is
the topic of discussion? All of these factors can influence the meaning of the dialogue.
4. Listen for implied meanings or hidden messages. Sometimes speakers may say one thing but
mean something else entirely.
5. Use your own knowledge and experience to fill in any gaps or make connections between what
is being said and what you already know.
In addition to these, you should ask yourself the following questions when you infer meaning from
a dialogue:
 Who - Does this passage discuss a person or group of people?
 When - Does the information contain a reference to time?
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  Where - Does the text name a place?
 Why - Do you find a reason or explanation for something that happened?
 How - Does this information indicate a method or a theory?

Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I can't believe you did
that!"
A. Anger B. Sadness C. Excitement D. Happiness
2. What tone is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "Wow, that's amazing!"
A. Sarcasm B. Enthusiasm C. Disbelief D. Indifference
3. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I'm really sorry for what I
said earlier."
A. Regret B. Anger C. Happiness D. Excitement
4. What tone is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I guess we'll just have to
agree to disagree."
A. Defeatist B. Diplomatic C. Sarcastic D. Aggressive
5. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I'm so proud of you for
achieving your goals!"
A. Pride B. Envy C. Disappointment D. Frustration
6. From the following dialogue, what can be inferred about the speaker's feelings towards their
job?
Speaker 1: "How's work been for you lately?"
Speaker 2: "Honestly, it's been pretty stressful. I feel like I'm always behind on my tasks and
there's never enough time in the day."

A. The speaker enjoys their job and finds it fulfilling.

B. The speaker is indifferent towards their job.
C. The speaker dislikes their job and finds it overwhelming.
D. The speaker is unsure about their feelings towards their job.
6. Sam: ―I can‘t wait for science class today‖.
Robbie: ―Why? What is happening in science class?‖

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 Sam: ―Mrs. Barkley said we will be conducting our science experiments today on the water
cycle! I can‘t wait to see our results. I have never done a science experiment before! I don‘t really
know what to expect.‖
Robbie: ―Wow, that is cool, I have never done one either, I can‘t wait to hear all about it on our
walk home from school today.‖ said Robbie.
From this dialogue, which one is not correct?
A. Sam is excited about science class.
B. Robbie is not excited.
C. Both Sam and Robbie are excited.
D. Sam is excited about science class.
7. Person A: "I can't find my keys anywhere."
Person B: "Did you check your jacket pocket?"
What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B has seen the keys in the jacket pocket.
B. Person B is suggesting a possible location for the keys.
C. Person B is annoyed with Person A's forgetfulness.
D. Person B doesn't know where the keys are either.

8. Person A: "I failed my math test."

Person B: "Well, maybe you should have studied more."
What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B is offering sympathy to Person A.
B. Person B is blaming Person A for the failure.
C. Person B is suggesting a different study method.
D. Person B is disappointed in Person A.

9. Person A: "I heard Sarah got a promotion."

Person B: "She worked really hard for it."
What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B is happy for Sarah's promotion.
B. Person B is jealous of Sarah's promotion.
C. Person B believes Sarah didn't deserve the promotion.
D. Person B is surprised by Sarah's promotion.
10. Person A: "I don't feel well today."
Person B: "You should get some rest and drink plenty of fluids."
16
 What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B is suggesting a remedy for feeling unwell.
B. Person B doesn't think Person A's illness is serious.
C. Person B is offering sympathy for Person A's condition.
D. Person B is annoyed by Person A's complaint.
11. Person A: "I won the lottery!"
Person B: "That's incredible! What are you going to do with the money?"
What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B is curious about Person A's plans for the money.
B. Person B is suggesting that Person A should save the money.
C. Person B is uninterested in Person A's lottery win.
D. Person B is disappointed that they didn't win the lottery.

3. Expression of like to talk about things

Like mean:
 to wish to have something.
 to feel attraction toward something.
 to enjoy or approve of something or someone.
Expressions:
 I like…
 I love...
 I adore…
 I ‗m crazy about…
 I‘m mad about…
 I enjoy…
 I‘m keen on…
Example:
1. I like dogs
2. I love cooking
3. I enjoy playing football.
4. I am crazy about pizza.
5. I am fond of rock music.
Ways of expressing likes:

4. Expression of dislikes to talk about things

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Dislike mean:
 a feeling of aversion or disapproval.
 find something/one unpleasant.
 is the feeling that does not like someone or something.
Expressions:
 I don‘t like…
 I dislike...
 I hate…
 I abhor…
 I can‘t bear...
 I can‘t stand…
 I detest...
 I loathe...
Example:

 I don‘t like him

 I can‘t stand these people.
 I hate going to the dentist.
 I'm mad about basketball, but I can‘t bear ice hockey.
 I adore reading poetry, but I loathe doing the housework.
Choose the most appropriate answer to complete the following dialogue

1. Which of the following expressions can be used to express one's likes and dislikes?
A. I'm really into it.
B. I can't stand it.
C. It's not really my thing.
D. All of the above.
2. Mother: _______________
Jack: It was boring.
A. How was your Chinese lesson today?
B. Do you like to learn Chinese?
C. Are you happy?
D. Did you like your lunch today

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3. From the following dialogue, what can be inferred about the speaker's feelings towards their
job?

Speaker 1: "How's work been for you lately?"

Speaker 2: "Honestly, it's been pretty stressful. I feel like I'm always behind on my tasks and
there's never enough time in the day."
A. The speaker enjoys their job and finds it fulfilling.
B. The speaker is indifferent towards their job.
C. The speaker dislikes their job and finds it overwhelming.
D. The speaker is unsure about their feelings towards their job
4. They___________ like taking a bath.
A. is B. don't C. are D. doesn't E. am
5. We __________crazy about Katty Perry
A. do B. don't C. doesn't D. are E. is
6. I hate ___________ to the dentist's.
A. go B. went C. going D. goes
7. I am ___________________ about her because she is so beautiful.
A. Detest B. mad C. like D. abhor
8. I ____________ flowers because they are so beautiful.
A. crazy B. adore C. cannot stand D. loathe
9. A : _______________________?
B : I think it is nice and clean.
A. What do you think of this match C. What do you think about the new apartment
B. How do you feel about the election D. How about watching movie
10. A : I think Abeje is responsible for this case
B : well, I don't know.
from the dialogue, we may assume that __________________
A. B agrees with A C. B disagrees with Farah
B. B has no idea about the case D. B cannot accept the fact
6. A : The government plans to raise the electricity bill next month
B : _______________ it will increase the amount of poor people.
A. I totally disagree B. I agree with you C. I don't disagree D. I agree
7. A : I think the one who is responsible for this case is Michael.
B : _____________ I don't know.
A. B agrees with A C. B has idea about the case
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 B. cannot accept the fact D. Mary disagrees with A

3. Advanced Speech
1. What does advanced mean in language proficiency?
Advanced: At the Advanced proficiency level an individual can narrate and describe in past,
present and future time frames. They can communicate in paragraphs on complex situations or
topics and can handle an unexpected complication with grammatical accuracy and fluency.
General objective/Competency
Know the nature of speech
Specific objectives /learning outcomes –
Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts.
Use expressions of dislikes to talk about things
2. The nature of speech
 Natures of communication? 4 Types of Communication: Verbal, Non-verbal, Written,
Visual. The first twos are very important in speech.
 Speaking is a language skill or a mean of communication in which people can express His/her
idea or information to others in spoken form.
 Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth.
 To speak, we create sounds using many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract,
vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips. Speaking is the second of the four language skills, which
are: Listening, Speaking.
 It is the process of sharing meanings through audible and visual codes such as voice, facial
expression, gestures, movement, postures, and the like.
 The four basic types of speeches are: to inform, to instruct, to entertain, and to persuade.

20
 These are not mutually exclusive of one another.
 You may have several purposes in mind when giving your presentation.
For example, you may try to inform in an entertaining style.
What are the three main aspects of speaking skills?
 The 3 elements are: Words, Voice, and Body Language.
You can see that Verbal (words) is only 7%!
Non-verbal (voice+ body language) makes up a total of 93%.
What are the 7 elements of communication?
The seven elements in the communication process that apply to speech are:
1) Speaker, 2) listener, 3) message, 4) channel, 5) interference, 6) feedback, and 7)
situation.
The speaker is the source of information and communication and is the individual who delivers or
expresses their idea on a topic.
What are the 5 components of speaking?
There are five speaking skills including pronunciation, fluency, grammar, vocabulary and
comprehension.
1. Specific objectives /learning outcomes
1. Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts
2. Ways to Say You dislikes Something in English
3. Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts
1. I enjoy it
This verb means to ―take delight or pleasure in‖ something. After this word, we use a verb with
the –ing suffix. For example: I enjoy reading.
2. I love it
This word can be used as both a noun and a verb, so in order to determine the meaning, it is
necessary to look at the context. We can use the word ―love‖ to express that we really like some
action or thing.
It doesn‘t necessarily have to be a person. For example: I love ice cream. I just love driving. I
love rain in summer.
3. I am passionate about it
This expression means ―to strongly love something or someone; to feel strongly about
something.‖
4. I am fond of it

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This expression may be familiar to you from school. At least, it is to me. It means ―to like; to be
attracted to.‖ For example: I am fond of sports. We are fond of learning the English
language.
5. I am a fan of it
You‘ve probably guessed the meaning of this expression because the word ―fan‖ exists in other
languages as well. It means ―to like something a lot.‖
For example: I am a fan of skateboarding.
6. I am interested in it
This expression means ―to like; to be attracted to.‖ For example: I am interested in writing articles
about marketing.
7. I am into it
The last phrase to express a preference on our list means ―to like; to enjoy.‖.
For example: I am into Mark I am into painting.
a. Use expressions of dislikes to talk about things
4. Ways to Say You Dislike Something in English
1. I hate/loathe it
You are probably familiar with one of these words, specifically the word ―hate.‖ The second verb
means the same thing, but is an even more forceful word to express this feeling.
For example: I hate being late. I loathe seafood.
2. I can‘t stand it
This English expression means ―to thoroughly dislike; be unable to put up with something or
someone.‖ For example: I can‘t stand cold food. I can‘t stand her talking about Jane‘s failure.
3. I am not a fan of it
If the word not is placed before a form of the verb ―to be,‖ it means that you prefer to avoid the
person or thing you‘re talking about. This expression is not as strong as the word ―hate.‖ For
example: I am not much of a fan of dancing.
4. It drives me crazy
This means ―to greatly exasperate; annoy to distraction.‖ Anything can be used in place of the
pronoun ―it.‖ For example: Impoliteness is driving me crazy. Amy‘s hair left on my comb drives
me crazy.
5. it‘s not my cup of tea
This idiom doesn‘t have anything to do with tea or drinking tea. It means ―to not like.‖ For
example: Horror movies are not my cup of tea. Do you like singing? – No, it‘s not my cup of tea.
6. it‘s not my thing

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Our last expression is similar to the previous one, and means the same thing: ―I don‘t like…‖ or ―I
am not interested in…‖
For example: Cooking is not my thing. Public speeches are not my thing.
 That‘s all. Use these expressions instead of the usual ―I like…‖ and ―I don‘t like…‖
People with whom you speak or exchange messages will enjoy it more as they hear and see the
new English phrases you‘ve just learned.
5. Types of Speech
There are four types of speeches that most speakers utilize in delivering a speech.
5.1.Extemporaneous speech

Extemporaneous speeches are speeches that are carefully prepared and practiced by the speaker
before the actual speaking time. A speaker will utilize notes or an outline as a guide while they are
delivering the speech.
5.2.Impromptu speeches

Impromptu speeches are speeches that are delivered without notes or a plan and without any
formal preparation – they are very spontaneously delivered. They just have to get up and speak
without any ―thinking‖ time.
Your daily life is filled with impromptu experiences and conversations. Every phone
conversation, exchange between you and a loved one, and discussion amongst friends is
impromptu by its very nature – even if we ―practice‖ our conversations, they are still impromptu
in their delivery.
5.3.Manuscript speeches

Manuscript speeches are speeches that are delivered with a script of the exact words to be used.
The speaker who utilizes a complete manuscript will often spend more time looking at the script
than at the audience.
5.4.Memorized speeches

Memorized speeches are speeches that are committed to memory. The speaker completely
memorizes the text of a speech and then delivers the speech from memory without reliance on
notes or an outline. This is a very fearful speaking situation for most people because they fear
they will forget what they had planned on saying when they get in front of the group – and, they
might make a fool of themselves in front of the audience if they forget what to say.
6. Purposes of Speech

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The general purpose of any speech will be either to Inform; Motivate/Persuade; or Entertain
your audience.
You may have several purposes in mind when giving your presentation. For example, you may try
to inform in an entertaining style. Another speaker might inform the audience and try to persuade
them to act on the information.
6.1.Informative

This speech serves to provide interesting and useful information to your audience.
Some examples of informative speeches:
A teacher telling students about earthquakes
A student talking about her research
A travelogue about the Tower of London
A computer programmer speaking about new software
6.2.Demonstrative Speeches

This has many similarities with an informative speech. A demonstrative speech also teaches you
something. The main difference lies in including a demonstration of how to do the thing you‘re
teaching.
Some examples of demonstrative speeches:
How to start your own blog
How to bake a cake
How to write a speech
How to… just about anything
1.4.3. Persuasive
A persuasive speech works to convince people to change in some way: they think, the way they
do something, or to start doing something that they are not currently doing.
examples
Television violence is negatively influencing our children
1.4.4. Entertaining
The after-dinner speech is a typical example of an entertaining speech. The speaker provides
pleasure and enjoyment that make the audiences laugh or identify with anecdotal information.
7. Language Use in Speech
7.1.Use of appropriate Language
 Use of proper grammar
 Don't use slang or jargon that may be hard to connect to the meaning or main thought.

24
 Avoid weak word choices like "guy", "um", and "everything".
7.2.Use Vivid Language
 through the use of imagery and Rhythm
7.2.1. Imagery

Imagery is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas.

A speaker who uses imagery successfully will tap into one or more of the audience‘s five basic
senses (hearing, taste, touch, smell, and sight). Three common tools of imagery are
concreteness, simile, and metaphor.
7.2.1.1.Concreteness

We attempt to help our audiences see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract
theories and ideas.
7.2.1.2.Simile

Two unlike things are explicitly compared. All similes contain either ―like‖ or ―as‖ within the
comparison.
Examples:
o After the revelation, she was as angry as a raccoon caught in a cage.
o Love is like a battlefield.
7.2.1.3.Metaphor

Term or phrase is applied to something in a nonliteral way to suggest a resemblance. In the case
of a metaphor, one of the comparison items is said to be the other (even though this is
realistically not possible).
o Love is a battlefield.
o Upon hearing the charges, the accused clammed up and refused to speak
without a lawyer.
o Every year a new crop of activists are born.
7.2.2. Rhythm

Rhythm refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech.

Let‘s examine four types of rhythmic language: parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and
assonance…
Generally Stylistic Devices are
 Alliteration alliteration refers to the repetition of a consonant sound in a series of words.

25
 Assonance refers to the repetition of a vowel sound in a string of words. For example, “tilting
at windmills” or “high as a kite” are examples of assonance, because the vowel sound repeats.
 Hyperbole. Hyperbole refers to an exaggeration intended to capture attention and interest.
 Metaphor and Simile. Both devices are types of comparisons. Similes are phrases that compare
one thing to another with the use of the words like or as. For instance, “Life is like a box of
chocolates”.
 Onomatopoeia. This refers to the use of words that sound like they mean. For instance, when
building tension in a narrative, you may suddenly shout, “Bang! Boom!”
 Parallelism and Repetition. Parallelism refers to the repetition of “the same word or
expression at the beginning of successive sentences or phrases” Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.‟s
“I Have a Dream” speech is one in which the use of parallelism and repetition was made
famous.
 Personification. Personification refers to the process of giving an inanimate object human
qualities.
For instance, when describing the rain, you might say that the sky is crying.
7.3.Use Inclusive Language
 Some common problem areas related to language about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation,
and disabilities.
7.3.1. Gender-Specific Language

There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using ―he‖ as
generic, using ―man‖ to mean all humans, and gender typing jobs.
a. Generic ―He‖
The generic ―he‖ happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as ―he‖ when in reality
there is a mixed sex group involved.
b. Use of ―Man‖
Like ―man,‖ ―mankind,‖ and (in casual contexts) ―guys‖ when referring to both females and
males. For example, instead of using the word ―man,‖ you could refer to the ―human race.‖
Instead of saying, ―hey, guys,‖ you could say, ―OK, everyone.‖
c. Gender-Typed Jobs
Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has both
males and females.
―Gender Type Jobs‖ lists some common gender-specific jobs titles along with more inclusive
versions of those job titles.

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 Exclusive Language Inclusive Language
Policeman Police officer
Businessman Business person
Fireman Fire fighter
Stewardess Flight attendant
Waiters Wait staff / servers
Barmaid Bartender
Mailman Letter carrier/ postal worker
7.3.2. Ethnic Identity

Another type of inclusive language relates to the categories used to highlight an individual‘s ethnic
identity. Ethnic identity refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture.
If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic
group how they prefer to label themselves.
7.3.3. Sexual Orientation

Another area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism.‖

 Everyone will label their significant others as either ―husbands‖ or ―wives.‖
 Although some members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender/transsexual
community will use these terms, others prefer for more gender neutral terms like ―spouse‖ and
―partner.‖
7.3.4. Disability

The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers
relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities.
Exclusive Language Inclusive Language
Handicapped People People with disabilities
Person in a wheelchair Person who uses a wheelchair
Crippled Person with a physical disability
Special needs program Accessible needs program
Mentally retarded Person with an intellectual disability
Insane Person Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the psychiatric
diagnosis, e.g. ―person with schizophrenia‖)
7.4.Use Familiar Language

You want to make sure that the language you are using is familiar to your audience.

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 8. Non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication types include facial expressions, gestures, paralinguistic such as
loudness or tone of voice, body language, proxemics or personal space, eye gaze, haptics (touch),
appearance, and artifacts.
 Eye Contact (Eye Gaze)
 Space (Proxemics) - The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as
belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, cultural
expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.
 Voice Quality and other Prosodic and Paralinguistic Features - A speaker's voice itself can
communicate much to the audience.
The proper use of volume, enunciation (pronunciation/articulation), and tone (sound/voice) can
ensure that the audience can hear, understand, and internalize what the speaker is saying.
 Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This
includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.
 Personal Appearance, Posture and Movement- Body Language and Posture
 Facial Expressions and Gesture

4. Reading Skills
1. Identify the major purposes of a reading text,
All texts are written for a reason – the writer will have an aim or purpose, for example to
inform the reader or to persuade the reader. Often, texts have more than one purpose.
Identifying the purpose of a text will help you to understand it better. An author‘s purpose may
be to amuse the reader, to persuade the reader, to inform the reader, or to satirize a condition.
An author writes with one of four general purposes in mind:
1. To relate a story or to recount events, an author uses narrative writing.
2. To tell what something looks like, sounds like, or feels like, the author uses descriptive
writing
3. To convince a reader to believe an idea or to take a course of action, the author uses
persuasive writing.
4. To inform or teach the reader, the author uses expository writing.

28
 An author‘s purpose is reflected in the way he writes about a topic. For instance, if his purpose
is to amuse, he will use jokes or anecdotes in his writing. Clues to an author‘s purpose may be
found in titles, prefaces, and the author‘s background.
If you know how to figure out author‘s purpose you will be able to:
 Recognize bias and decide whether a source of information can be trusted.
 Understand why an author says things in a specific way or includes some facts and not
others

Strategies for Answering Author‘s Purpose Questions:

 Look for key words that identify the question as an author‘s purpose question. If the
question includes any of the author‘s purpose key words listed above, make a note that you
are looking for the author‘s purpose the reason the author wrote the passage. This will help
you focus on the author‘s tone as you read, which in turn will help you identify his or her
purpose.
 Read the passage and make notes. Once you‘ve identified the question as an author‘s
purpose question, read the passage, making note as you read.
 Consider the words an author chooses to use. Word choice is one way authors convey their
meaning when they expect the reader to infer that meaning.
 Consider the vocabulary of your answer options. Is the author really analysing something,
or is she describing it? Use your knowledge of key vocabulary words to eliminate wrong
answers and identify the better answer.
2. Rearrange events/information in a reading text in their order of
occurrence in the text,
Most narrative stories are constructed around a sequence of events. Students gain a deeper
understanding of the story by acting out or retelling the proper order of the important events in
stories, describing cause and effect relationships and how the events affect the central meaning of
the story.
Informational text is also frequently organized around a series or sequence. Historical events are
often presented in chronological order; directions occur in sequence; change follows a logical
order; and scientific observations are usually recorded in a precise order. Curiously, sequencing is
not a natural skill, and many young children recall stories and episodes, not so much through the
sequence of important events, but through a collection of salient features that seemed relevant or
interesting to the student. Often, for example, when a student recalls a favourite movie, the student

29
does not begin at the beginning of the movie and follow the movie‘s plot, but instead recalls action
scenes or describes specific characters.
Sequencing, therefore, is a skill that students must learn in a fairly structured way. Students need
to understand and recreate sequences of events. Students must learn to distinguish important
events from less important ones. They need to understand cause and effect and plot development
and the way characters change over time. These and other academic skills have foundations in
sequencing instruction.
In another hand, Don Johnston Incorporate (2009) that a variety of reading comprehension
objectives requires learners to gather, analyze and organize information about a sequence of
events. Sequencing refers to putting events or action in order. As learners gather notes, they
develop skills that help them create meaningful sequence. Based on Orcutt (2016), sequence
describes the order of events or how to do or how to make something. It refers to the identification
of the component of a story, such as the beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to retell
the events within a given text in order which they occurred.
A sequence is the order of events in a story or the process. Knowing the sequence will help us
understand what we are reading. Clue words‖ This is not an extensive list of words, but it is a
great start to helping us understand sequencing.
Sequence Words List
There are many sequence words. They can be grouped by their function in signaling the beginning,
middle, interruption, or end of a story or procedure.
Beginning
 At the beginning - signals an event at the beginning of a story, including a long story.
 Initially - signals an initial state of something that may change later in the story, such as a
person's attitude.
 First - signals the first thing someone did in a story or the first step in a multi-step
procedure, as in ''First, turn on the computer.''
 To begin - signals the first step in a multi-step procedure, as in ''To begin, make sure you
are sitting with good posture and both feet flat on the ground.''
Middle
Then - signals the next event in a story.
After that - signals the next event in a story or the next step in a procedure.
Meanwhile - signals an event that overlapped in time with the previous event described, as in ''I
went to buy groceries. Meanwhile, the dog started tearing up the couch.''
Later - signals that the next event occurred after a lapse of time, as in ''The cat was sound asleep
on the pillow. Later, when I went to check on her, she was gone.''
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Next - signals the next event in a story or the next step in a procedure.
Second - used after 'first' to signal the second step in a procedure.
Third - used after 'first' and 'second' to signal the third step in a procedure.
Interruption
 Suddenly - signals an unexpected event.
 All of a sudden - signals an unexpected event, as in ''I was watching a movie. All of a
sudden, the power went out.''
 But then - signals an unexpected event that could change the direction of the story, as in
''We decided to go to the beach. But then a huge thunderstorm ruined our plans.''
Ending
Finally - signals the last event in a story or an event after a long delay or long sequence of events.
In the end - signals the resolution of a conflict in a story.
At the end - signals the last moment of a period of time and is followed by a prepositional phrase,
as in ''At the end of the performance, the audience gave a standing ovation.''
In conclusion - signals a summary of the main point of an argument.
To conclude - like 'in conclusion,' signals a summary of the main point of an argument.
Compare similar views in a text
Good readers understand new ideas in texts by thinking about how things are alike or different.
They make comparisons between texts and between prior knowledge and new ideas. This
understanding deepens their comprehension. The process of comparing and contrasting is used to
identify how two or more things are alike and different. This skill requires readers to think more
deeply about what they are reading in order to determine these likenesses and differences. This
skill helps children identify language cues, define ideas and clarify thinking, making information
memorable by engaging them in critical thoughts.
Compare is to think about how two things are alike. Contrast is to think about how two things are
different. Key vocabulary words signal that a comparison or contrast is about to be made in text.
These include:-
Contrast although, instead of, however, but not, different from etc
Compare alike, same as, similar to, compared with, as well as etc
Infer contradictions in a text
What Is Contradiction?
Contradictory opinions arise when two given sentences, premise and hypothesis are not
semantically complementary to each other. Using the same logic entailed opinions arises when
given premise and hypotheses are semantically complementary. Contradictions 36 arise from

31
relatively obvious features such as antonym, negation, or numeric mismatch. They may also arise
from complex differences in the structure of assertion and lexical contrast. Antonyms are words
that are opposite to each other in their meaning. Negation stands for disproving the corresponding
sentence. Numerical contradiction is finding mismatched numeric expression of similar sentences.
Factive stands for word knowledge or lexical contrast between given pair. Structural contradiction
is finding structural inconsistency between sentences. Lexical, is so like structural (grammar)
contradictory happens when an irregular morph is used with a specific lexical item. Date time
contradictory happens when two similar sentences use two different time expressions.

Premise Hypothesis Contradiction Type

Capital punishment is a Capital punishment is a Antonym

catalyst for more crime. deterrent to crime.
A closely divided Supreme The Supreme Court decided Negation
Court said that juries and not that only judges can impose
judges must impose a death the death sentence.
sentence.
The tragedy of the explosion An investigation into the Numerical
in Qana that killed more than strike in Qana found 28
50 civilians has presented confirmed dead thus far.
Israel with a dilemma.
The bombers had not The bombers entered the Factive
managed to enter the embassy.
embassy.
Jacques Santer succeeded Delors succeeded Santer in Structural
Jacques Delors as president the presidency of the
of the European Commission European Commission.
in 1995.
In the election, Bush called He cites such missions as an Lexical.
for U.S. troops to be example of how America
withdrawn from the must ―stay the course.‖.
peacekeeping mission in the
Balkans.

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Contradiction occurs when two sentences are extremely unlikely to be true simultaneously. Pairs
such as Sally sold a boat to John and John sold a boat to Sally are tagged as contradictory even
though it could be that each sold a boat to the other. This definition captures intuitions of
incompatibility, and perfectly fits applications that seek to highlight discrepancies in descriptions
of the same event.
Contradictions occur whenever information that is communicated in two different texts is
incompatible. Incompatibilities are manifested in many ways. We have focused on contradictions
that originate when using (i) negation; (ii) antonym; or (iii) semantic and pragmatic information
that is characteristic of contrast discourse relations.
The semantic and pragmatic processes that allow such inferences are typical for the contrast
discourse relations. Contradictions need to be recognized by Question Answering (Q/A) systems
or by Multi-Document Summarization (MDS) systems. The recognition of contradictions is useful
to fusion operators, which consider information originating in different texts. When compatible
and non-redundant information is discovered in different sources, fusion operators select text
snippets from all sources for producing informative answers. However, when contradictory
information is discovered, the answer selects information.
While reading several sources about one subject or while researching a topic, you may be tempted
either to overlook disagreements that don't announce themselves with flags and cannons or to
emphasize differences between texts once you notice any diverging tendencies. In order to make
intelligent judgments about disagreements you must identify points of disagreement accurately
and define exactly what a disagreement consists of.
To identify differences between sources precisely, you first need to determine whether texts are
addressing the same subject. This means determining not just that they have the same general topic
but that they cover the same part of the topic; only then can they answer one question from similar
perspectives.
For example, there are many books about capital punishment. Some discuss the death penalty in
different countries during different periods in history. Others present U.S. statistical studies based
on current death-row sentences. Others offer biographical accounts of individual prisoners on
death row. Many more explore the legal, social, moral, and political consequences of capital
punishment. Some of these books favor the penalty of death. Others oppose it. Still others do not
take a stand on the issue. Only a few books will directly join a specific issue using comparable
data to allow a careful evaluation of alternative answers to a question such as whether the death
penalty has served as a deterrent to crime in the United States during the past decade" Even
statistical studies may not prove helpful, because each study focuses on different states, different
periods of time, and different prison populations, each with a number of complicating factors. No
33
sharply defined contrast has emerged from such statistical studies to point to a clear resolution of
the issue. Once you determine that two texts address the same issue and answer the same question,
you are able to decide whether their answers are compatible or mutually exclusive. Different
answers often exist side by side. The statement "Gun control reduces the total number of guns
available to criminals" is not incompatible with "Gun control also reduces the number of guns
available to honest citizens to defend them." On the other hand, the second statement directly
contradicts the statement "Gun control will not affect the number of guns available to criminals."
Statements that make absolute or strong claims, using words like a/I, never, a/ways, and only, are
likely to conflict with other claims on the subject. Weaker claims that make concessions with
words like in part, along with, one of several, and sometimes are more likely to be compatible with
other statements.
Levels of Disagreement
After you have found two disagreeing sources, you need to identify at what level their
disagreement occurs. Is the disagreement over what the facts are? Is it over the meaning of the
facts? Or is it over the value, consequence, or implications of the facts? Each level of
disagreement can be understood and evaluated in a different way.

Factual Differences
Facts are accounts people give of events. Different people may give different accounts. The
accounts may vary for a number of reasons: imperfect memories or observations, differences in
focus of attention, different styles of expression, different mental attitudes and perceptual
frameworks, interests, or even lying. One eyewitness to an alleged robbery says the suspect was
carrying a gun. Other reports only a suspicious-looking hand in the suspect's pocket. The victim
says a gun was pointed directly at him. The suspect says he carried no weapon and made no threat,
but that he did reach into his pocket to get change in order to make a purchase. Everyone reports
the same incident by telling a different story. Unfortunately, there is no way to know for sure what
actually happened, because to each person the event was experienced—it happened—differently.
Even videotapes of the incident will be biased for the same reasons. The camera operator will have
a particular angle of observation and focus. The camera will record only certain actions. The
operator might experiment with clever camerawork, perhaps editing the footage to support a
special Story. If the robbery itself occurs right in front of police officers trained to be accurate
observers, the officers will still only provide their personal accounts of the event.
Criteria for Evaluating Sources or Witness

34
  Generally, the closer the witness was in time and place to the original events, the better. If
the writer was not there, he or she may cite reliable sources who were.
 The more the writer or primary witness knows about the subject or events he or she is
describing, the better he or she will know what to look for, what to report, and what to
conclude.
The fewer biases and prejudices writers or witnesses have about the matters they are reporting on,
the more likely they are to give an undistorted

5. Sophomore English
Introduction
This short note is designed based on the test blueprint for national exit examination to be held in
2015 E.C . It lets learners focus on paragraph writing. Students are expected to familiarize
themselves with elements of a paragraph.
WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH
In this unit, you will be able to:
 Familiarize themselves with elements of a paragraph,
35
  Identify types of paragraph
 Analyze structure of a paragraph.
 . State characteristics of a good paragraph
 Develop a topic sentence workable in a single paragraph.
 Develop well-unified, -cohered and -organized paragraph of different types.
 Differentiate methods of paragraph organization
1. What is a Paragraph?
Definition: Different writers give their own definitions to the paragraph. The followings are some
of these.
Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic idea, or a
series of related sentences arranged as to explicate single topic, dominant idea or particular phase
of thought. In essence, a paragraph is an expanded sentence, a unit of thought; and a good test of
the thought.
A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea, which is expressed in the topic
sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary sentence,
We can understand from these definitions that the difference between them is simply that of
wording. What are central in the definitions are:
-A paragraph is a group of sentences
-All these sentences together talk about (develop) one idea.
-One of these sentences is broad and carries the main idea of the paragraph.
-A sentence that carries the main idea of the paragraph is called topic sentences.
Generally, a paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one main
idea or point.
A paragraph should have three sentences.
Topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence, are needed for a
paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence summarizes your main idea by reinforcing
your topic sentence.
1.2.Basic Types of a Paragraph
1.2.1. Expository Paragraph
The purpose for an expository or explanatory paragraph is to give information about a
subject. Expository paragraph can be written by using a combination of all or some of the
following techniques of developing ideas: definition, cause and effect, classification, process
writing, comparison and contrast, illustration, identification and analysis.
Sample Expository Paragraph

36
 The ability to write well-organized paragraph is essential to a student‟s success in almost all
university courses. For instance, a student presents his/her ideas in a logical order and clear
language in order to receive a good evaluation of his/her work. Likewise, to write successful
answers to essay questions on examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and
opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a
student writes a report or term paper for different courses, style and organization are often as
important as content to inform and persuade his/her readers. Clearly, skill in paragraph writing is
crucial to success in most university subjects.
1.2.2. Descriptive Paragraph

A description is a form of writing that gives a picturesque of a topic. It shows the reader what a
person, a place, a scene, a thing, a sensation or an emotion is like. Therefore, Descriptive phrases
appeals the five senses: how something feels, smells, sounds, tastes or looks.

Sample descriptive Paragraph

Most students like the freedom they have in college. Usually college students live on their own, in
the dormitory or in an apartment. This means they are free to come and go as they like. Their
parents cannot tell them when to get up, when to go to school, and when to come home. It also
means that they are free to wear what they want. There are no parents to comment about their
hair styles or their dirty jeans. Finally, they are free to listen to their favorite music without
interference from parents.
1.2.3. Narrative
Narration is the telling of a story. It normally involves a discussion of events that are "true" or real,
events that take place over a period of time. Narration helps a writer explain things. To narrate is
to tell a story that explains what happened, when it happened, and who was involved. Narrative
paragraphs will include action, events, and exciting descriptive words. These paragraphs help keep
the reader engaged in the story. Narrative paragraphs are similar to descriptive paragraphs (and a
paragraph actually be both at once), but a narrative paragraph tends to offer the reader more
background information such as past events that led up to or cause events in the story.
Sample Narrative Paragraph
When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We had a large mango
trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer. One time I fell
out of one of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We also played baseball in
the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used my mother‘s dishes for home plate
and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of the town, and we raced through the
37
alleys after a train, splattering water and mud to each other. The high school was only a block
away, so we walked there in the summer, jumped the fence, and skated around the cement
corridors until a custodian chased us out. Finally, there was a big vacant lot beside our house
where we played cowboys and countrymen almost every Saturday. It seems like I did nothing but
play when I was young.
1.2.4. Argumentative Paragraph: In an argumentative paragraph, your purpose is to persuade
readers that your position has merit. You attempt to convince people of the strength of your ideas
by presenting evidence—facts and examples.
Sample argumentative paragraph
The government should not require all citizens pay for health insurance. I am a recent
college graduate and have a decent lob. But my company does not provide me health insurance.
To require me to buy an individual policy is not fair or reasonable. One reason is that such a policy
would be expensive and would take most of my income. As someone is just starting out in
life, my income barely covers my rent and food. If 1 had to buy health insurance, I would have to
take another job, find another roommate or try to find a cheaper apartment. This is just
impossible as life is demanding too much these two and three years. Although the people who
want everyone to have insurance hope that the government plan will provide lower rates for
low-income families and children, they haven't considered how such a requirement will
penalize the many young people who are just getting started. A new system may be needed,
but not one that is unfair to a whole generation of citizens.
2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS/QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH
1. Unity- unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. All the sentences in a paragraph
should refer to the main idea of a paragraph. all the sentences in the paragraph explain about the
topic sentence of the paragraph.
Example: All insects have three main body parts. These are the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen. The head has a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The thorax is the middle
region of the body, and it bears the legs and wings. The abdomen contains many body organs,
such as the heart, respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system. Even though there
are many different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have the same body.
2. Coherence- it is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Literally, the word to
cohere means to hold together. A paragraph is said to have coherence when its sentences are
woven together or flow into each other.
You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using pronoun, repeating key words and several
cohesive devices/traditional markers.

38
 Note: transitional words are very important devices in writing. They are useful to make
connections between ideas and make them clear to the readers.
What are commonly used transitional devices? List them
3. Completeness/adequacy- completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all the
sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then you paragraph is complete. If there
are not enough sentences or enough information to prove your main idea, then the paragraph is
incomplete.
4. Variation- having varieties of sentence types, simple, compound, complex and compound-
complex, in a paragraph gives flavor to the unity and coherence. A paragraph full of very short
sentences sounds like short chunks that break now and then. Likewise, a paragraph full of lengthy
sentences will not be easier for the reader to understand.
Procedures of writing a paragraph
1. Find a topic
 Narrow and modify your topic
2. Plan on the points you have already gathered
 Select only relevant details to develop the topic
 Put them in a logical order
3. Write your first draft
 Develop your topic into a topic sentence and the details into supporting sentences
 Use appropriate cohesive devices to link your sentences together in paragraph
4. Check your paragraph
 Check for the mechanics, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and spacing
VIII. Here you are given an example on how to narrow your topic. Write your paragraph
using the topic and supporting details given at the end.
 The impacts of technology….broad topic need to be narrowed down in to the impacts of TV.
 The impacts of TV…..still broad topic need to be narrowed down into either positive impact of
TV or negative impacts of TV

Topic :Positive impacts of TV.

Topic Sentence: TV/has plenty of positive impacts on the viewers.
Topic / controlling idea
Details:
- Information
-Entertainment -Education

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 METHODS (TECHNIQUES) OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
We can develop an idea into a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development techniques.
The common techniques of paragraph development are:
·Definition
·Contrast
·Exemplification (Illustration)
·Narration
·Classification·
· Cause-effect
- Process
-Comparison
-Description

The following section attempts to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph development
methods/techniques.
1. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits the
thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by determining its
precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation.
Definition is a method of explaining a word‘s meaning. When you use definition to explain, be
sure to:
 Identify the term you are defining;
 Place the term in the general group and offer a distinguishing characteristic;
 Use one or more examples to classify, explain what the term is not, trace the term‘s meaning over
time, or use description to develop your definition;
 Use transitional words and phrases to connect your ideas.

Sample Definition Paragraph

Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person‟s point of view. It is a great asset
in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It will help
them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias and,
instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

40
 2. Exemplification/Illustration
Another technique of paragraph or essay development is illustration or exemplification. The
method of illustration tries to make a general idea clear by providing specific examples and
statistical data that substantiate it.
Exemplification technique is often introduced by transitions like the following: for example ,to
illustrate for instance, such as ,as an illustration, including.
Sample for Exemplification Paragraph
People of various background and ages wear different kinds of t-shirts. Musicians, for example,
wear ragged t-shirts when they perform on stage. Restaurant workers wear t-shirts that mark the
name of the restaurant they work in. children, teens, parents and elderly people wear t-shirts on
which almost anything can be pictured. At concerts, for instance, fans can buy t-shirts stamped
with the name of the group on stage. College students can wear the name of their college on the
shirt. Some popular t-shirts advertise a brand of beer, like „Dashen‟, or a sports goods company
like Adidas. Other tee shirts have political slogans like “Unity with Diversity”. Other people also
wear t-shirts which reflect their religious background. For example, while some Christians wear t-
shirts on which “I Belong to Jesus!” is printed, some people from Muslim backgrounds also wear
shirts with “Alhamdulillah!” From this one can understand that what is written or pictured on t-
shirts is as varied as the people who wear them.
3. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to make the
relationships among members of the group. Or in other words, it is a method of explaining or
examining a topic by organizing its parts into categories. Classification is the process of putting a
large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups.
Note: Like the other paragraphs, first you will develop a topic sentence which is convenient for
classification. After finding a topic to classify, establish the central, unique characteristic of each
category. This is a criterion used for selection; the one main idea that helps you put everything into
its proper category.
Sample on Classification Paragraph
Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness
of information in them.
4. Cause and Effect
Causes and effects focus on why things happen and what their results or consequences are. Causes
are the reasons why something happened; they answer the question ―Why did the event happen?‖
If your purpose for writing is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, you should

41
use cause and effect method. Cause and effect analysis states the cause in the topic sentence and
then proceeds to analyze the topic by discussing the effects of the central idea.
Explanations of cause and effects very often use transitions such as the following:
Thus, reasons lead to
Because, a result, brings about
leading to effects there fore
since causes as a result
Here are some other common conjunctions that can be used to express cause and effect:
for this reason, since because of +noun phrase
as a result, because due to +noun phrase
therefore, consequently so
Example:
Headaches can have several causes. Many people think that the major cause of headache is
nervous tension, but strong evidence suggests diet and environment as possible factors. Some
people get headaches because they are dependent on caffeine. Other people may be allergic to salt,
or they may have low blood sugar. Still other people are allergic to household chemicals including
polishes, waxes, bug killers and paint. If they can manage to avoid these substances, their
headaches tend to go away. When a person has recurring headaches, it is important to look for the
underlying cause, especially if the result of that search is freedom from pain.

5. Comparison/Comparing
In comparison, the writer places two subjects side by side and examines their similarities in order
to clarify the qualities of each (inform) or to make a point. If you write about the similarities
between two things (subtopics),the paragraph will be a comparison paragraph.

Here are common transitional markers/devices for developing comparison paragraph.

Like alike resembles similarities as…..

Just like likewise also same….,too.
Just as equally similarly similar both

Sample Comparison Paragraph

My house and my car are similar in many ways. First of all, both places are untidy. In my house,
you can see clothes strewn on chairs, papers littering all surfaces, and dishes in the sink. Similarly,
42
 in my car, the back seat and floor are covered with sports clothes and shoes, books, empty soft-
drink cans, and gum wrappers. Second of all, I like to spend a lot of time in my house and in my
car. After work, I usually go home, eat dinner, and flop down on to the sofa to watch videos or
read a book. Likewise, on weekends, I usually take long out-of-town trips in my car; sometimes I
even sleep in it to save money on hotels. Finally, I do some identical activities in my house and in
my car. In my house, I get dressed, listen to loud music, and eat. In the same way, I change in to
my sports clothes in the car, listen to loud music on my car stereo, and eat snacks on my way
home after work or the gym. Although I treat my home and my car alike, I should probably clean
both of them up, so that people won't be afraid to visit or drive with me!
6. Contrast
In contrast, the writer places two subjects side by side and examines their differences in order to
clarify the qualities of each (inform) or to make a point. If you want to write about the differences
between two things (subtopics), your paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.
Here are some common transitions showing contrast.
However on the other hand different
in contrast as opposed to differently
instead unlike differs
Here are some more contrast conjunctions that you can use:
Short conjunctions subordinating conjunctions
in contrast, even though + ( sentence
by contrast although + (sentence)
but whereas + (sentence)
yet unlike + (sentence)
nevertheless while + (sentence)
7. Narration
The events in a narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in
which they happened. Sometimes you may want to rearrange events to emphasize a point. If you
do, make sure the sequence of events is clear enough for the reader to follow. A clear well-written
narrative should provide sufficient detail to allow your readers to understand fully the situation
you are writing about. Try to answer for your reader most of the following questions:

1. When did it happen? 4. What events occurred?

2. Who was involved? 5. Why did they happen?
3. Where did it happen? 6. How did they happen?

43
 Example
There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers- by. The king,
have heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in chains to the king who
sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place were to be beheaded, the old father of this
robber was following him in tears. When the robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a
few words to him before his death. Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he
failed to do so because his hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible
bite with his teeth. All the people around him shouted: “Really this bandit deserve death since he
even wanted to kill his father.” But, he told them: “it is not I who deserves death but my father.”
When in my childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he praised me instead of punishing me and
accustomed me to robbery. For this reason, I became a bandit and thus reached this hour of my
death. Had my father punished me at the appropriate time, I would not have come to this end.
Having said this, he was beheaded, but all those who had children understood the seriousness of
the matter.

8. Description
Description helps the reader visualize the topic. Descriptive writing creates impression.
Descriptive paragraph creates an impression, and enables your reader to visualize your topic
sentence. To write effective descriptions, you have to:
 Establish a dominant impression, and express this impression in your topic sentence;
 Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression;
 Use exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses;
 Organize your details logically;
 Use transitional words and phrases to link your details.
All the details in a descriptive paragraph must be relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant
impression.
9. Process
A process paragraph or essay describes how something is done or how something works. We call
it ―how -to‖ paragraph‖. If you are to explain the series of actions, stages, or procedures, then
you should use process method.

Example on process paragraph

Making a good cup of tea is exquisitely simple. First, the teapot is heated by filling it with water
that has just come to a boil. This water is then discarded, and one teaspoon of loose tea per cup is

44
placed in the teapot (the exact amount may vary according to taste). Fresh water that has just come
to boil is poured into the pot. A good calculation is six ounces of water for each cup of tea. The tea
must now steep for three to five minutes; then it is poured through a strainer into a cup or mug. A
pound of loose tea will yield about two hundred cups of brewed tea. Using a tea bag eliminates the
strainer, but it is still best to make the tea in teapot so that the water stays sufficiently hot. The
typical restaurant service-a cup of hot water with the tea bag on the side –will not produce the best
cup of tea because the water is never hot enough when it is reaches the table and because the tea
should not be dunked in the water; the water should be poured over the tea. Although tea in a pot
often becomes too strong, that problem can be dealt with very easily by adding more boiling
water.
Methods of Paragraph Organization
Thus, this section deals with the following methods of paragraph organization that help you
achieve coherence in your paragraphs.
 Spatial Order:
 Chronological Order (Time Order)
 Order of Importance (Emphatic Order)

6. Advanced Writing Skills

WRITING MODES

45
1. Narrative Writing: Narrative writing tells a story. Narrative writing's main purpose is to tell a
story. The author will create different characters and tell you what happens to them (sometimes the
author writes from the point of view of one of the characters—this is known as first person
narration). Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, and biographies can all fall in the narrative
writing style. Simply, narrative writing answers the question: ―What happened then?‖
2. Descriptive Writing: Descriptive writing paints a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing. The
goal of descriptive writing is to make the reader feel as if they are part of the scene being
described. Descriptive writing uses sensory details, metaphors, and other literary devices to bring
the subject to life.
Adjectives and verbs
The grey ash cloud flew (rose) (floated) (escaped) (drifted) (faded) up to the sky.
The grey ash cloud rose up to the sky/The grey ash cloud faded up to the sky.
The thick, white, creeping smoke was visible in the dark, (starry) bitter, ominous sky.
The whole neighborhood went to search for the missing boy.
The viscous, savage crowd went out to search for the lost/ innocent/ orphaned boy.
Simile
The tunnel was dark, gloomy and silent like an abandoned, haunted mill.
The tunnel was dark, gloomy and silent like the empty dead space in a black hole.
Senses
The thick smoke carried a dense, choking, burnt smell through the air.
The man heard the birds chirping and tweeting as loud as possible like a vast orchestra/ like a
stadium of enthusiastic football fans competing with each other.
The crackling smoke filled my nose with a powerful burning aroma.
Personification
The miserable brown mud stuck to us as if it were trying to pull us down into it‘s murky
kingdom.
The shady smoke hypnotized the people pulling (drawing) (them towards it) in all of their
minds.
3. Expository Writing: Expository writing is a style of composition that exposes or explains a
topic using facts. Expository writing often includes a thesis statement, supportive information,
explanatory paragraphs and a conclusion that summarizes the information. It focuses on presenting
factual information that's free of any biases or opinions.
4. Argumentative Writing: An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that uses factual
evidence and logical support to convince the reader of a certain way of thinking.

46
 PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are used as a signal to the reader. When we speak, we can pause, stop, or
change our tone of voice. When we write, we need to indicate our reader how we want them to
read our writing. If we did not have punctuation, our writing would be one long stream of thought
with no coherence. Imagine reading your text book if it were all one very long sentence. How
much sense would it make to you? Now, think about a conversation you have had with your best
friend. Think about how you animate your voice, the pauses you make for emphasis, and the
sound of a question. All those different aspects of your speech can be shown on a paper using
punctuation. The following are some rules to help you use punctuation to your advantage using the
marks below:
1. Period (.)
a. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know that you would never break my trust intentionally.
b. If the last word in the sentence ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Examples: I know that M.D. She is my sister-in-law.
Please shop, cook, etc. I will do the laundry.
c. Use a period after an indirect question.
Example: He asked where his suitcase was.
d. A period may be placed after initial letters or after a shortened form of a word to indicate an
abbreviation:
B.A. U.K. a.m. A.D. Mon. Dec. Prof. Gen. (General or Genesis)
2. Comma (,)
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven
coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so)
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
Yesterday was her brother‘s birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main
clause.
a. Comma starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include
after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
When the snow stops falling, we‘ll shovel the driveway.

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 However, don‘t put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause
follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
INCORRECT: The cat scratched the door, while I was eating.
CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won Oscar. (This comma use is
correct because it is an example of extreme contrast.)
b. Comma introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and
infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional
phrases (over four words)
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you‘d better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the café.
c. Comma introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you might not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to
meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted
yourself.
4. Nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
Examples
The constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branch of government.
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 The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end
unemployment.
Prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge
motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation
John said without emotion, ―I‘ll see you tomorrow.‖
―I was able,‖ she answered, ―to complete the assignment.‖
In 1848, Marx wrote, ―Workers of the world, unite!‖
7. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.
Examples: He is a strong, healthy man.
8. Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.
Examples: Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, Doctor, I will.
9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Example: Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
10. Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state. Some businesses no longer
use the comma after the state.
Example: I lived in San Francisco, California, for twenty years.
OR
I lived in San Francisco, California for twenty years.
11. Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required
around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.
12. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example: That is my money, not yours.
13. Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for
example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the
introductory word.
Examples: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm
clothing.
OR
You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
You may be required to bring many items, e.g. sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
3. Question Mark (?)

49
a. A question mark is placed at the end of a question.
What are you doing?
The questions may be elliptical:
Seen anyone else I know?
You spendthrift Anyhow why?
Any ideas?
Looking forward to your move to Cambridge?
More coffee?
b. A tag question:
It won't be too long before you come over, will it?
You don't mind, do you?
They haven't come back, either, have they?
You love me, don't you?
c. A declarative question:
Perhaps this represents cash advanced?
You must be glad to have Keith back?
I said quickly, ―You believe in using drugs to suppress all pain?‖
Jaycee was a male?
I thought you telephoned ahead?
You did pick your passport off the floor?
d. A tag question may sometimes not have question form:
What have you been up to with this then, eh?
e. Punctuation conventions require that a question mark not be used for indirect questions:
I don't know whether you've had any work lately.
They told him what the topic should be.
f. A question mark in parentheses is occasionally used to express doubt about a part of the
sentence that comes immediately before it:
The concern with 'authenticity' and 'integrity' expresses itself in, for example, gridded metal-
framed canopies in the arcades, supported by steel (?) rods emerging out of free-standing stone
pillars [. . .]
4. Exclamation Mark (!)
The exclamation mark is placed at the end of a sentence to signal that the sentence is a forceful
utterance.
a. Exclamatory sentences introduced by how or what

50
 What an appropriate introduction to San Francisco!
How lovely to be writing to you again!
How boring!
b. Exclamatory questions
Aren't things different now!
c. Expressions of surprise or shock
You can only have showers on week-days after supper, and you have to pay 5 Francs each
time—I couldn't believe it!
The architecture here is dramatically different from that in Manhattan. You can see the sky!
d. Conventional form of wishes and curses
Examples
Good luck to Simon for his exams!
Happy Birthday!
Congratulations!
If only it would!
Damn the Belgian refugees!
e. Urgent warnings or alarms
Examples
Look, Benjamin!
'Shoot him! Shoot him!
The wheelchair woman cried, 'Not like that!'
f. Vocatives when use alone
'The neighbors will hear you. Or do you want people to know how you behave towards me?'
'Susan!'
g. Interjections
Examples
Oh dear!
Hi again!
"Humph!" she said to herself.
Well, well!
'Oh no!'
Here are some other examples:
I miss you!
I've not had a permanent job for almost two years now!
You spendthrift!
51
 The rent costs next to nothing and the area is superb—about time too!
I'm here at last!
I shall regret this for the rest of my life!
'She wouldn't do that!'
h. Exclamation marks are occasionally used within sentences:
However, usually (and ideally!) the industrial contract is of a thoroughly standard kind.
i. They are also occasionally used in parentheses in informal writing to indicate that what
appears in an immediately preceding part of the sentence is surprising.
There are about 50 other girls, most appear to be younger than me (!) and are very
unfriendly.
j. In informal writing we occasionally find combinations of two or more exclamation marks or
combinations of question marks with exclamation marks.
Gosh, the things which satisfy us, as we get older … !!
Has he mended the door yet?!
5. Colon (:)
a. The colon introduces a list of items
This arrangement allows measurements to be made in three spectral bands: solar, near
Infrared and (by subtraction) visible.
Today they face a further threat to their survival: starvation.
b. The colon introduces identification (one item rather than a list) and an example.
These are numerous variables that can contribute towards an increasing totalitarianism within
a new religious movement: one fairly obvious one is physical isolation.
c. A period or a semicolon is more usual than a colon when an explicit expression is present,
such as for example, though the period would ordinarily be used only when the expression is
followed by a sentence:
Some we won: for example, a standardized mineral-carrying rail wagon was agreed on.
d. The colon is followed by a quotation and by direct speech
It is disappointing, therefore, that the submitted design should fall far short of it‘s clearly
stated goal: ―to discover an architectural form that can accommodate all these functions,
activities and contexts at once‖.
Atkinson said yesterday: ―I'm happy here.‖
One dealer said: "Even as late as yesterday I suppose the market had a 90% belief in war.
That 10% of optimism has now been stamped out."
6. Semicolon (;)

52
a. The main function of the semicolon is to separate two or more independent clauses that are
placed next to each other within a sentence:
The government counts money as it is spent; Dodge counts contracts when they are awarded.
Arbitrage does not cause volatility; it responds to it.
She was the widow of a curate from the south of France; with her daughter she kept a small
day school and had a few paying guests.
b. It is preferable to use the semicolon before introductory words such as namely, however,
therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete
sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word.
You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm
clothing will make the trip better.
As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are not optional.
c. Use either a semicolon or a comma before introductory words such as namely, however,
therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a list following
a complete sentence. Use a comma after the introductory word.
You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and
warm clothing.
OR
You will want to bring many backpacking items, for example, sleeping bags,
pans, and warm clothing.
d. Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain
commas.
This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and
Nashville, Tennessee.
e. Use the semicolon between two sentences that are joined by a conjunction but already have
one or more commas within the first sentence.
When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.
If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her.
7. Quotation Mark (― ‖)
Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes.
Examples: The sign changed from ―Walk,‖ to ―Don‘t Walk,‖ to ―Walk‖ again within thirty
seconds.
She said, ―Hurry up.‖
She said, ―He said, ‗Hurry up.‖‘

53
The placement of question marks with quotes follows logic. If a question is in quotation marks,
the question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples: She asked, ―Will you still be my friend?‖
Do you agree with the saying, ―All‘s fair in love and war‖?
Here the question is outside the quote.
When you have a question outside quoted material AND inside quoted material, use only one
question mark and place it inside the quotation mark.
Example: Did she say, ―May I go?‖
Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all quote
marks.
He said, ―Danea said, ‗Do not treat me that way.‖‘
Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.
―When will you be here?‖ he asked.
He asked when you will be there.
When you are quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material
in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in brackets. Sic means, “This is
the way the original material was.”
She wrote, ―I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister.‖
Should be than, not then.
8. Parentheses
a. Use parentheses to enclose words or figures that clarify or are used as an aside.
I expect five hundred dollars ($500). He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that
he did not understand the question.
b. Use full parentheses to enclose numbers or letters used for listed items.
Example: We need an emergency room physician who can (1) think quickly, (2) treat patients
respectfully, and (3) handle complaints from the public.
c. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).
OR
Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.)
OR
Please read the analysis (Attachment A).
a. Apostrophe (‘)

54
 a. Use the apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is always placed at the spot
where the letter(s) has been removed.
Don‘t, isn‘t
You‘re right.
She‘s a great teacher.
b. Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the s to
show singular possession.
one boy‘s hat
one woman‘s hat
one actress‘s hat
one child‘s hat
Ms. Chang‘s house
Note: Although names ending in s or an s sound are not required to have the second s added in
possessive form, it is preferred.
Mr. Jones‘s golf clubs
Texas‘s weather
Ms. Straus‘s daughter
Jose Sanchez‘s artwork
Dr. Hastings‘s appointment (name is Hastings)
Mrs. Lees‘s books (name is Lees)
c. use the apostrophe where the noun that should follow is implied.
Example: This was his father‘s, not his, jacket.
d. to show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use then apostrophe.
Examples: two boys‘ hats
two women‘s hats
two actresses‘ hats
two children‘s hats
the Changs‘ house
the Joneses‘ golf clubs
the Strauses‘ daughter
the Sanchezes‘ artwork
the Hastingses‘ appointment
the Leeses‘ books
e. Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of a name.
We visited the Sanchezes in Los Angeles.
55
 The Changs have two cats and a dog.
f. With a singular compound noun, show possession with ‘s at the end of the word.
my mother-in-law‘s hat.
g. If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
my two brothers-in-law‘s hats
h. Use the apostrophe and s after the second name only if two people possess the same item.
Cesar and Maribel‘s home is constructed of redwood.
Cesar‘s and Maribel‘s job contracts will be renewed next year.
Indicates separate ownership.
Cesar and Maribel‘s job contracts will be renewed next year.
Indicates joint ownership of more than one contract
b. Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours,
whose.
c. They already show possession so they do not require an apostrophe.
Correct: This book is hers, not yours.
Incorrect: Sincerely your‘s.
k. The only time an apostrophe is used for it’s is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.
It‘s a nice day.
It‘s been great getting to know you.
k. The plurals for capital letters and numbers used as nouns are not formed with apostrophes.
She consulted with three M.D.s. BUT
She went to three M.D.s‘ offices.
The apostrophe is needed here to show plural possessive.
She learned her ABCs.
the 1990s, not the 1990‘s
the ‘90s or the mid-‘70s, not the ‘90‘s or the mid-‘70‘s
She learned her times tables for 6s and 7s.
Exception: Use apostrophes with capital letters and numbers when the meaning would be
unclear otherwise.
Examples: Please dot your I‘s.
You don‘t mean Is.
Ted couldn‘t distinguish between her 6‘s and 0‘s.
You don‘t mean Os.
l. Use the possessive case in front of a gerund (-ing word).
Examples: Alex‘s skating was a joy to behold.
56
 This does not stop Joan‘s inspecting of our facilities next Thursday.
m. If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that pronoun.
Examples: I appreciate your inviting me to dinner.
I appreciated his working with me to resolve the conflict.

7. Grammar in Use
1. RELATIVE CLAUSES
A relative clause gives more information about someone or something referred to in a main
clause. Some relative clauses (defining relative clauses) are used to specify which person or thing
we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean:

The couple who live next to us have sixteen grandchildren.

Andrew stopped the police car that was driving past.
There are two types of relative clauses:
1. Defining relative clauses
2. Non-defining relative clauses
1.1. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
These describe the preceding noun in such a way to distinguish it from other nouns of the same
class. A clause of this kind is essential to clear understanding of the noun.
When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of the
clause. In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the subject. Notice that the verb follows
the relative pronoun:

We have a friend who/that plays the piano.

The boy who was playing is my brother.
Defining Relative Pronouns
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE
For people Who / That Whom/Who orThat Whose
For things Which / That Which or That Whose/Of which

Defining Relative Clauses: people

A. subject: who / that. Who is normally used.

The man who robbed you has been arrested.

The girls who serve in the shop are the owner‟s daughters.

57
But that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those:

Everyone who/that knew him liked him.

Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it.
B. Object of a verb: whom, who or that. The object form is whom, but it is considered very
formal. In spoken English we normally use who or that (that being more usual than who),
and it is still more common to omit the object pronoun altogether:

The man whom I saw told me to come back today.

The man who I saw told me to come back today.

The man that I saw told me to come back today.

The man I saw told me to come back today.
C. With a preposition: whom or that. In formal English the preposition is placed before the
relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form whom:

The man to whom I spoke…
In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause.
Whom then is often replaced by that, but it is still more common to omit the relative altogether:
The man who/whom I spoke to… = The man that I spoke to… = The man I spoke to…
D. Possessive: Whose is the only possible form:

People whose rents have been raised can appeal.

The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
Defining Relative Clauses: things
A Subject: Either which or that. Which is more formal.

This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.

The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
B Object of a verb: Which or that or no relative at all.

The car which/that I hired broke down.

The car I hired broke down.
C Object of a preposition: The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual
to move the preposition to the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative
altogether:

The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.

The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip.

The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
D Possessive: Whose + a clause is possible but with + a phrase is more usual:

A house whose walls were made of glass

A house with glass walls
58
Relative adverbs: We use when to replace in/on which for time, where to replace in/at which
for place and why to replace for which for reasons.
1.2. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite already. They do not
therefore define the noun. But merely add something to it by giving some more information about
it. They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion. They are
separated from their noun by commas. The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining
relative clause.
The boy who was playing is my brother.
Non-Defining Relative Pronouns
SUBJET OBJECT POSSESSIVE
For people Who Whom/Who Whose
For things Which Which Whose/ Of which
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: people
Some relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is not
necessary to explain which person or thing we mean:
A Subject: who (No other pronoun is possible.) Note the commas:

My neighbor, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.

Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
B Object: whom, who. Here the pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form, though
who is sometimes used in conversation:
 Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent..
C Object of a preposition: whom. Here the pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is
normally placed before whom:

Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is commonly
done in conversation, and who then usually takes the place of whom:
 Ato Abebe, who I was working for, was very generous about overtime payments.
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end:

Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me. could become:

Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter
than me. D. Possessive: whose

Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.

This is George, whose class you will be taking.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: things
59
A. Subject: When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a thing or
group of things, we use which as the subject or object of the clause. That is sometimes used
instead of which.

The instructors‟ busses, which were usually very punctual, were late today.
B. Object: which. That is not used here, and the word which can never be omitted.

These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you
need.
C. Object of a preposition. The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the end
of the clause:

His house, for which he paid $800,000, is now worth $2,000,000.
 His house, which he paid $800,000 for, is now worth $2,000,000.
D. Possessive: whose or of which
Whose is generally used both for animals and things.
Of which is possible for things, but it is unusual except in very formal English.

His house, whose windows are all broken, was a depressing sight.

The car, whose hand brake wasn‟t very reliable , began to slide backwards.
EXERCISE: Choose the correct answer
1. She was probably the hardest working student___________ I've ever taugh t .
A. whom B. who C. which D. that
2. Demelash said something _____________I couldn't hear clearly.
A. that B. no relative pronounC. B & C can be answers D. All
3. There was little_________ we could do to help her.t/-
A. which B. that C. no relative pronoun D. B & C can be answers
4. I have a friend_________ ran in the New York Marathon last year.
A. who B. that C. A and B D. no relative pronoun
5. The book________ Eskindir published when he was in prison was sold for $50, 000.
6. He's probably the best boxer________ I've played against.
A. Who B. whom C. which D. that
7. This is Aster Geremew, _________ your nephew sends letter every week.
A. who B. whom C. to whom D. whose
8. This is Abel Tafere, _________ your niece love a lot.
A. who B. whom C. thatD. which
9. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
A. My mother who has twenty five great grandchildren is 83 years old now.
B. My brother, who has two children, has two second degrees.
60
 C. My brother who has two children has two second degrees.
D. My daughter, who is going to graduate after a month, is a hard worker.
E. All can be answers
10. Which sentence is written wrongly?
F. This is the chair on which I was sitting in the party.
G. This is the chair which I was sitting on in the party.
H. This is the chair that I was sitting on in the party.
I. This is the chair I was sitting on in the party.
J. No answer
2. TENSES
2.1. Simple present tense ( I do) and Present continuous tense ( I‘m doing)
We use the present simple to describe things that are always true, or situations that exist now and,
as far as we know, will go on indefinitely:

It takes me five minutes to get to school.

Trees grow more quickly in summer than in winter.
To talk about particular actions or events that have begun but have not ended at the time of
speaking, we use the present continuous:

The car isn't starting again.

'Who are you phoning?' 'I'm trying to get through to Joan.'
We often use time expressions such as at the moment, at present, currently, just, and still to
emphasize that the action or event is happening now:

'Have you done the shopping?' I‘m just going.‘
Notice that the action or event may not be going on at the time of speaking:

The police are talking to a number of people about the robbery.
We use the present simple to talk about habits or things that happen on a regular basis:

I leave work at 5.30 most days.

Each July we go to Turkey for a holiday.
However, when we describe repeated actions or events that are happening at or around the
time of speaking, we use the present continuous:

Why are you jumping up and down?

I'm hearing a lot of good reports about your work these days.
We often prefer to use the present simple rather than the present continuous with verbs describing
states:

I really enjoy travelling.

The group currently consists of five people, but we hope to get more members soon.
61
Other common state verbs include agree, assume, believe, belong to, contain, cost, disagree,
feel, hate, have, hope, know, like, look, love, own, prefer, realize, regret, resemble, smell, taste.
However, we can use the present continuous with some state verbs when we want to
emphasize that a situation is temporary, for a period of time around the present. Compare:

I consider him to be extremely fortunate. (This is my view) and

I'm considering taking early retirement. (This is something I'm thinking about now)
When we want to emphasize that something is done repeatedly, we can use the present continuous
with words like always, constantly, continually, or forever. Often we do this when we want to
show that we are unhappy about it, including our own behavior:

They're constantly having parties until the early hours of the
morning. We use the past continuous in the same way:

He was forever including me in his crazy schemes.
The present simple is used to report what we have heard or what we have read:

This newspaper article explains why unemployment has been rising so quickly.
We also use the present simple in spoken English in phrases such as I gather, I hear, I see, and I
understand to introduce news that we have heard, read or seen (e.g. on television):

I gather you're worried about the new job?

The Prince is coming to visit, and I hear he's very rich.
2.2. Present Perfect (I have done) and Past simple (I did)
2.2.1. Present perfect: When we talk about something that happened in the past, but we don't
specify precisely when it happened (perhaps we don't know, or it is not important to say when it
happened), we use the present perfect:

A French yachtsman has broken the record for sailing round the world single-handed.

I have complained about the traffic before.
When we use the present perfect, it suggests some kind of connection between what happened in
the past, and the present time. Often we are interested in the way that something that happened in
the past affects the situation that exists now:

I've washed my hands so that I can help you with the cooking.
The connection with the present may also be that something happened recently, with a
consequence for the present:

I've found the letter you were looking for. Here it is.

My ceiling has fallen in and the kitchen is flooded. Come quickly!
When we talk about how long an existing situation has lasted, even if we don't give a precise
length of time, we use the present perfect:

They've grown such a lot since we last saw them.
62
 
Prices have fallen sharply over the past six months.
We often use the present perfect to say that an action or event has been repeated a number of
times up to now:

They've been to Bahir Dar three times.

I've often wished I'd learned to read music.
2.2.2. Past simple: When we want to indicate that something happened at a specific time in the
past, we use the past simple. We can either say when it happened, using a time adverb, or
assume that the hearer already knows when it happened or can understand this from the
context:

Sara arrived at Bole Airport at 2 o'clock this morning.

Abel decided to continue the course, even though it was proving very difficult.
We use the past simple for situations that existed for a period of time in the past, but not now:

When I was younger I played table tennis for my local team.

The Pharaohs ruled Egypt for thousands of years.
If we are interested in when a present situation began rather than how long it has been going on
for, we use the past simple. Compare:

I started to get the pains three weeks ago.

When did you arrive in Britain?
 I've had the pains for three weeks now.
 How long have you been in Britain?
However, we also use the past simple to talk about how long something went on for if the action
or event is no longer going on:

I stayed with my grandparents for six months. (= I am no longer staying there)

'He spent some time in Adama when he was younger.' 'How long did he live there?'
We use the present perfect when we talk about something that happened in a period of time up
to the present. We use the past simple to talk about something that happened at a particular,
finished time in the past. Compare:

Science has made many major advances this century, and

Scientists made some fundamental discoveries in the 18th century.

He puts to good use things that other people have thrown away, and

I threw away most of my old books when I moved house.
When we report that someone has recently invented, produced, discovered or written something
we use the present perfect. When we talk about something that was invented, etc. in the more
distant past we use the past simple. Compare:

63
 
Scientist have discovered that, all over the world, millions of frogs and toads are dying.

It is often said that Hernan Cortes 'discovered' Mexico in 1519.

Two schoolchildren have invented a device for moving large objects up flights of stairs.

Chinese craftsmen invented both paper and printing.
We can use either the present perfect or the past simple to talk about repeated actions or events. If
we use the present perfect, we often suggest that the action or event might happen again.
Sometimes we emphasize this with phrases such as so far and up to now. If we use the past simple,
it suggests that it is finished and won't happen again. Compare:

Timson has made 13 films and I think her latest is the best. and

Timson made 13 films before she was tragically killed in a car accident.
We can use both the present perfect and the past simple to talk about states. We use the present
perfect to talk about a state that existed in the past and still exists now, and we use the past
simple if the state no longer exists. Compare:

We have belonged to the tennis club since we moved here. (We still belong to it.) and

We belonged to the tennis club in the village we used to live in.
EXERCISE A: Complete these sentences with the verb given. Choose the present perfect or past
simple.
1. According to yesterday's newspapers, astronomers in Australia_________ a planet in
a galaxy close to our own. (discover)
2. He proudly told reporters that the company _________software to prevent the recent
increase in computer crime, (produce)
3. John Grigg _________the comet now called Grigg-Skjellerup, at the beginning of
the 20th century, (discover)
EXERCISE B: Complete the sentences with appropriate verbs. Use the same verb for each
sentence in the pair. Use either the present perfect or the past simple.
1. a. A lot of people_________ about the painting, and I always say it's not for sale.
b. The police ________me several questions about my car before they let me go.
2. a. Until she retired last month, she________ in the customer complaints department.
b. Sara_________ hard to change the rules and says that the campaign will go on.
3. a. The Bible_______ more copies than any other book.
b. When it became clear that I would be moving to Austria, I______ the house to my
brother.
Sometime adverbs that connect the past to the present (like already, since (last week), so far,
still, up to now, yet) are often used with the present perfect:

Don't disturb Amy. The baby's just gone to sleep, (not ...she just went to sleep.)
64
 
Have you seen your grandparents lately? (not Did you see...)
Time adverbs that refer to the present, such as today, this morning/week/month, can also be
used with either the present perfect or past simple. If we see today etc. as a past, completed
period of time, then we use the past simple; if we see today, etc. as a period including the present
moment, then we use the present perfect. Compare:
• I wrote three letters this morning. (= the morning is over) and
• I've written three letters this morning. (= it is still morning)
We use the present perfect with ever and never to emphasize that we are talking about the whole
of a period of time up until the present:
• It's one of the most magnificent views I have ever seen. (= in my whole life)
• I've never had any problems with my car. (= at any time since I bought it)
2.3. PAST PERFECT and PAST SIMPLE
We use the past perfect to talk about a past situation or activity that took place before another
past situation or activity, or before a particular time in the past.
We use the past simple rather than the past perfect when we simply talk about a single activity or
«event in the past. When we give an account of a sequence of past events, we usually put these
events in chronological order with the past simple.
Notice the difference in meaning of these sentences with the past perfect and past simple:

When he stopped laughing, everyone left. (= they left after he stopped laughing)

When he stopped laughing, everyone had left. (= they left before he stopped laughing)

I got up when the phone rang. (= the phone rang and then I got up)

I had gone to bed when the phone rang. (= I went to bed and then the phone rang)
When we use a time expression (e.g. after, as soon as, before, by the time (that), when) to say that
one event happened after another, we use either the past simple or past perfect for the event that
happened first and the past simple for the event that happened second:

After Ivan (had) finished reading, he put out the light.

When Carol (had) brushed her teeth, she went to bed
EXERCISE: Underline the correct answer.
1. 'Where are we?' I had asked / asked Martha.
2. By the time I got back to the bathroom, the bath had overflowed / overflowed.
3. She walked into the station only to find that the train had left / left.
4. I was just about to leave when / had remembered I remembered my briefcase.
5. In a surprise move, the Prime Minister had resigned / resigned last night.
2.4. SIMPLE FUTURE ENSE (WILL/SHALL) and GOING to

65
Will + infinitive and going to + infinitive are commonly used to talk about the future.
Sometimes the difference between them is very small:

John will / John's going to meet us in the restaurant at 8 o'clock.

Will you / Are you going to come back this evening?
However, going to is preferred in spoken English and will is preferred in formal written English.
We use going to rather than will when we PREDICT that something will happen in the future
because we have some evidence for it now. It may be that we predict an event that is just about to
happen on the basis of something that we feel, see (etc.) now:

'What's that matter with her?' 'She thinks she's going to faint.' or it may be that we can
predict n event because we have been told that it will happen:

Did you know that Bob and Kath are going to get married?
However, if we make a prediction based on our opinion or our past experience we use will:

Why not come over at the weekend? The children will enjoy seeing you again.

I imagine the stadium will be full for the match on Saturday.
When we talk about INTENTIONS or DECISIONS about the future that were made some time
before we report them, we prefer going to or the present continuous:

'Who's arranging the party?' 'Jo's going to do it.' (- this has been planned)

Toni told me that she's going to move back to Spain. (= reporting an intention)
However, notice that in a formal style, we use will rather than going to to talk about future events
that have been previously arranged in some detail:

The meeting will begin at 10.00 am. Coffee will be available from 9.30
onwards. When we state a decision made at the moment of speaking, we prefer
will:

'Is that the phone? ―Don‘t worry. I'll get it.'
2.5. PRESENT CONTINUOUS (I am doing) for the future and GOING TO
We use the present continuous and going to + infinitive to talk about future activities and
events that are intended or have already been arranged:

She's making a speech at the conference next week.

Are you seeing Tony this week? (= do you have an arrangement to see him?)

I'm tired. I'm not going to work anymore tonight.

We're going to do some climbing in the Pyrenees.
When we talk about an INTENTION to do something in the future, although no definite
arrangement has been made, we prefer going to rather than the present continuous. To emphasize
that we are talking about a DEFINITE ARRANGEMENT, we prefer the present continuous.
Study these sentences:
66
 
Before I go to China next year, I'm going to learn some Cantonese.

I'm still not feeling very well, so I think I'm going to see the doctor sometime this week. 

What are you going to do next, now that you've finished your course?

They're leaving from Frankfurt airport at 6.30 pm.

We're having a party on Sunday, 12th November. Can you come?

The orchestra is performing Mahler's 5th Symphony at next week's concert.
We don't use the present continuous for the future:
1. when we make or report predictions about activities or events over which we have no control
(we can't arrange these):

I think it's going to rain / '11 rain soon, (not I think it's raining soon.)

Scientists say that the satellite is going to fall / will fall to Earth some time this
afternoon. (not
...the satellite is falling...)
2. when we talk about permanent future situations:

People are going to live / will live longer in the future, (not ...are living...)

Her new house is going to have / will have three floors, (not ...is having...)
3. with the verb be:

John's going to be a shepherd in the school play next week, («of John's being...)

I'm going to be in Tokyo in May. (not I'm being in Tokyo...)
4. We tend to avoid going to + go and use the present continuous form of go instead:

I'm going to town on Saturday, (rather than I'm going to go to town...)

Alice is going to university next year, (rather than ...is going to go to university...)
2.4. PRESENT SIMPLE (I do ) for the future
We use the present simple when we talk about future events that are part of some OFFICIAL
ARRANGEMENT such as a timetable or program. , we use it if we can make a definite, specific
prediction because an activity or event is part of an official arrangement such as a timetable or
program.

Their plane arrives at 2 o'clock in the morning.

The next meeting of the committee is on November 5th.

We get off the train in Bristol and continue by bus.

I'm away on holiday next week. Can we meet the week after?
We don't use the present simple when we talk about PERSONAL PLANS or PREDICTIONS.
Instead L we use will, going to, or the present continuous.

I'm really exhausted. I'm just staying in to watch TV tonight.
2.5. Future continuous and present continuous for the future
67
We can often use either the future continuous or the present continuous when we talk
about planned activities or events in the future (see also Unit 12):

We will be leaving / are leaving for Istanbul at 7.00 in the evening.

Professor Hodge will be giving / is giving the first presentation at the conference.
But we prefer the present continuous to talk about surprising or unexpected activities or events:

Have you heard the news? Dr. Radford is leaving! (rather than ...will be leaving.)
3. PREPOSITIONS
3.1.1. Prepositions of Time (at, in & on)

We use at with points of time or periods of time that we think of as points. We use at:
1. with exact points of time:

at midday at midnight at 3 o'clock at 8.15
2. with short holiday periods, such as Christmas, Easter, the weekend, etc.:

I'll see you at Easter.We often go walking at the weekend.
(In US and Australian English, 'on the weekend' is used, and this is now heard in informal
British English, too.)
3. with other short periods that we think of as points, such as the end of January, the
beginning of the year, etc.:

I get paid at the end of the month.
4. with mealtimes, such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc.:

That morning at breakfast, my brother told us he was getting married.
5. with night when we mean 'when it is night' or 'each night':

People can't go out on the streets at night any more, it's so dangerous.
6. in the phrase at the moment (= now); but notice that we say in a moment (= in a short period of
time):

John's in Korea at the moment.

I'll be with you in a moment.

We use in:
1. when we talk about longer periods of time such as seasons, months, years, decades (e.g.
the 1990's (or the 1990s)), centuries and other periods such as the week before Easter, the
hours before the exam, etc.:

In the winter you can only use the road with a four-wheel drive vehicle.

In the days that followed her operation, she spent a lot of time in bed
2. when we talk about how long it will be before something happens:

In a few minutes we will be arriving at Delhi Airport, (or, more formally, 'Within...')
3. when we say how long something takes:
68
 
He learnt how to program the computer in just a matter of weeks. (= a few weeks)
4. with parts of the day, such as the morning, the evening, etc. (see A for 'night'):

Temperatures today should reach 25°C in the afternoon.

We use on when we talk about a particular day, date, or part of a particular day:
 It's her birthday on the 21st. • I get paid on the last day of the month.
 We went to a party on Easter Sunday. • I've got a meeting on Monday morning.
NB. We rarely use at, in or on before the words all, any, each, every, last, next, one,
some, this, or that when these are followed by a time expression. Compare:
 I'll do it in the morning, and
 I'll see you again on Friday, and
• He hasn't been here all morning, (not ...in all morning.)
• I'm going to Oslo next Friday, (not ...on next Friday.)
3.1.2. Prepositions of Time (during, for, in, over, throughout )

We use during or in to talk about something that happens within a particular period of time:

The population of the city has actually fallen during the last decade, (or ...in the last...)

She didn't take a holiday during her four years as head of the company, (or ...in her four
years...)

During the time that I was in Paris, I only once saw the River Seine, (or In the time...)

We use during rather than in when we talk about something that happens within the
same time as another event or activity rather than over a particular period of time:

Mrs. Newton came into our classroom during a maths test.

The President made the speech during a visit to Madrid.

We also prefer during when we emphasize that something continues for the whole of a
particular period of time:

No-one was allowed to leave the ship during (the whole of) its time in port.

We can also use throughout to express a similar meaning:

We had enough firewood to keep us warm during (the whole of) the winter, (or...warm
throughout the winter.)

We can use over or during when we talk about an event or activity that goes on for a
length of time within a period of time, either for some of that period or for the whole of it:

Weather conditions have been improving over/during the past few days.
However, if we talk about an event or activity having little duration that happens within a
period of time, we prefer during:

She sneezed during the performance, (not ...over the performance.)

During a pause in the conversation, she left the room, (not Over a pause...)
69

We use for to say how long something continues, and during to say when something takes
place:

You can only come in for a few minutes, (not ...during...)

I felt ill for a couple of days, but was fine after that, (not ...during...)

About ten of us were taken ill during a party we were at in York, (not ...for a party...)

You will get plenty of practical experience during the training period, (not ...for the...)
3.1.3. Prepositions of Time (By, until)

We use by when we say that something will happen or be achieved either before a particular
time or at that time at the latest.

We have to be at the stadium by 2.30. (That's when the competition starts.)

She learned German by the age of 16. (She could speak it fluently when she reached
that age.)

We use until when we say that something will continue up to a particular time.

We have to be at the stadium until 2.30. (We can't leave before that time.)

She learned German until the age of 16. (Then she stopped learning it.)
3.2. preposition s o f place
3.2.1. (a t , i n an d on )

We use at to talk about a place we think of as a point rather than an area, and about an
event where there is a group of people:
 I arrived at New Street Station at 7.30. • We were waiting at the far end of the room.
 We last met at the conference in Italy. • There were very few people at Joan's party.

We use on to talk about a position touching a flat surface, or on something we think of as a
line such as a road or river:

Is that a spider on the ceiling} (Notice we also say 'on the wall/floor')

She owns a house on the Swan River.

We use in to talk about a position within a larger area, or something within a larger space: )

There's been another big forest fire in California.

She looked again in her bag and, to her relief, there were her keys.
NB. We usually use at before an address and in or on before the name of a road:

They've opened an office at 28 Lees Road.

The church is in/on Park Road.
3.2.2. Across, over, along, through

We can use across or over to talk about a position on the other side of, or getting to the other
side of a bridge, road, border, river, etc.:

The truck came towards them across/over the bridge.
70
 
Mike lives in the house across/over the road from ours

We use over rather than across when we talk about reaching the other side of something that
is high, or higher than it is wide:

He hurt his leg as he jumped over the wall.

When we are talking about something we think of as a flat surface, or an area such as a
country or sea,we use across rather than over:

He suddenly saw Sue across the room.

The program was broadcast across Australia.

The figures moved rapidly across the screen.

Notice that we can say all over but not usually all across. Instead, we prefer right across:

The disease has now spread all over the world, (or ...right across the world.)

When we talk about following a line of some kind (a path, a road, a river, a beach, a canal,
etc.), we use along.

I'd seen them walking along the road past my window several times before.

They walked along the footpath until they came to a small bridge.

We use through to emphasise that we are talking about movement in a three dimensional
space, with things all around, rather than a two dimensional space, a flat surface or area:

He pushed his way through the crowd of people to get to her.

He enjoyed the peace and quiet as he walked through the forest.

Through often suggests movement from one side or end of the space to the other. Compare:

She walked through the forest to get to her grandmother's house, and

She spent a lot of her free time walking in the forest.
3.2.3. Above, over; below, under

We can use either above or over when we say that one thing is at a higher level than another:

Above/Over the door was a sign saying, 'Mind your head'.

She had painted thick, dark eyebrows above/over each eye.
However, we use above, not over, when one thing is not directly over the other. Compare:

The castle sat in the mountains above the town, and

The passengers couldn't see the sun, as it was right over the plane. (= directly
overhead)

We use over, not above, when we say that something covers something else and is in contact
with it, and also when we are talking about horizontal movement.

A grey mist hung over the fields.

I saw the helicopter fly out over the water, near the fishing boat.

71
Below is the opposite of above; under is the opposite of over. The differences in the uses of
below and under are similar to those between above and over.

It's hard to believe that there is a railway line below/under the building.

Her head was below the level of the counter and the shop assistant didn't notice her.

I was so hot; I stood under a cold shower for ten minutes.

She hid the presents under a blanket, (the presents and the blanket are in
contact) 3.2.4. Between, among; by, beside, etc.
We use between with two or more people or things that we see as individual or separate. We use
among when we see the people or things as part of a group or mass. You can't say that you are
among two people or things. Amongst is sometimes used instead of among, but is a more literary
word.

She held the diamond between her thumb and forefinger.

He stood among all his friends in the room and felt very happy.
Between and among are not only used as prepositions of place. To talk about something done
to or by a group or groups of things or people, we can use either between or among:

The money is to be divided between/among the town s in the area.

The prize will be shared between/among the first six finishers in the race.
NB. However, when we specify the individual members of the group using singular nouns we use
between rather than among:

The treaty was signed between Great Britain and France.

There was a disagreement between Neil, John and Margaret.

We also use between, not among, when we talk about comparisons and relationships
(e.g. a p difference between, a connection between..., a friendship between..., a link
between...):

What are the differences between rugby league, rugby union and American football?

They are wrong to claim that there is a connection between unemployment and crime.

We use among, not between, when we mean 'occurring in', 'one/some of or 'out of: if

The disease has now broken out among the hill tribes. (= 'occurring in')

They are among the best hockey players in the world. (= 'some of)

Among the capital cities of South America, Quito is the second highest. (= 'out of)
3.2.5. By, beside, close to

We use beside, by, or next to to say that one thing or person is at the side of another:

Colin sat beside / by / next to her with his legs crossed.

I pushed the button beside / by / next to the door, but there was no answer.

72
 8. Introduction to Language and Linguistics
General objectives
 Understand the nature of human language
 Learn describing the diversity of language systems.
 Develop language knowledge to describe its different structures
Specific objectives
 Grasp the origins of human language.
 Describe the structure of language.
 Use theories of linguistics to describe the systems of language.
 Explain language through phrase structure rules.
1. The Nature of Human Language
1.1 What is human language?

Language is defined differently by different scholars. What then is language for linguists?
a) A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of the
society interact in terms of their total culling.
b) Language is the institution whereby human communicates and interact with each other by
means of habitually used oral- auditory arbitrary symbols.
c) Languages are infinitely learnable and modifiable according to the changing needs and
conditions of the speakers.
d) A language is a set of finite or infinite of sentences each finite in length and constructed out of a
finite set of elements.
e) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed from one human
being to another.
1.2. Knowledge of Language

When two or more people communicate with each other by means of speech, we can call the
system of communication that they employ a code (language). We should also note that two
bilingual speakers who have access to two codes, and who for one reason or another shift back and
forth between the two languages as they converse by code-switching are actually using a third

73
code, one which draws on those two languages. The system (or the grammar) is something that
each speaker ‗knows,‘ but two very important issues for linguists are just what that knowledge is
and how it may best be characterized.
Generally speaking, knowledge of a language means knowledge of:
 the system (grammar)
 the principles that govern language behavior
 the possibilities the language offers – understanding novel sentences using previous
knowledge
 The impossible (unacceptable) aspects– e.g. rejecting ungrammatical utterances
2. The Designed Features of Human Language
Language is a highly elaborated signaling system. There are five unique properties of human
language, such as displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission and duality.
2.1. Displacement: This property of language enables human beings to talk about remote events
in space and time (i.e, animal‘s need an immediate stimulus but human needn‘t things removed).
Using language, human beings can discuss the past and the future events and remote places.
Unlike human beings animals cannot talk about things and events that are not found in the
immediate environments.
2.2. Arbitrariness: It is mentioned that there is no logical or natural connection between linguistic
forms and objects or ideas in the universe. Thus, the word man and that two legged talking
creature do not have any connection at all. The same creature can be called ‗saw‘ or ‗sab‘ in
Amharic and Tigrigna respectively. In animal communication there seems to be a connection
between the signals and the messages that the signals convey. A dog in Europe and a dog in Africa
express that they are hungry in the same way.
2.3. Productivity: People are able to produce new utterances and sentences that they have never
heard before. Even children who are learning their first language can produce words and phrases
that they have never heard or used before. A lot of words and expressions are being created as they
existing words and expressions seem to be inadequate to express new concepts and objects.
Productivity (creativity or open-endedness) is the property of language which enables human
beings to create novel (new) words or expressions. Animal communication is not as flexible as
human language. The animal signals seem to have a fixed reference. In other words, each signal is
related to a specific event or object. If both a dog and a man see something totally new to them, let
us say a strange creature with a face of a man but having six legs, the dog will just bark while the
man may say ―What a strange creature, an agip man‖. The dog cannot say something new because
there is no specific signal for that strange creature. It can‘t create a new signal either.

74
2.4. Cultural Transmission: Animal communication is instructive and imitated not learned.
Human language is passed from generation to generation but has to be learned (though it is argued
that the ability to learn language is a genetic endowment). An Ethiopian who is brought up in
China or in Japan will speaks Chinese or Japanese while his physique tells us that he is an
Ethiopian but not Chinese or Japanese. If we take sheep to Japan and bring it up there, even if it is
provided with the same experience and environment like the human beings, it will produce the
same signal with its mother or any other sheep. The property of language whereby it is transmitted
from one generation to the next is referred to as cultural transmission. Animals do not develop
their language. They are incapable of translation and interpretation too.
2.5. Discreteness: The sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. To make it clearer, let us
consider two English words ‗big‘ and ‗dig‘. These two words have different meanings because of
the distinction between the sounds or phonemes ‗b‘ and ‗d‘. If we want to say big but if we say dig
instead, the resulting word will have a different meaning. Discreteness is this property of
language. Each in a language is seen as discrete – as separate and different from the other sounds.
2.6. Duality: Language works at two levels. At one level, we produce individual sounds. Each
sound we produce does not have any intrinsic meaning by itself. When we produce segment ‗p‘,
alone, it does not have any meaning. The same is true for ‗o‘ or ‗t‘. At another level, we produce
these sounds in successive way, in a certain combination. We produce meaningful utterances.
Various combinations result in various meanings as in ‗pot‘, ‗top‘, or ‗opt‘. These dual (two)
levels existing at the same time (simultaneously) are referred to as duality. It is this property of
language that makes it very economical. With limited sounds, human beings can express unlimited
number of ideas. For instance, the twenty six letters of English alphabet give us nearly half a
million words and we can read them easily. Animals cannot manipulate their communication in
these levels.
Other properties of Human Language
There are other properties that human language exhibits other than the unique properties
mentioned so far. These properties are, however, not unique properties and may also be exhibited
by other system of communication. The following are some of these properties.
1. Use of vocal (or auditory channel): speech is produced via the vocal organs and is perceived
via the ears. Other creatures such as dolphins also have a system of communication that employs
the vocal organs and ears. Besides, linguistic message can be transmitted through other ways such
as writing and sign language. An elaborated language requires a highly sophisticated speech organ
that will enable the speaker to produce a lot of differentiated sounds which only humans are
endowed with a speech organ of this complexity.

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2. Reciprocity (or interchangeability): Any speaker can be a listener and vice versa. The speaker
can be both receiver and sender of the same signal as well as individual who use a language can
also send and receive any permissible message within that communication system.
3. Specialization: Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as
breathing. They are used only for communication purposes. The organs used for producing speech
sounds are specially adapted to that task in human unlike other animals. The human lips, tongue,
teeth, throat and so forth have been specialized into speech organs instead of being merely the
eating organs they are in many other animals.
4. Non-directionality: Linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing. Human
language signal is sent out in all directions though it is perceived in a limited direction. For spoken
language, the sound perpetuates as a wave form that expands from the point of origin (the mouth)
in all directions. This is why a person can stand in the middle of a room and be heard by everyone
while speaking.
5. Rapid fade: Linguistic signals are produced and lost quickly. Individuals who use a language
can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system (or two
way communications).
6. Stimulus-freedom: is another aspect that distinguishes human language from animal
communication. The honey-bee must perform its dance, the woodchuck must cry out in order to
warn his fellows when it beholds an eagle. Humans have the ability to say anything they like in
any context. This ability is only restricted in certain ceremonial contexts such as church services
etc., where a fixed form is expected to be followed. The possibility to violate this fixed linguistic
behavior is then the source of jokes, such as a bride's "no".
7. Open-endedness: The ability to say things that have never been said before, including the
possibility to express invented things or lies, is also a peculiar feature of human language.
8. Total feedback: users of a language can perceive what they are transmitting and can make
corrections if they make errors. Traffic signs are not normally capable of monitors their own
functions (a red light can't tell when the bulb is burned out).
3. Origin of Human Language
3.1. Divine source theory
According to this theory, language was endowed to human beings by divine beings. Every society
and language community in his/her belief system believes that his/her language is given to him/her
by the divinity that they believe. In the biblical tradition, God created Adam and ―whatsoever
Adam called every living creature that was the name thereof‖. Alternatively, following a Hindu
tradition, language came from Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, creator of the universe. In most
religions, there appears to be a divine source who provides humans with language. In an attempt to
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 rediscover this original divine language, a few experiments have been carried out, with rather
conflicting results. The basic hypothesis seems to have been that, if human infants were allowed to
grow up without hearing any language around them, then they would spontaneously begin using
the original God-given language.
3.2. Natural sound source theory
A quite different view of the beginnings of language is based on the concept of natural sounds.
The suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which
early men and women heard around them.
3.2.1. The Bow-Wow Theory: According to this theory, language began when our ancestors
started imitating the natural sounds around them. The first speech was onomatopoeic—marked by
echoic words such as moo, meow, splash, cuckoo, and bang.
3.2.2. The Ding-Dong Theory: This theory, favored by Plato and Pythagoras, maintains that
speech arose in response to the essential qualities of objects in the environment. The original
sounds people made were supposedly in harmony with the world around them.
3.2.3. The La-La Theory: The Danish linguist Otto Jespersen suggested that language may have
developed from sounds associated with love, play, and (especially) song.
3.2.4. The Pooh-Pooh Theory: This theory holds that speech began with interjections—
spontaneous cries of pain ("Ouch!"), surprise ("Oh!"), and other emotions.
3.2.5. The Yo-He-Ho Theory: According to this theory, language evolved from the grunts,
groans, and snorts evoked by heavy physical labour.
3.3. The physical adaptation source
In the study of evolutionary development, there are certain physical features, best thought of as
partial adaptations, which appear to be relevant for speech. These are: teeth, lips, mouth, larynx,
pharynx, and the human brain.
 Human teeth are upright, not slanting outwards like those of apes, and they are roughly even in
height.
 Human lips have much more complex muscle interlacing than is found in other primates and their
resulting flexibility certainly helps in making sounds like p, m or b.
 The human mouth is relatively small compared to other primates, can be opened and closed
rapidly, and contains a smaller, thicker and more muscular tongue which can be used to shape a
wide variety of sounds inside the oral cavity
 The human larynx or ‗voice box‗ (containing the vocal cords) differs significantly in position
from the larynx of other primates such as monkeys. This created a longer cavity called the

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 pharynx, above the vocal cords, which acts as a resonator for increased range and clarity of the
sounds produced via the larynx.
In control of organizing all these more complex physical parts potentially available for sound
production is the human brain, which is unusually large relative to human body size.
 The human brain is lateralized, that is, it has specialized functions in each of the two
hemispheres.
 Those functions that control motor movements involved in things like speaking and object
manipulation (making or using tools) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for
most humans.
 It may be that there is an evolutionary connection between the language-using and tool-using
abilities of humans and that both are involved in the development of the speaking brain.
3.4. The Genetic Source
 We can think of the human baby in its first few years as a living example of some of these
physical changes taking place.
 At birth, the baby‗s brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight and the larynx is much higher
in the throat, allowing babies, like chimpanzees, to breathe and drink at the same time
 In a relatively short period of time, the larynx descends, the brain develops, the child assumes
an upright posture and starts walking and talking.
 This almost automatic set of developments and the complexity of the young child‗s language
have led some scholars to look for something more powerful than small physical adaptations
of the species over time as the source of language.
 Even children who are born deaf (and do not develop speech) become fluent sign language
users, given appropriate circumstances, very early in life.
 This seems to indicate that human offspring are born with a special capacity for language.
 It is innate, no other creature seems to have it, and it isn‗t tied to a specific variety of language.
4. Theories of linguistics
There are many different theoretical models in linguistics, and different linguists may favor
different models depending on their research interests and goals.
The main theoretical approaches to linguistics are generative (derivational and non-derivational),
functionalist, and cognitive. All modern theories of language are descriptivist, in that linguists
attempt to describe and analyze the structure of a language, be it a formal, informal, or dialectal
variety. That is, we aim for descriptive rules or principles of languages, rather than finding rules of
"correct" usage to impose on speakers or by which to evaluate them or judge them.

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4.1. Structuralism theory
This is an older theory that once dominated the field in the first half of the 20th century, until the
generative revolution and the emergence of modern linguistics in the 1960s. This approached
focused on the systematic structure of language, including the rules and patterns that govern the
way words and sentences are formed. For grammar and phonology, for example, the focus was on
identifying discernable grammatical and phonological structures, and finding straightforward rules
that constituted the grammar of a language. Techniques were developed for collecting data and
comparing forms to deduce and analyze these grammatical, phonological, and communicative
structures in languages. This was particularly fueled not only by work on known languages, but
also by research by anthropologists, who studied less known or previously unknown cultures and
languages; they collected data on and analyzed many new languages. Unlike the generativists, they
did not focus on deeper, abstract grammatical rules at work. Structuralism was a major influence
on the development of modern linguistics and is still influential in some areas of linguistic
research, and in particular, the functionalist theory.
4.2. Generative linguistics theory
This theory was founded by Noam Chomsky, attempts to find the basic underlying rules that
underlie any given language, and all languages. The term "generative" is a mathematical term that
means to fully describe, account for, and explain a system (it has nothing to do with generating in
a mechanical or mechanistic sense, like a machine cranking out grammar patterns or sentences).
Chomsky's theories began with a complex set of transformations in the original Transformational
Grammar framework, which have been simplified in later theories - Principles & Parameters,
Government & Binding Theory, and the current Minimalist theory. These have been reduced to a
smaller set of so-called movements, but to make this simplification possible, the syntactic
structure has been made more complex by adding abstract categories in the syntactic trees or
syntactic structure. It rests on the following assumptions.
1. Generative. Linguists aim to "generate" the grammar and structures of a language. This word
is used in a technical, mathematical sense, meaning to analyze, describe, explain, and fully
account for something. Thus, the aim is to find the abstract rules that govern a language, and
that would describe and account for any possible utterance that a speaker of the language could
say or understand. By extension, the aim is to find sets of rules that explain the structure of all
the world's languages.
2. Descriptivism. We are to find the rules or principles that govern the structure of a language, as
native speakers actually use them, be it the grammar of a formal, informal, or dialectal variety
of a language. We can investigate languages and grammars by finding out what native
speakers would say or understand; as Chomsky said, the native speaker is always right.
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3. Performance versus competence. A native speaker has psychological knowledge of the rules of
his/her language, and what one would or could say or understand in the language -- the native
speaker's mental competence. The goal of generative linguistics is mainly to find the rules that
comprise speakers' competence. In speaking, speakers might make occasional performance
errors, due to other factors (stress, fatigue, memory load, etc.) that are not related to
competence.
4. Universalism. All languages developed from the same psychological stock, as language
evolved in humans when or before humans began spreading over the globe. Thus, all
languages make use of the same set of abstract principles and structures.
Thus, the theory consists of the following main goals.
1. Generative. The goal of linguistics is to find the rules of the grammar of languages that
fully account for the structure of those languages.
2. Universal grammar. Rules come from a set of universal parameters, which can be set in
different ways in different languages. These rules are abstract, and most often speakers are
not aware of them. Children are born with an innate repository of the general parameters,
and in learning their first language, they deduce how these various parameters work in
their language, and thus they subconsciously learn the rules of their first language.
3. Child language acquisition. Another goal of linguistics is to understand how children learn
their first language, e.g., how they make use of the universal grammar to learn a language
naturally. This ability is constrained by the critical period, a period of time before puberty
when a child must learn a language.
Generative theory consists of several overlapping theories, such as generative grammar, universal
grammar, and specific theories of generative grammar.
4.2.1 Generative grammar
Generative grammar is a linguistic framework that aims to provide a formal and systematic
account of the structure and rules underlying human language. Its main propositions can be
summarized as follows:
1. Universal Grammar (UG). Generative grammar posits the existence of a universal innate
linguistic knowledge, known as Universal Grammar, which is shared by all humans. UG
contains a set of abstract principles and parameters that define the range of grammatical
structures and rules possible in any natural language.
2. Syntactic structures. Generative grammar places a strong emphasis on syntax, or the study of
sentence structure. It proposes that all possible sentences of a language consist of, and can be
described by, abstract hierarchical structure composed of phrases and constituents, which are
formed through recursive processes.
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3. Transformations or derivations. Generative grammar incorporates the idea of
transformational rules, which are operations that derive different surface forms of a sentence
from a basic underlying structure. Transformations allow for movement of constituents,
syntactic operations, abstract features, and the derivation of different grammatical structures.
4. Deep structure and surface structure. The grammar of a language, and possible sentences,
consist of structure at two levels. Deep structure represents the underlying abstract
representation, abstract structures, and abstract features of a sentence, while surface structure
represents the actual form of the sentence as it is produced.
5. Generative capacity. Generative grammar aims to capture the generative capacity of human
language, which refers to the infinite ability to produce and understand novel and meaningful
sentences. That is, a finite number of rules in a language will generate or account for all
possible sentences that a native speaker could utter in the language. Linguists then seek to
identify the underlying rules and mechanisms that allow humans to produce and comprehend
an unlimited number of grammatical sentences.
Specific versions of generative grammar are described below.
4.2.2. Universal grammar
Generative grammar overlaps with Universal Grammar, which can be viewed as a complimentary
theory, and sometimes the two terms are used somewhat interchangeably. Universal grammar
(UG), as proposed by Noam Chomsky, suggests that there is a biologically determined innate
structure and set of principles that underlie human language -- the general language faculty, as
well as the grammar of all specific human languages. The main components and propositions of
UG can be summarized as follows.
1. 'Innateness'. Universal Grammar proposes that humans are born with an innate language
faculty that includes specific linguistic knowledge and principles. This innate faculty is
unique to humans and enables language acquisition.
2. Linguistic universals. Universal Grammar posits the existence of universal principles or
parameters in all languages; these are common structural properties shared by all
languages. These universals are constraints on the possible variation and structure of
natural languages.
3. Principles and Parameters. When children learn their first language, the process of
language acquisition involves setting parameters based on universal principles. Principles
are innate and universal grammatical rules or constraints, while parameters are variable
settings that determine specific grammatical features and structures in a particular
language.

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 4. Poverty of the stimulus. The linguistic input children receive is not sufficient to explain
the complexity and speed of language acquisition. Children must have innate knowledge
that guides them in determining the underlying structure and rules of their language.
5. Language acquisition device (LAD). In the minds of humans there exists a so-called
language acquisition device, which is a hypothetical cognitive module responsible for
language acquisition. The LAD provides children with the innate knowledge and
mechanisms necessary to acquire language.
6. Language-specific variation. While Universal Grammar posits a universal set of
principles and parameters, it also acknowledges that different languages have specific
grammatical features and structures. These variations are determined by the settings of
parameters within the universal framework. UG attempts to provide a common, universal,
and coherent theoretical framework for understanding the nature of human language and
the mechanisms involved in language acquisition.
4.2.3. Generative theories
Generative grammar has evolved over the decades, giving rise to different specific theories and
approaches within the generative framework. These specific theories propose different types of
transformations, phrase structures, theoretical components, and abstract features that are used to
account for the syntax of different languages. That is, ironically, Chomskyan theories of syntax
have undergone several major developments and transformations over the years.
1. Classical Transformational Grammar (1950s-1960s): Chomsky's earliest work on
generative grammar introduced the notion of transformational rules, which allowed for the
derivation of different surface structures from a basic underlying structure. This framework
emphasized the deep structure, surface structure distinction, and the use of transformational
operations to generate grammatical sentences. Over time, however, the number of different
transformations proposed by linguists became unwieldly, leading to more structured theories,
2. Principles and Parameters Theory (1970s-1980s): This builds on the previous frameworks
and emphasizes the role of universal principles and language-specific parameters. It suggests
that there are innate principles common to all languages and that parameters are set differently
in each language to account for their specific grammatical properties. The theory investigates
the nature and limits of variation across languages.
3. Government and Binding Theory (1980s-1990s): This is a revision of Principles and
Parameters Theory, with a more elaborate model of generative grammar and abstract structures
involved. The theory included modules, some from other linguists, such as X-bar syntax, theta
theory, government, and binding theory, to account for syntactic structure.

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4. Minimalist Program (1990s): The Minimalist Program (MP) attempted to simplify the
theoretical framework by reducing the number of components and operations to the bare
minimum required for language generation. The focus is on economy and efficiency in
linguistic computation. The MP emphasizes the idea of merge as the fundamental operation for
combining linguistic elements to form structures.
5. 'Minimalism (2000s-present): This represents the current phase of Chomsky's work on
generative grammar. It continues to emphasize the idea of economy and simplicity in linguistic
analysis. The theory proposes that grammatical structures should be derived with minimal
computational resources. Instead of complex sets of transformations, it relies on a simpler
Merge function as the central operation, and it seeks to capture the essential properties of
language with the fewest possible assumptions.
4. 2.4 Alternative generative linguistics
Some linguistics, including some generativists, disfavor the use of transformations, derivations or
movements, and in response, alternative theories have arisen, including non-derivational
constrain-based theories, most notably, particularly Optimality Theory in phonology. Instead of
movements or derivations, universal constraints are proposed, which are present in all languages,
but work differently in various languages.
Lexical functional grammar (LFG) is a constraint-based theory of syntax. It posits multiple
separate levels of syntactic structure, which map onto each other to account for surface structure.
There exists one level of constituent structure for representation of phrasal and sentence
constituent; a layer of grammatical functions such as subject and object; and a layer of thematic
structure, for semantic roles (like Agent and Patient). The theory was developed by Joan Bresnan
and Ronald Kaplan in the 1970s, in reaction to transformational grammar. LFG mainly focuses on
syntax, including its relation with morphology and semantics.
Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG), developed by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag, is a
constraint-based grammar framework from the 1980s that emphasizes the role of syntactic and
semantic constraints. It represents linguistic knowledge as a network of interconnected constraints
that define the structure and interpretation of sentences. HPSG places emphasis on the use of
grammatical features and the relations between the head and the dependents in a phrase.
Optimality Theory (OT) arose in the late 1980s in generative phonology, and is still popular in
phonology. It was first proposed by Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky, and the theory was more
comprehensively developed in the early 1990s. It emphasizes the role of constraints, rather than
derivations, in determining the surface phonological forms. It assumes that languages are governed
by a set of universal constraints, and the observed variation across languages is due to the different
rankings of these constraints.
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OT principles were later extended to syntax, leading to Optimality Syntax (OS). Two main
approaches to OS have arisen. In American universities on the East Coast, one flavor of OS
combines OT constraints with Chomskyan minimalist syntax. On the American West Coast,
Bresnan combined OT with LFG for a purely non-derivational and purely constraint-based version
of OS.
4.3. Functionalism theory
This theory focuses on the social and communicative functions of language, including the ways in
which language is used to convey meaning and facilitate communication in different social
contexts. Functionalism is a broad and diverse theoretical theory that has influenced a wide range
of research in linguistics, including sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and discourse analysis.
This approach is an attempt to ground language on pragmatic or usage-based and communication-
based principles and categories. It focuses on surface forms rather than abstract structure. In fact,
functionalists reject many or all notions of generative theory, and do not concern themselves with
deep or abstract grammatical structure, and only focus on the surface forms and the
communicative functions of surface forms. It has advantages in application to language pedagogy
and the study of pragmatics.
Functional linguistics focuses on language as a tool for communication, and how the structure and
use of language reflects the communicative needs and goals of the speakers and listeners. Another
key principle is that language is shaped by its social context, and that the way language is used
reflects the social identity, relationships, and power dynamics of the speakers.
4.3.1. More formal varieties theories
Functionalism as a whole tends to rely less on formal theories or Universalist approaches.
However, within this tradition, some specialized theories have arisen, that attempt to provide a
more articulated theory, with some more abstract and universal principles.
Functional theories, such as Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) and Functional Discourse
Grammar (FDG), focus on the functional motivations and communicative aspects of language, and
attempt to explain structure based on communicative functions and purposes. Thus, pragmatic and
social principles, such as the role of language in expressing meaning and achieving
communicative goals, forms the basis of proposed structures.
Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), developed by Robert Van Valin Jr., focuses on the
relationships between grammatical roles, semantic roles, and grammatical relations. It analyzes
sentence structures based on the different roles and functions that participants play in a situation.
Functional Discourse Grammar (FDG), developed by Kees Hengeveld and J. Lachlan Mackenzie,
views grammar as a resource for structuring and organizing discourse. It analyzes sentence

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structures and their functional relations in terms of communicative functions and discourse-level
information.
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a linguistic framework developed by or based on work
by Michael Halliday and colleagues. Language is viewed as a social semiotic system, emphasizing
its role in communication, meaning-making, and the expression of social functions. SFL analyzes
language at various levels, from individual sounds to larger discourse structures, and it considers
the interplay between form, function, and context.
4.4. Cognitive linguistics theory

This theory began with the insights of Gestalt psychology, and later, schema theory in cognitive
psychology. It assumes that language is a cognitive domain that is grounded in cognitive
psychology and other mental faculties, and that language must have arisen from cognitive faculties
rather than just on its own, and hence, language is crucially connected with cognition - be it
natural semantic categories in our world, or human social cognition. It combines these
psychological insights with the key insights from the study of metaphor - that metaphor is a key
element of meaning in language, and hence, a whole field of cognitive semantics exists for
exploring this.
A more formal approach within this tradition that focuses on syntax is Construction Grammar
(CG). This approach focuses on the analysis of linguistic constructions as the basic units of
language. It views grammar as a set of form-meaning pairings or constructions that are learned and
used by speakers. Construction Grammar emphasizes the importance of idiomatic and
constructional patterns in language use. It does not attempt to be generative or universal, but as a
more formal theory rooted in cognitive grammar, it can be more compatible with Universalist
assumptions or approaches.
5. The Structure of Language: Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax
Phonology

Phonology is the study of language sounds. Every spoken language is made up of sounds. There
are a lot of possible sounds that we can produce, but each language only uses some of these
sounds. In order to standardize the study of these sounds, the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) was created. This shows all the possible sounds in languages throughout the world. Below is
an image showing the IPA chart, from the International Phonetic Association.
Since each language only uses some of the possible sounds, the specific sounds in each language
can be different. For example, the English sound made by ―th‖ (as in ―thanks‖) is not found in the
Dutch language. And the ―r‖ sound is not found in Japanese.

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The smallest unit of sound that creates a difference in meaning is called a phoneme. A phoneme is
a sound contrast that creates a different meaning. For example, consider the words, ―bat‖ and
―pat.‖ In English, these are two different words, even though the beginning sounds are very
similar. The sound for the letter ―b‖ is considered to be meaningfully different from the sound for
the letter ―p‖–adding these 2 sounds to ―at‖ makes 2 different words. So, the sound of the letter
―b‖ and the sound of the letter ―p‖ are both phonemes in English. Think of the words, ―vat‖ and
―fat.‖ In English, these are two different words, even though the sounds are very similar. So, the
―v‖ sound and the ―f‖ sound are two different phonemes. Some languages have only about 15
phonemes, while others have up to 100 phonemes. But, phonemes are not the same as letters– for
example, English has 26 letters but 46 phonemes.
Different languages have different phonemes, meaning they recognize different sounds as
significant and meaningful. Consider the English and Spanish languages. In English, the sounds
made by the letters ―b‖ and ―v‖ are different phonemes. For example, the words ―bat‖ and ―vat‖
are considered different words. But in Spanish, the sounds made by the letters ―b‖ and ―v‖ are
considered the same sound, and so they are the same phoneme in Spanish.
Here‘s another example, but with English and Japanese. In English, the sounds made by the letters
―r‖ and ―l‖ are different phonemes, so the words ―rate‖ and ―late‖ are considered two different
words. But in Japanese, the sounds made by ―r‖ and ―l‖ are considered the same, and so they are
the same phoneme.
And here is yet another example. In English, there is a sound difference between the ―p‖ sounds in
the words ―pin‖ and ―spin.‖ Say these words out loud a few times. You should notice that there is
a small pup of air after the ―p‖ sound in ―pin‖ but not in ―spin.‖ Even though these are 2 different
sounds, in English we consider them to be the same sound. But in other languages, like the Hindi
language spoken in India, this sound difference matters, and creates different words.
Note: Technically, phonemes are written with slanted lines on each side of the sound, like this /b/
and non-phonemes are written with brackets, like this [b].
Morphology

Morphology is the study of meaningful sound sequences. This includes things like the tense of
verbs (like the difference between ―typing‖ and ―typed‖), plurals (like ―cat‖ and ―cats‖), and
compound words (like ―lighthouse‖).
Phonemes do not usually carry meaning—they are just sounds. But if you put phonemes together,
you can create a morpheme. Morphemes are the smallest units that are meaningful. For example,
in English, ―dog‖ is a morpheme, made up of the phonemes ―d,‖ ―o,‖ and ―g.‖ But morphemes are

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not the same thing as words. For example, the word, ―dogs‖ is made up of 2 morphemes—―dog‖
and ―-s‖ (which means ―more than one‖). Morphemes are meaningful units, not words.
Some morphemes can stand alone in a language, and so they are called free morphemes. Some
examples of free morphemes are ―boy‖ and ―art.‖ You cannot divide these words into smaller
meaningful units. Some morphemes cannot stand alone, and need to be attached to other
morphemes, and so they are called bound morphemes. Examples of bound morphemes are suffixes
and prefixes, such as ―un-‖ and ―-ist‖ and ―-er.‖
Some languages have words that are mainly made up of just one morpheme (like Chinese and
Vietnamese), while other languages use many morphemes (like Inuit languages).
Syntax

Syntax is the study of how morphemes are arranged into sentences. For example, in English, you
could say, ―Jerry walked the dog.‖ It wouldn‘t make sense to say, ―Walked dog Jerry the.‖ There
is a certain arrangement of the words making up the sentence. English speakers expect to have the
subject first, then the verb, and then the object (this form is called SVO). So, there is a specific
word order in English that makes sense.
Other languages use different word order systems, such as VSO (verb-subject-object) and SOV
(subject-object-verb). For example, in English you would say, ―The girl ate the banana,‖ but in
Arabic, you would say, ―Ate the girl the banana‖ (VSO form), and in Quechua, you would say,
―The girl the banana ate‖ (SOV form).
And some languages don‘t rely on word order at all. For example, in Warlpiri, the word order does
not create meaning as it does in English. Instead, there is a suffix (something attached to the end of
a word) that indicates the word is the subject of the sentence. And in Japanese, word endings are
used to show which word is the subject and which word is the object. So different languages create
sentences in different ways.
The rules stating how to create words from morphemes and combine words into sentences are
called grammar. So, grammar is the rules for the structure of language–the morphology and
syntax.
6. Language phrase structure rules
6.1. Phrase
In English grammar, a phrase is a group of two or more words functioning as a meaningful unit
within a sentence or clause. A phrase is commonly characterized as a grammatical unit at a level
between a word and a clause.
A phrase is made up of a head (or headword)—which determines the grammatical nature of the
unit—and one or more optional modifiers. Phrases may contain other phrases inside them.
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Common types of phrases include noun phrases (such as a good friend), verb phrases (drives
carefully), adjective phrases (very cold and dark), adverb phrases (quite slowly), and prepositional
phrases (in first place).
6.2. Types of phrase
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is a group of two or more words headed by a noun that includes modifiers a
syntactic unit which can act as a subject or an object. Consider the following unremarkable
sentence: A small party of Spanish adventurers managed to capture the Aztec capital. A
traditional view of sentence structure holds that the subject and the direct object of the sentence
are the nouns party and capital, respectively. But this is not strictly correct. The true subject or
object are the phrases a small party of Spanish adventurers and the Aztec capital. These are noun
phrases (or NPs for short), and noun phrases are the only things that can act as subjects or objects
in English sentences. A noun phrase is a syntactic unit – a constituent – and a noun phrase may be
identified in two different ways. First, it must occupy one of only a few possible slots in a sentence
structure. Second, it must have one of only a few possible types of internal structure. With only a
couple of exceptions, an English noun phrase is always built up around a single noun, and that
noun is the head of the noun phrase, the item which is chiefly responsible for the nature of the NP.
In my examples, party and capital are the heads of the two NPs. The first NP denotes a particular
party, and the second a particular capital, and the other words in the NP serve only to provide
further identification.
The little girl in the blue dress is built up around the noun girl as its head; the whole phrase
denotes some kind of girl
Verb phrase
Traditional grammarians divided a typical sentence into two parts: a subject and a predicate. In our
modern elaboration of this, the syntactic category which acts as a subject is a noun phrase, while
the category acting as a predicate is a verb phrase. A verb phrase always contains a verb, and it
usually contains some other material closely linked to that verb. Walked down in the street
 Read the paper in the morning
 The verb phrase sang quietly to herself is built up around the verb sang as its head; the
whole phrase denotes some specific kind of singing.
Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase the head of which is an adjective, almost any
grammar or syntax textbook or dictionary of linguistics terminology defines the adjective phrase
in a similar way. The adjective phrase pretty as a picture is headed by the adjective pretty. The
following are some few examples of adjective phrases.
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  Fond of flowers
 Afraid of sneaks
 Tall as obelisk
Adverbial Phrase
An adverb phrase is a phrase headed by adverb. In linguistics, it ("AdvP") is a multi-word
expression operating adverbially: its syntactic function is to modify other expressions.
The adverb phrase very slowly is headed by the adverb slowly
Prepositional Phrase
The prepositional phrase under the bed is headed by the preposition ―under‖. The following
constructs show few instances of prepositional phrase.
 Just over the river
 High in the sky
 Deep in the ocean

6.3. Sentence
A sentence is the largest purely grammatical unit in a language. The largest linguistic unit which is
held together by rigid grammatical rules is the sentence. For most linguists, in most circumstances,
a sentence is an abstract linguistic object: specifically, it is a linguistic object put together entirely
in accordance with the rules for constructing sentences in a language, rules which have to be
identified (in a linguistic description) by patient and painstaking investigation.
A further point is that a sentence is not just a string of words; rather, it is a string of words with a
syntactic structure assigned to it.
7. Representing the internal structure of Phrase &sentences

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 9. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
1. Definition and Explanation of Discourse and Discourse analysis
1.1 Definition of Discourse
Our first step in the study of discourse analysis has to be figuring out exactly what we mean by
‗discourse‘ and why it is so important to learn how to analyze it. Discourse is the creation and
organization of the segments of a language above the sentence. It is the segments of language
which may be bigger than a single sentence. The term discourse applies to both spoken and written
language, in fact to any sample of language used for any purpose. Any series of speech events or
any combination of sentences in written form wherein successive sentences or utterances hang
together is discourse. Discourse cannot be confined to sentential boundaries. It is something that
goes beyond the limits of sentence. In another words discourse is 'any coherent succession of
sentences, spoken or written'. The links between sentences in connected discourse are as much
important as the links between clauses in a sentence.
Discourse as a form of social practice and discourse is about constructivist view(Social and
Political order)‟. Discursive practices through which texts are created and consumed that mean
received and interpreted are viewed as necessary form of social practice which adds to the
composition of the social identities and social relations (Ibid). It also includes written and spoken
language.
Discourse Studies is a heterogeneous field involving scholars from a range of
disciplines that incorporates from trans-disciplinary to post-disciplinary projects. The post
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disciplinary project has division of knowledge into specialized disciplines
and sub-disciplines. Most Scholar use „discourse‟ in two different ways: First, as a realistic
understanding, predominant among linguistic and micro-sociological discourse analysts consider
discourse as a process of contextualizing texts, language in use. Second, a socio-historical
understanding, preferred by more macro-sociological discourse theorists interested in power, for
whom ‗‘discourse’’ refers to the verbal and nonverbal practices of large social communities.

Discourse Studies is considered as one of the debatable theoretical underpinning in the social
sciences and humanities. As a result both discourse theory and discourse analysis need emphasis
in practice of discourse research. This indicates, DS can add to the constructivist view that „all
social and political order is constructed and reconstructed in communication‟. In categorizing
discourses there are five major kinds, shapes and reflecting different traditions, disciplines and
ontologies (Torfing, 2005). They are Linguistic discourse analysis, critical linguistics, discursive
psychology, critical discourse analyses and poststructuralist discourse theory.
The two major sub fields of DS, Discourse Analyses (here after DA) and Critical Discourse
analysis (Here after CDA) are two different approaches. DA is wider than CDA. DA is an inter-
disciplinary approaches used to analyze numerous social domains in many different types of
studies. DA can be used in different areas of research with a method of analysis, which involves
doing syntax, semantics and pragmatism.
The definition of discourse analysis
Discourse analysis is the study of language. Many people would define discourse analysis as a
sub-field of linguistics, which is the scientific study of language. Different kinds of linguists study
different aspects of language. Phonologists study the sounds of languages and how people use
them. Lexicographers study words, their meanings and their histories. Grammarians study how
words are put together to form sentences and Spoken utterances. And discourse analysts study the
ways sentences and utterances go together to make texts and interactions and how those texts and
interactions fit into our social world.
1.3 Approaches to the Explanation of Discourse Analysis
Deborah Schiffrin ―Approaches to Discourse‖ (1994) singles out six major approaches to
discourse. These are:
1.3.1 The Speech Act Approach
The speech act approach considers language as a sort of action rather than a medium to convey
and express. The contemporary Speech act theory developed by J. L. Austin a British philosopher
of languages, he introduced this theory in 1975 in his well-known book of ‗How do things with
words‘. Later John Searle brought the aspects of theory into much higher dimensions. This theory

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is often used in the field of philosophy of languages. Austin is the one who came up with the
findings that people not only uses that language to assert things but also to do things. And people
who followed him went to greater depths based on this point. All sort of linguist communication
are comprised of linguistic actions. Previously it was conceived that the very basic unit of
communication is words, Symbols, sentences or some kind of token of all of these, but it was
speech act theory which suggested that production or issuances if words, symbols are the basic
units of communication. This issuance happens during the process of performance of speech act.
The meaning of these basic units was considered as the building blocks of mutual understanding
between the people intend to communicate.
The theory emphasizes that the utterances have a different or specific meaning to its user and
listener other than its meaning according to the language. The theory further identify that there are
two kinds of utterances, they are called constative and performative utterances. In his book of
‗How do things with words‘ Austin clearly talks about the disparities between the constative and
performative utterances. A constative utterance is something which describes or denotes the
situation, in relation with the fact of true or false.
The performative utterance is something which does not describes anything at all. The
utterances in the sentences or in the part of sentences are normally considered as having a meaning
of its own. The feelings, attitudes, emotions and thoughts of the person performing linguistic act
are much of a principal unit here.
1.3.2 Interactive Socio-linguistics
This approach focuses on how people from different cultures may share grammatical knowledge
of a language; but differently contextualize what is said is such that very different messages are
produced (Gumpeiz, 1982). It is centrally concerned with the importance of context in the
production of interpretation of discourse. The units of analysis used for this purpose are:
grammatical and prosodic feature in interactions.
Gumpeiz demonstrated that interactants from different socio-cultural background may ‗hear‘ and
understand discourse differently according to their interpretation to contextualization clues in
discourse, e.g. Intonation contours, ‗speaking for another‘, alignment, gender
According to her, the basic concern of this approach is the accomplishment of conversational
coherence. She argues for the importance of both qualitative and quantitative/distributional
analysis in order to determine the function of different discourse markers in conversation. The
following is the diagrammatical representation of interactional socio-linguistic approach to
discourse analysis.

1.3.3 The Ethnography of Communication. Dell Hymes (1972b, 1974)

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This approach is concerned with:
a) The linguistic resources people use in context, not just grammar in traditional sense, but the
socially situated uses and meanings of words, their relations and sequential forms of expressions.

b) The various media used when communicating and their comparative analysis, such as online
―messaging‖ and how it compares to face-to- face messaging;
c) The way verbal and non-verbal signs create and reveal social codes of identity, relationships
emotions, place, and communication itself.

1.3.4 Pragmatic Approach

This approach formulates conversational behavior in terms of general ―principles‖ rather than
rules. Pragmatics pays attention on ―Context‖. As the base of pragmatic approach is not only
conversation analysis is Griceanc‘s co-operative principle. The principle seeks to account for not
only how participants decide what to do next in conversation, but also how interlocutors go about
interpreting what the previous speaker has just done. This principle is broken down into specific
maxims. Quantity (say only as much as necessary), quantity (try to make your contribution one
that is true), relation (be relevant), and manner (be brief and avoid ambiguity).
This approach to discourse analysis provides useful means of characterizing different varieties of
conversations, e.g. in interactions one can deliberately try to be provocative or conciliatory.

1.3.5 Conversation analysis. (Harold Garfinkel (1960s – 1970s)

This approach preaches that talk makes things happen, and the conversation analyst has something
to say about how this is done. Nowadays, this is a selected discipline, developed since the
pioneering works in the sixties by the sociolinguist Harvey Sacks.
Garfinke‘s, a sociolinguist, concern was to understand how social members make sense of
everyday life.
Sack, Schegloff, Jeferson (1973) tried to explain how conversation can happen at all.
Based on the above contents of conversation analysis, it is possible to that conversation analysis is
the branch of ethno-methodology.
It studies about: opening and closing conversation, topic organization, turn taking, adjacency pairs,
and next speaker selection.
Two grossly apparent facts: a) only one person speaks at a time b) speakers change recurs; thus,
conversation is a turn taking activity.
Variation Analysis (Labov, 1972a; Labov and Waletzky, 1967)

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Labov and Waletzky argue that fundamental narrative structures are evident in spoken narratives
of personal experience. Developed by Labov (1972) and in particular his description of structure
of spoken narratives has made a major contribution to the analysis of discourse.

Speech act theory

In the past three decades, speech act theory has become an important branch of the contemporary
theory of language. Speech act theory, as a method of discourse analysis, is a very important tool
to analyze beliefs, desires, communicative intentions and effects of discourses on individuals‘
perception and actions. It also helps to analyze actions that individuals perform using language or
discourse (Renkema, 2009:16).
Speech act theory is a language use theory. It describes that a speaker performs three linguistic
acts or actions simultaneously when she/he speaks; and these actions can be analyzed in three
levels. The act of saying something (for instance, ‗I am tired‘) is known as locutionary
act. Illocutionary act answers the question ‗What is a speaker doing in saying his/her utterance?‘
A speaker intends to perform an illocutionary act intentionally when he/she speaks. This means
that a speaker speaks for a reason. This reason is called communicative intention. A speaker
expresses his/her communicative intention at illocutionary act level. For example, to assert,
announce, curse, apologize, warn and threaten are illocutionary acts. Finally, the act of causing
an effect on a hearer is called perlocutionary act. In other words, perlocutionary act is a result or
a consequence of a speaker‘s speech on a listener‘s thought, feeling, belief or action. For
instance, to annoy, bore, embarrass and deceive are perlocutionary acts (Fairclouph, 2003:8-10;
Hurford, Heasley & Smith, 2007:260-287; Lycan, 2008:144-150).
The other important point about speech act theory is that illocutionary acts are classified based on
their functions as declarations, representatives, expressive, directives and commissives acts
Relevance Theory

Relevance Theory is based on Grice‟s (1969, 1975) central claim that the expression and
recognition of intentions are essential features of most human communication and the assumption
that utterances automatically create expectations which guide the hearer towards the meaning of
the speaker. Relevance Theory (RT) is a framework for the study of cognition proposed primarily
to provide a psychologically realistic account of communication (Carson 1988). This means, RT is
a cognitive account of pragmatic understanding and it belongs to the theories of inferential
pragmatics, for its aim is to explain how the hearers interpret the speaker‟s meaning based on
contextual factors (Sperber & Wilson 1995: 243-54). It attempts to capture the notion of relevance
in communicative situations through contextual effects. In connection with this, Sperber & Wilson
(1986:15) state, ―a context is the psychological construct, a subset of the hearer‟s assumptions
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about the world.‖ The goal of Relevance Theory (RT) is to provide a theory of communication
that would function as a reference for a host of pragmatic phenomena running wild in linguistic
populations.
Politeness Theory
There is no one and comprehensive definition of politeness. Different scholars in the field of
communication define politeness differently. According to Leech (1983: 82), the role of
politeness principle is, for example, "to maintain the social equilibrium and the friendly
relations which enable us to assume that our interlocutors are being cooperative in the first
place." Lakoff (1989: 102) on his part defines Politeness as‖ a means of minimizing confrontation
in discourse, both the possibility of confrontation occurring at all, and the possibility that a
confrontation will be perceived as threatening." As can be seen from the definitions of politeness
by scholars, the central issue is the use of different linguistics and non-linguistic means to make
communication possible.
Discourse In Communication
In the previous chapter communication was presented as pragmatic action, more precisely as the
combined action of speakers and hearers, or writers and readers, in which they exchange
illocutions, following the principle of cooperation and the relevance maxim and employing
politeness strategies.
Discourse, cannot be studied without taking into account the context in which the communicative
acts take place. This will be further underlined and explicated in the following sections.
Communication basically relies on the use of signs, which connect forms with meanings. From a
semiotic perspective, pragmatics can be defined as the discipline that deals with the relationship
between signs and their users.
In a general model of communication, both sender and receiver play an active role in making sense
of discourse, supported by mutual knowledge that functions as common ground. The discourse
situation, which is tremendously important for the interpretation of utterances, can be described
with a number of objective criteria. The relationship between contextual features and discourse
meanings is examined by the so-called socio-semiotic approach, which was developed within the
framework of Functional Grammar. Finally, it is possible to establish several defining criteria that
a sequence of sentences must fulfill in order to qualify as discourse.
Pragmatics and Semiotics
Pragmatics is a good framework for studying discourse in the form-function approach. Pragmatics,
literally ―the study of acts‖, is itself part Introduction to Discourse Studies of a philosophical
approach to the phenomenon sign, specifically the question of how signs, and therefore also

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linguistic signs, function. This is known as semiotics. Two names associated with semiotics are
those of the American philosophers Charles S. Peirce and Charles W. Morris.
The central concept in semiotics is the notion of sign. A sign, according to Peirce, cannot be seen
independently of its concrete object and the idea connected to it. The perceptible form of a sign,
usually a word or an image, is the so-called representamen, also labeled the ―sign vehicle‖. For
example, the word castle stands for its object, in this case a specific medieval building. A sign can
only be a sign if it is addressed to somebody, and creates an ―idea‖ in the mind of the addressee;
this is called the interpretant. In other words, a sign is ―nothing‖ without its function, referring to
an object and creating an idea.
Social Rules for Symbolic Interaction
Communication at large is social behavior, which means that people verbally interact in a
community. Owing to its context-related approach, pragmatics deals with the social rules for
the interchange of symbolic signs. These rules differ from rules in other areas such as physics or
logic.
The Socio-semiotic Approach of Functional Grammar
Discourse cannot be studied adequately without taking into account the addresser and addressee
who use discourse for all the purposes communication can be used for. We have also established
that the main aim of studying discourse can be formulated as to detect the rules that underlie this
―symbolic interaction‖. Within this approach two related aspects are very important. First, an
addressee is not just a receiver of the message; in fact, receivers are active, cooperating
participants in the communication. Second, discourse is always situated in a social context and in a
specific situation. As regards the relation between social context and linguistic form, a highly
suitable candidate is the so-called socio-semiotic approach. However, the term socio-semiotic
seems more precise as it explains the roots in semiotics and the sociological focus. With the prefix
socio- the social and socio-cultural contexts are meant. With semiotic the act of conveying
meaning with symbols, in our case in discourse, is addressed. The central claim in this approach
is: every (piece of) discourse has to be studied in its social context, in the culture and situation in
which it appears. Halliday and Hasan (1985) describe three aspects of social context: field, tenor
and mode.
Discourse types and Discourse Markers
Discourse Types
According Werlich (1982), there are five different types of discourse, namely; descriptive
narrative, expository, argumentative, instructive
Description

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When people use description, they generally rely on one of more of the five human senses to
describe something so that it becomes instantly memorable and relatable. It is usually used to help
the audience visualize people and places, but it can also put the audience in a particular mood or
create a certain type of atmosphere. The writer or speaker uses nouns and adjectives to give the
readers and listeners a sense of what something is like materially.
Narration

The main goal of narrative writing or speaking is usually to tell a story, often in order to make the
audience feel differently about a certain topic. Narratives might take the form of a play, novel, folk
tale, memoir, or myth. This type of communication usually appeals to an audience‘s humanity,
often by drawing on common experiences or emotions that are easily relatable or by depicting
circumstances that pique the imagination.
Exposition

The tool known as ―exposition‖ is designed to inform the audience about a particular topic. There
are several different expository tools writers and speakers can use, including definition, analysis,
compare-and-contrast, problem-and-solution and cause-and-effect. There are many strengths and
weaknesses associated with each type of exposition, and each type has a completely different
purpose. For example, giving someone the definition of a word provides one type of information,
whereas comparing and contrasting two differing opinions often paints a really different picture.
Argumentation
Argumentative writing or speaking is when the composer is attempting to convince an audience
that his or her opinion is correct, typically by using logic and appealing to the audience‘s sense of
reason. Almost anything can use this form, from essays and lectures to sermons and political
speeches. In an argument, the writer or speaker begins with a thesis, which is a clear, explicit
statement of beliefs or opinions. Evidence must then be presented in a clear and orderly way. If a
listener accepts the evidence, he or she should agree with the thesis.
Discourse Markers
Discourse markers are defined as linguistic items, with no syntactic function at the sentence level,
which serve, according to their morpho-syntactic, semantic and pragmatic properties, as a guide for the
interpretation of utterances. Discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway, right, okay, as I
say, to begin with. We use them to connect, organize and manage what we say or write or to
express attitude:
Conversation Analysis
Conversation analysis (CA) is the investigation of authentic talk-in-interaction (Clift, 2014). It was
established by the three U.S. sociologists Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson in
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the late 1960s and early 1970s. It emerged from the sociological branch of ethnomethodology,
which studies linguistic norms that help members of a community to organize social interaction.
A conversation is the impromptu, spontaneous, everyday exchange of talk between two or more
people. "Conversation may be taken to be that familiar predominant kind of talk in which two or
more participants freely alternate in speaking, which generally occurs outside specific institutional
settings like religious services, law courts, classrooms and the like".
CA seeks to describe conversation in a way that builds upon the way it is taken up by the people
who are participating in it. It does this by paying attention to the way each utterance displays an
interpretation of the previous utterance, and by paying particular attention to hitches,
misunderstandings, and repairs.
Adjacency Pairs
Conversational actions tend to occur in pairs. We speak of an "exchange of opinions" and "an
exchange of greetings" because many conversational actions call for a particular kind of
conversational response in return. Greetings and farewells typically call for another utterance of
the same type. Such pairs of conventionally linked conversational actions are said to have two
"parts": a "first part" and a "second part."
Adjacency pairs are often found linked together in closely integrated ways, and the next two
sections describe two of these. One pair may follow another (question, answer; question, answer),
or one pair may be embedded inside another pair. A "pre-sequence" is an example of the former;
an "insertion sequence" is an example of the latter.
Product and Process Analysis
The regularities which the discourse analyst describes will normally be expressed in dynamic, not
static, terms. Since the data investigated is the result of ‗ordinary language behavior‘, it is likely to
contain evidence of the ‗behavior‘ element. That is, unless we believe that language -users present
each other with prefabricated chunks of linguistic units (sentences), after the fashion of Swift‘s
professors at the grand academy.
We shall characterize such a view as the sentence-as-object view and note that such sentence-as-
object has no producers and no receivers. Moreover, they need not be considered in terms of
function, as evidenced in the statement.
In contrast to these two broadly defined approaches, the view taken in this book is best
characterized as a discourse-as-process view. The distinction between treat in discourse as
‗product‘ or ‗process‘. We shall consider words, phrases and sentences which appear in the textual
record of a discourse to be evidence of an attempt by a producer (speaker/writer) to communicate
his message to a recipient (hearer/reader).
Processing and Prior Knowledge
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Our ability to interpret the unsaid is usually based on pre-existing knowledge structures, familiar
patterns that we use to interpret new experiences. A common term to describe these patterns is
schemata. If they are fixed patterns, they are also called frames. For example, in our frame for
apartments are included at least a kitchen, a bathroom and a bedroom, so usually these elements
are not stated unless there is more than one. Moreover, if we read an advertisement of the type:
More dynamic types of schemata, involving a sequence of events, are often described as scripts.
We use scripts to interpret accounts of what happened. We have scripts for what happens in all
sorts of events, such as travelling by train, going to see the doctor, etc. and we tend to fill in the
parts that are not stated.
The Spair-Whorf Hypothesis
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that the semantic categories of one‘s native language influence
thought, and that as a result speakers of different languages think differently. The native language
may have a strong influence on learning and acquisition from people and the environment.
Therefore, the language of people may be determined by culture or by his/her thoughts
(innateness).This idea has captured the imaginations of many, and has inspired a large literature.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, commonly referred to as the linguistic relativity hypothesis,
explores the idea that the language one uses affects how one perceives reality. J.A. Lucy, (2001)
The emphasis of hypothesis of Sapir and Whorf posits that language and culture are affecting the
language and structure considering that culture is composed of linguistic properties from the
people around; the language is enforced and determines the way they think and the way they live,
thus, culture may have relativity to language and communication.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Discourse Analysis is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way
social power abuse, dominance and inequality are: enacted, reproduced and resisted by text
and talk in the social and political context. Social constructions of gender are not neutral;
however, they are implicated in the institutionalized power relations of societies. The social and
political contexts where social power abuse, dominance and inequality normally observed are
gender and racism.
Gender
In known contemporary societies, power relations are asymmetrical, such that women‘s interests
are systematically subordinated to men‘s.
Those scholars who study language and gender consider the analysis of language practices as a
central task in the study of human relationships. For them, power relations get articulated through
language. Language does not merely reflect a preexisting sexist world; instead, it actively
constructs gender asymmetries within specific socio-historical contexts.
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Research on gender and language structure has demonstrated numerous ways that women are
ignored, trivialized and deprecated by the words used to describe them. Women are denied an
autonomous existence through titles that distinguish them on the basis of their marital status.
Studies show how economic relations work together with other social relations, language practices
within the societies define women primarily in terms of their marital status and perpetuate unequal
occupational opportunities for women and men.
Racism
Racist discourse is a form of discriminatory social practice that manifests itself in text, talk and
communication. Together with other (nonverbal) discriminatory practices, racist discourse
contributes to the reproduction of racism as a form of ethnic or "racial" domination. It does so
typically by expressing, confirming or legitimating racist opinions, attitudes and ideologies of the
dominant ethnic group. Although there are other racisms elsewhere in the world, the most
prevalent and devastating form of racism has historically been European racism against non-
European peoples, which will be the focus of this sub topic.
Derogatory slurs, insults, impolite forms of address, and other forms of discourse that explicitly
express and enact superiority and lack of respect. Since today such blatant forms of verbal
discrimination are generally found to be "politically incorrect," much racist discourse directed at
dominated ethnic group members tends to become more subtle and indirect.
Intercultural communication
Samovar and Porter (1997) have pointed out that communication practices and behaviors of
people from different cultures will unavoidably vary due to their different perceptions of the world
and the contexts in which they live. It occurs ―whenever a person from one culture sends a
message to be processed by a person from a different culture‖. Intercultural communication is
characterized as ―a transactional, symbolic process involving the attribution of meaning between
people from different cultures‖. Intercultural communication is defined as ―acts of communication
undertaken by individuals identified with groups exhibiting intergroup variation in shared social
and cultural patterns.

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 10. Translation and interpretation
The concept of translation and interpretation
Often translation is rendering the meaning of a text in to another language in the way that the
author intended the text. Hence, in many types of text (legal, administrative, dialect, local,
cultural) the temptation is to transfer as many SL (source language) words to the TL (Target
Language) as possible. Translation is a complex and multifaceted term that has been attributed a
wide array of definitions.
It is defined as the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been
expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence. It is
defined as the transformation of a text originally in one language in to an equivalent text in a
different language retaining, as far as possible, the content of the message and the formal
features and functional roles of the original text.
Interpreting or interpretation is the intellectual activity that consists of facilitating oral or sing-
language communication, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two or among three
or more speakers who are speaking, or singing, the same language.
On the surface, the difference between interpreting and translation is the mode of expression.
Interpreters deal with spoken language and translate orally, while translators deal with written
text, transforming the source text in to a comprehensible and equivalent target text. Both
interpreting and translation presuppose a love of language and deep knowledge of more than one
language. However, the differences in the training, skills, and talents needed for each job are
vast.
People commonly use the words ―Interpretation‖ and ―Translation ―interchangeably. However,
these are two very different activities, requiring different skills and experiences from the
Interpreter or Translator. Interpretation‖ is the act of rendering the spoken or signed language
into another spoken or signed language. Therefore, interpreters are used whenever the message is
spoken. ―Translation‖, in contrast to interpretation, is the act of rendering written language into
another written language. Here, translators are used whenever a message is written, regardless of
the written media (i.e., text, books, written briefs, websites, etc.).
The key skill of a good translator is the ability to write well and express oneself clearly in the
target language. That is why professional translators almost always work in only one direction,

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translating only in to their native language. Even bilingual individuals rarely can express
themselves in a given subject equally well in two languages. The key skills of the translator are
the ability to understand the source language and the culture of the country where the text
originated, using a good library of dictionaries and reference materials, renders that material in to
the target language.
An interpreter, on the other hand, has to be able to translate in both directions, without the use of
any dictionaries, on the spot.
There are two main kinds of oral translation (interpretation) – consecutive and simultaneous.
In consecutive interpretation the interpreting starts after the original speech or some part of it
has been completed. Here the interpreter‘s strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent,
on the length of the segment to be translated. The interpreter has to take notes of the original
messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and
practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter‘s training as are special exercises
to develop his/her memory. Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering,
which means that he/she will have to reduce his/her interpretation considerably, selecting and
reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies
that the ability to make a judgment on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or
compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quick-witted
thinker.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his/her
interpretation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a
special radio or telephone type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through
his/her earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his/her
interpretation to the listeners.
Challenges of interpretation
Interpreters face a number of challenges while they try to render a meaning transfer from one
language to another. One of these being cross-cultural differences which are believed to cause
cross-cultural conflicts in interpretation/translation. While translating and interpreting language
items, translators and interpreters may be obliged to lose the message being transferred from the
SL to TL, for there may exist a problem of untranslatability.

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Is there a perfect translation?
Translation is an instrument of education because it has to reach readers whose cultural and
educational level is different from, and often lower or earlier than, that of the readers of the
original- one has in mind. Foreign communities have their own language structures and their
own cultures, ‗foreign‘ individuals have their own ways of thinking and therefore of expressing
themselves, but all these can be explained, and as a last resort the explanation is the translation.
A satisfactory translation is always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it. It can
usually be improved. There is no such thing as a perfect, ideal or correct translation. A translator
is always trying to extend his knowledge and improve his means of expression; he is always
pursuing facts and words.
Is translation an art or science?
Translation has served as a writing school for many prominent writers. Translators, including
monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia and the early modern European translators of the
Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages in to which they have
translated. A long with ideas, they have imported, in to their own languages, loanwords and
calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary from the sources languages.
According to New mark (1988), translation serves the following purposes;
- As a means of communication
- A transmitter of culture.
- A technique of language learning and
- A source of personal pleasure.
As a means of communication, translation is used for multilingual notices, which have at last
appeared increasingly conspicuously in public places; for instructions issued by exporting
companies; for tourist publicity, where it is too often produced from the native in to the ‗foreign‘
language by natives as a matter of national pride; for official documents, such as treaties and
contracts; for reports, papers, articles, correspondence, textbooks to convey information, advice
and recommendations for every branch of knowledge.
Translation has been instrumental in transmitting culture, sometimes under unequal conditions
responsible for distorted and biased translations, ever since countries and languages have been in
contact with each other. Up to the nineteenth century European culture was drawing heavily on
Latin and Greek translations. In this century a centrifugal world literature has appeared,

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consisting of the works of a small number of ‗international‘ writers, which is translated in to
most national and many regional languages. In general, translation is now used as much to
transmit knowledge and to create under-standing between groups and nations as to transmit
culture.
Translator and interpreter Qualifications
The key skills of the translator are the ability to understand the source language and the culture
of the country where the text originated, then using a good library of dictionaries and reference
materials, to render that material clearly and accurately into the target language. In other words,
while linguistic and cultural skills are still critical, the most important mark of a good translator
is the ability to write well in the target language.
Therefore, a good translator will translate documents into his or her native language. An
interpreter, on the other hand, must be able to translate in both directions on the spot, without
using dictionaries or other supplemental reference materials. Interpreters must have
extraordinary listening abilities, especially for simultaneous interpreting. Simultaneous
interpreters need to process and memorize the words that the source-language speaker is saying
and outputting it in the target language. Interpreters must also poses excellent public speaking
skills and the intellectual capacity to instantly transform idioms, colloquialisms and other
culturally-specific references into analogous statements the target audience will understand.
Interpreting, just like translation, is fundamentally the art of paraphrasing the interpreter listens
to a speaker in one language, grasps the content of what is being said, and then paraphrases his or
her understanding of the meaning using the tools of the target language.
Requirements for Translating/ Interpreting Competence
There are at least five common or interfacial requirements for both translating and interpreting
competence vis-à-vis ten for interpreting. The five requirements for competent translators are:
mastery or proficiency of SL and TL, thorough knowledge of source and target cultures,
familiarity with the topic/register, and finally awareness of the three–phase process, i.e., SL
decoding, transposing or SL-TL transfer and TL encoding. Interpreting, on the other hand,
requires at least five more: short-term memory for storage and retrieval, acquaintance with
prosodic features and different accents, quick wittedness and full attention, knowledge of short-
hand writing for consecutive interpreting and finally self-composure.
Generally language interpreters must possess the following skills:

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  Thorough knowledge of the general subject to be interpreted
 Intimate familiarity with both cultures
 Extensive vocabulary in both languages
 Ability to express thoughts clearly and concisely in both languages
Translation as a process of communication
Etymologically, ‗translate‘ means to carry across. In context, it could mean carrying across a
message or a text. It has also been defined as a process of communication that involves a sender
and a receiver. Like any other form of communication, the sender sends a massager that is coded
in a certain way. This code is received and analyzed or decoded by the receiver before it is
understood. Katharina Reiss has defined translation as a ―bilingual mediated process of
communication, which ordinarily aims at the production of a TL (Target language) text that is
functionally equivalent to an SL (source Language) text. Translation is a process of
communication that involves two languages and in which the translator acts as a mediator. Since
the translator is the one who is originally sending the message, she/he becomes a ‗secondary
sender‘ and therefore translation becomes ‗secondary communication‘.
The problem with all forms of communication including translation is that breakdowns might
occur in the course of reception of the message. Even in same language communication, there is
no guarantee that the receiver decodes the sender‘s message in the way she/he had intended. This
is true of translation also; in fact, chances of miscommunication are higher as the sender‘s and
receiver‘s codes are different and also because it is mediated through a third figure of the
translator. This is why there is the assumption that there is ―loss‖ in the translation process, that
complete equivalence is impossible.
The cultural differences between sender and receiver also complicate matters. Let us take a
simple example difference between English and Amharic languages in the way the pronoun ‗he‘
is used.
What does a translator need?
The question that needs to be asked here is: ‗what is it that translators need to know and be able
to do in order to translate? We are seeking, in other words, a specification of translator
competence‘. Specifying translator competence requires that we consider both abstract
knowledge systems (linguistic and real world experience) and the crucial practical skills of
reading and writing.

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The translator must, as a communicator, posses the knowledge and skills that are common to all
communicators. In sum, specifying translator competence requires that we consider both abstract
knowledge systems (linguistic and real world experience) and the crucial practical skills of
reading and writing).
A. Communicative competence
Communicative competence is a multi-component with four areas of knowledge and skills;
Grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences.
1. Grammatical competence: knowledge of the rules of the code, including vocabulary and
word-formation, pronunciation/spelling and sentence structure i.e. the knowledge and skills
required to understand and express the literal meaning of utterances.
2. Sociolinguistic competence: Knowledge of and ability to produce and understand utterances
appropriately in context i.e. as constrained by topic, the status of the participants, purposes of
the interaction, etc.
3. Discourse competence: The ability to combine form and meaning to achieve unified spoken
or written texts in different genres. This unity depends on cohesion in form (the way in which
utterances are linked structurally to facilitate interpretation of a text) and coherence in
meaning (the relationships among the different meanings in a text‘.
4. Strategic competence: The mastery of communication strategies which may be used to
improve communication or to compensate for breakdowns (caused by limiting factors in
actual communication or to insufficient competence in one or more of the other components
of communicative competence).

B. Expertise
1. A knowledge base consisting of:
a. Source language knowledge: the synaptic rule systems of the code, its lexicon and
semantics and its text-creating systems
b. Target language knowledge equivalent to that in the source language
c. Text –type knowledge
d. Contrastive knowledge of each of the above
2. An inference mechanism which permits
A. The decoding of texts, i.e. reading and comprehending source language texts,
B. The encoding of texts i.e. writing target language texts

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C. Ideal Bilingual competence
Translators are often required to be native speakers of the target language, and this
requirement is supported by a number of strong reasons as well.
D. Ideal Bilingualism: ―Translation theory is primarily concerned with an ideal
bilingual reader- writer, who knows both languages perfectly and is unaffected, by
such theoretically irrelevant conditions as memory limitation, distractions, shifts of
attention or interest, and errors in applying this knowledge in actual performance:
Translation misconceptions
Newcomers to translation sometimes proceed as if translation were an exact science- as
if consistent, one- to- one correlations existed between the words and phrases of different
languages, rendering translations fixed and identifiably reproducible, much as in
cryptography. Such novices many assume that all that is needed to translate a text is to
encode and decode equivalents between the two languages, using a translations dictionary
as the ―codebook‖. On the country, such a fixed relationship would only exist where
anew language synthesized and simultaneously matched to a pre-existing language‘s
scopes of meaning, etymologies, and lexical ecological niches. Another common
misconception is that anyone who can speak a second language will make a good
translation. A good translator understands the source language well, has specific
experience in the subject matter of the text, and is a good writer in the target language.
Moreover, he is not only bilingual but bicultural.

2.2 The communication process in translation

The translator, as we have been saying is by definition a communicator who is involved in
written communication. We might, therefore, begin by providing a rough, general model of the
process of written communication.
We could describe this process in terms of nine steps.
The sender selects message and code
1. Encodes message
2. Selects channel
3. Transmits single containing message
4. Receiver receives signal containing message

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5. Recognizes code
6. Decodes signal
7. Retrieves message and
8. Comprehends message.
The translation process
There are probably as many definitions of ‗translation‘ as there are of ‗sentence‘ (and probably
no more revealing). One which is not totally unattractive and which we have already used) is:
‗the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an
equivalent text in a second language. A partial answer, which serves to draw together the
discussion in this section, is provided by the following diagram: a much simplified outline of a
more comprehensive model of translation process.

The role of context

In translation, the translator indeed has to be aware of all the varieties of contexts- so many it is
idle to list them again- but does not mean that context is the overriding factor in all translation,
and has primacy over any rule, theory or primary meaning. Context is omnipresent, but it is
relative. It affects technical terms and neologisms less than general words; it permeates a
structured text and touches disjointed texts rather lightly. Where a writer deliberately innovates,
the translator has to follow him, and blow the context.
A translator with his eye on his readership is likely to under-translate, to use more general words
in the interests of clarity, simplicity and sometimes brevity, which makes him ‗omit‘ to translate
words altogether. Under-translation is justified if an informative text is deficient in clarity. It is
not justified if it is unnecessary and is a mere retreat from a literal translation-you must not write
down to your reader.
Methods of translation and text comprehension
 Word for word translation: this kind of translation involves translating a word in the source
language to a word in the target language. The SL word-order is preserved and the words are
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are
translated literally. The main use of this translation is either to understand the mechanics of
the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.

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 Literal translation: this kind of translation focuses on the linguistic structure of the source
text. It actually ignores the semiotic, pragmatic and contextual connotation of text structure,
while taking in to account the linguistic conventions of the target language. On the other
hand, it is not recommended for casual reader where adequacy and clarity of meaning are
involved. Therefore, interpreting or explaining the word may give rose to clarity of meaning.
 Free translation: in free translation texts are translated into the other language based on
their meaning not by their structure.

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 11. Fundamentals of literature
1. Genres of literature
Literature is an umbrella concept which divided into various genres. In accordance with genre-
emergence theory, literary genres or modes of literature range from poetry, fiction to drama.
1. Poetry
 The word itself derives from a Greek word, poesis, meaning ―making‖ or ―creating.‖ It is
an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or
instead of, its notional and semantic content.
 poetry defined as ―best words in their best order‖
 It consists largely of oral or literary works in which language is used in a manner that is
felt by its user and audience to differ from ordinary prose.
 It may use condensed or compressed form to convey emotion or ideas to the reader's or
listener's mind or ear
 it may also use devices such as assonance and repetition to achieve musical or incantatory
effects.
 Poems frequently rely for their effect on imagery, word association, and the musical
qualities of the language used. The interactive layering of all these effects to generate
meaning is what marks poetry.
Elements of poetry
Rhyme
 The most familiar element of poetry is rhyme.
 It can be defined as the matching of final vowels or consonant sounds in two or more
words.
 When the corresponding sounds occur at the end of lines, it is an end rhyme, and when
they occur within the lines it is internal rhyme.
 Usually, but not always, rhymes occur at the ends of lines.
 In a broader poetic sense, however, rhyme refers to a close similarity of sound as well as
an exact correspondence; it includes the repetition of consonant sounds in consonance
and alliteration and the agreement of vowel sounds in assonance.

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  Alliteration also called head rhyme or initial rhyme is the repetition of consonant
sounds, especially at the beginning of words, in neighboring words or at short intervals
within a line.
 It gives a reinforcement to stresses, and can also serve as a subtle connection or
emphasis of key words in the line, but alliterated words should not "call attention" to
themselves by strained usage.
 Assonance is another sound effect that sometimes called 'vocalic rhyme'.
 It consists of the repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually close together, to achieve a
Particular effect. For example the vowel sounds in these lines are assonantal.
Rhythm and meter
 Perhaps the most vital element of sound in poetry is rhythm.
 Before we look into rhythm and meter it is important to know about the basic feature that
forms rhythm and poetic melody in a poetry called accent.
 Accent is the rhythmically significant stress in the articulation of words, giving some
syllables more relative prominence than others.
 In words of two or more syllables, one syllable is almost invariably stressed more
strongly than the other syllables.
 In words of one syllable, the degree of stress normally depends on their grammatical
function; nouns, verbs, and adjectives are usually given more stress than articles or
prepositions.
 The words in a line of poetry are usually arranged so the accents occur at regular
intervals, with the meter defined by the placement of the accents within the foot.
 Two degrees of accent are natural to many multi-syllabic English words, designated as
primary and secondary. When a syllable is accented, it tends to be raised in pitch and
lengthened.
Rhythm is an essential of all poetry that the regular or progressive pattern of recurrent
accents in the flow of a poem.
It is the pulse or beat we feel in a phrase of music or a line of poetry.
The measure of rhythmic quantity is the meter.
If rhythm is the pulse or beat we hear in the line, then we can define meter as the
measure or patterned count of poetic line.

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 Meter is a count of the stresses we feel in the poetic rhythm.
In classic Greek and Latin versification, meter depended on the way long and short
syllables were arranged to succeed one another,
in English the distinction is between accented (stressed) and unaccented syllables. By
convention the unit of poetic meter in English is foot. Metrical lines are named for the
type of constituent foot and for the number of feet in the line: monometer (1), dimeter (2),
trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and octameter.
A poetic foot may be iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactylic or spondee.
 An iambic, Trochee , An anapest. Dactyl, Spondee,
 Anapestic and iambic meters move from unstressed syllable to a stressed one. For this
reason they are called rising meters.
 Trochaic and dactylic meters, on the other hand, are said to be falling meters because
they begin with a stressed syllable and decline in pitch and emphasis.
Types of poetry
 Poetry can be classified as narrative or lyric. Lyric poems stress emotion and song,
 narrative poems stress story and action. Each of these types has numerous sub-divisions:
 Lyric poetry is one of the two main groups of poetry.
 By far the most frequently used form in modern poetic literature, the term lyric includes
all poems in which the speaker's ardent expression of a (usually single) emotional
element predominates.
 It consists of the utterance by a single speaker, who expresses a state of mind or a process
of perception, thought, and feeling.
 Many lyric speakers are represented as musing in solitude.
 lyric poetry evokes in the reader's mind the recall of similar emotional experiences.
Although the
 lyric is uttered in the first person, the "I" in the poem need not be the poet who wrote it.
 Even in such personal lyrics, however, both the character and utterance of the speaker
may be formalized and shaped by the author in a way that is conducive to the desired
artistic effect. Here are some distinguished types of lyric poetry.
Elegy

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  In Greek and Roman literature, "elegy" denoted any poem written in elegiac meter
(alternating hexameter and pentameter lines).
 The term was also used, however, to refer to the subject matter of change and loss
frequently expressed in the elegiac verse form, especially in complaints.
 the subjects were various: death, war, love and similar themes. However, it is only since
the 16th c. that an elegy has come to mean a poem of mourning for an individual, or a
lament for some tragic event.
 In Europe and England the word continued to have a variable application through the
Renaissance. John Donne's elegies, written in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth
centuries, are love poems, although they relate to the sense of elegy as lament, in that
many of them emphasize mutability and loss.
 In the seventeenth century the term elegy began to be limited to its most common present
usage: a formal and sustained lament in verse for the death of a particular person, usually
ending in a consolation.
 Also the term is used in its older and broader sense, for somber meditations on mortality
such as Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1757),
 Dirge is also a versified expression of grief on the occasion of a particular person's death,
but differs from the elegy in that it is short, is less formal, and is usually represented as a
text to be sung.
 Another difference of dirge is that in contrast to an elegy, the principle aim of the dirge is
to lament the dead, rather than to console survivors.
Ode
 A long lyric poem that is serious in subject and treatment, marked by the rich, intense
expression of an elevated thought, often addressed to a praised person or object, elevated
in style, and
 elaborate in its stanzaic structure. Usually irregular rather than uniform, generally of
considerable length and sometimes continuous, sometimes divided in accordance with
transitions of thought and mood in a complexity of stanzaic forms; it often has varying
iambic line lengths with no fixed system of rhyme schemes.
Sonnet
 A fixed form consisting of fourteen lines of 5-foot iambic verse.

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  It expresses emotion or articulation of idea according to one of two basic patterns: the
Italian and English (Shakespearean).
 In the English or Shakespearean sonnet, the lines are grouped in three quatrains (with six
alternating rhymes) followed by a detached rhymed couplet.
Narrative poetry
 The narration of an event or story, stressing details of plot, incident, and action.
 A narrative poem contains more detail and is not intended to be sung. Here, some of the
narrative poetries come in to limelight.
Epic
 An extended narrative poem, usually simple in construction, but grand in scope, exalted
in style, and heroic in theme,
 often giving expression to the ideals of a nation or race.
 Epic in its strict sense the is applied to a work that meets at least the following criteria: it
is a long verse narrative on a serious subject, told in a formal and elevated style, and
centered on a heroic theme
Ballad
 A short definition of the popular ballad (known also as the folk ballad or traditional
ballad) that it is a song, transmitted orally, which tells a story.
 Ballads are thus the narrative species of folk songs, which originate, and are
communicated orally, among illiterate or only partly literate people.
 Blank verse is a Poetry written without rhymes, but which retains a set metrical pattern,
usually iambic pentameter (five iambic feet per line) in English verse.
 it is a very flexible form, the writer not being hampered in the expression of thought or
syntactic structure by the need to rhyme,
 it is used extensively in narrative and dramatic poetry.
 In lyric poetry, blank verse is adaptable to lengthy descriptive and meditative poems.
 Free verse is a fluid form which conforms to no set rules of traditional versification.
 free verse refers to the freedom from fixed patterns of meter and rhyme, but writers of
employ familiar poetic devices such as assonance, alliteration, imagery, figures of speech
etc., and their rhythmic effects are dependent on the syllabic cadences emerging from the
context.

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  One of the characteristics that distinguish free verse from rhythmical prose is that free
verse has line breaks which divide the content into uneven rhythmical units.
Dramatic Monologue
 Dramatic Monologue is a lengthy speech by a single person.
 In a play, when a character utters a monologue that expresses his or her private thoughts,
it is called a soliloquy.
Oral Poetry
 Oral Poetry is that composed and transmitted by singers or reciters.
 Its origins are prehistoric, yet it continues to flourish even now among populations which
for the most part cannot read or write.
 Oral poetry includes both narrative forms ( epic and ballad) and lyric forms (folk songs).
 There is no fixed version of an oral composition, since each performer tends to render it
differently, and sometimes introduces differences between one performance and the next.
Proverbs as poetry
 Proverb is a brief, pithy, popular saying embodying some familiar truth, practical
interpretation of experience, or useful thought.
 Proverbs are often marked by a poetic quality in style or in sense. In other words, they
exhibit certain poetic features and can be useful for learning poetry at an initial stage of a
literature program.
Riddles as poetry
 Riddles are one of the oldest forms of poetry.
 In a riddle something familiar becomes unusual; something obvious becomes hidden
through the magic of words. Riddles are like puzzles and are suitable for problem solving
approach to language and literature learning.
Limerick
A light or humorous verse form of five lines, chiefly anapestic verses of which lines one, two
and five are of three feet and lines three and four are of two feet, with a rhyme scheme of aabba,
as in:
2. Drama
 Drama is a type of literature usually written to be performed.

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  Oxford English Dictionary defines drama as ― A composition in a prose or verse adapted
to be acted upon stage which story is related by means of dialogue and action
 It is represented with accompanying gesture, costume, ,and scenery as in real life‖.
 People often make a distinction between drama, which concerns the written text, or
script, for the performance, and theater, which concerns the performance of this script.
 Many of the most honored and influential works of literature around the world have been
dramas.
Kinds of drama
Tragedy
 The representations of serious actions which eventuate in a disastrous conclusion for the
protagonist (the chief character). More precise and detailed discussions of the tragic form
properly begin— although they should not end—with Aristotle's classic analysis in the
Poetics (fourth century B.C.).
 Aristotle defined tragedy as "the imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having
magnitude, complete in itself," in the medium of poetic language and in the manner of
dramatic rather than of narrative presentation,
Comedy
 In the most common literary application, a comedy is a fictional work in which the
materials are selected and managed primarily in order to interest and amuse us:
 The characters and their discomfitures engage our pleasurable attention rather than our
profound concern, we are made to feel confident that no great disaster will occur.
Tragicomedy it is the mixture of tragedy and comedy where the characters do not die but
are brought sufficiently to death as in the Merchant of Venice.
3. Fiction
 In an inclusive sense, fiction is any literary narrative, whether in prose or verse, which is
invented instead of being an account of events that in fact happened.
 In a narrower sense, however, fiction denotes only narratives that are written in prose,
 It does not normally cover poetry and drama.
 Fiction is now used in general of the novel, the short story, the novella and oral narrative.

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  Some thinkers have asserted that "fictional sentences" should be regarded as referring to a
special world, "created" by the author, which is analogous to the real world, but possesses
its own setting, beings, and mode of coherence.
Short Story
 A short story is a brief work of prose fiction, and most of the terms for analyzing the
component elements, the types, and the various narrative techniques of the novel are
applicable to the short story as well. The short story is concerned with the revelation
character. Furthermore, short story different from fable and tale, has the following
features.
 Its plot illustrates sequence of casually related incidents.
 Its characters are recognizably human, and they are motivated by identifiable social and
psychological forces.
 Its time and place are clearly established, with realistic rather than fantastic settings.
 Its elements plot character, setting, style, point of view, and theme work toward a single
effect, unifying the story.
Novel
 The term "novel" is Derived from Italian novella ,'tale, piece of news' and now applied to
a great variety of writings that have in common only the attribute of being extended
works of fiction written in prose.
 As an extended narrative, the novel is distinguished from the short story and from the
work of middle length called the novelette; its magnitude permits a greater variety of
characters, greater complication of plot (or plots), ampler development of milieu, and
more sustained exploration of character and motives than do the shorter. There seem to
be fewer and fewer rules, but it would probably be generally agreed that, in contemporary
practice, a novel will have more than 60,000 words.

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 Fiction vs. Non-fiction

2. Literary Elements
 Literary elements refer to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text.
 To create a fictional world that seems real to the reader, novelists use five main elements:
plot, characters, conflict, setting, theme, and Point of view. Style is also considered as
elements of literature.
Plot
 Plot is an author‘s selection and arrangement of incidents in a story to shape the action
and give the story a particular focus.
 In order to create effective plot there should be a causal relationship between the
incidents in the work.

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Character and characterization
Characters
 The characters of a book are the fictional figures that move through the plot.
 They are invented by the author and are made of words rather than of flesh and blood.
 Therefore they cannot be expected to have all the attributes of real human beings.
 Nevertheless, novelists do try to create fictional people whose situations affect the reader
as the situations of real people would.
Characters classified as:- based on their attitude, protagonist and antagonist based
on their role m major and minor, based on their changeability flat and round
character.
Characterization
 Characterization is the author‘s means of conveying to the reader a character‘s
personality, life history, values, physical attributes, etc.
 Also refers directly to a description there of. Characterization may be direct or indirect.
In direct characterization, the writer or a narrator tells the reader what the character is like:
―Ben was a quiet, serious boy.‖
In indirect characterization, the author shows the reader or audience member what the
character is like through.
Point of view
First Person: The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and
feelings and what he or she sees and is told by other characters.
Third-Person Objective: The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she sees
and hears. This narrator can tell us what is happening, but he can‘t tell us the thoughts of the
characters.
Omniscient: The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one
of the characters.
Third-Person Limited: The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the
characters. The third-person-limited point of view tells the story from the third person (―he‖ or
―she‖), with a knowledge of what the main character thinks.

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Second person points of view: in this mode the story gets told solely, or at least primarily, as an
address by the narrator to someone he calls by the second-person pronoun "you." This form of
narration occurred in occasional passages of traditional fiction and not common.
Conflict
 Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually
be identified as one of four kinds.
 Man versus Man: Conflict that pits one person against another.
 Man versus Nature: A run-in with the forces of nature. It expresses the insignificance of a
single human life in the cosmic scheme of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of
a person‘s strength and will to live.
 Man versus Society: The values and customs by which everyone else lives are being
challenged. The character may come to an untimely end as a result of his or her own
convictions. The character may, on the other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic
point of view, or it may be decided that society was right after all.
 Man versus Self-Internal conflict: Not all conflict involves other people. Sometimes
people are their own worst enemies.
Theme
It is the main idea or underlying meaning of a literary work. A theme may be stated or implied.
Not every literary work has a theme. Themes may be major or minor. A major theme is an idea
the author returns to time and again. It becomes one of the most important ideas in the story.
Minor themes are ideas that may appear from time to time. It is important to recognize the
difference between the theme of a literary work and the subject of a literary work..
 Four ways in which an author can express themes are as follows:
1. Themes are expressed by sharing feelings of the main character you also share the ideas that
go through his mind.
2. Themes are presented in thoughts and conversations.
3. Themes are suggested through the characters. And the actions or events in the story.
Setting denotes the place and time of story‘s action in which it occurs -is crucial to the creation
of a complete work. This means setting of narration or dramatic work is the general location,
historical time and social circumstance in which the action has happened.
Style

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Style has traditionally been defined as the manner of linguistic expression in prose or verse—as
how speakers or writers say whatever it is that they say. It is the novelist‘s choice of words and
phrases, and how the novelist arranges these words and phrases in sentences and paragraphs.
 A simple style uses common words and simple sentences, even if the situation described
is complex. The effect of the simple style can be to present facts to the reader without
appealing to the reader‘s emotions directly.
 A complex style uses long, elaborate sentences that contain many ideas and descriptions.
The writer uses lyrical passages to create the desired mood in the reader, whether it be
one of joy, sadness, confusion, or any other emotion.
 A mid-style is a combination of the simple and complex styles. It can give a neutral tone
to the book, or it can provide two different effects by contrast
Literary Techniques
A literary technique refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of language which
an author uses to convey meaning in a particular way.
 Flashback it shows events that happened at an earlier time. It is an interruption of the
chronological sequence of an event of earlier occurrence. A flashback as a narrative
technique allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order to provide
background for the current narration.
 Foreshadowing It is an author‘s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur
later in the story. Not all foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely
hinted at through dialogue, description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characters.
 Monologue A term used in a number of senses, with the basic meaning of a single person
speaking alone with or without an audience.
 A soliloquy is a speech, often of some length, in which a character, alone on the stage,
expresses his thoughts and feelings.

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 12. Literary Theory& Criticism
Literary criticism refers to the act of interpreting and studying literature.
Literary theory፡
 is a school of thought that gives readers a means to critique the ideas and principles of
literature.
 was developed as a means to understand the various ways people read texts. Literary
theories are lenses that you can use to view and talk about art, literature, and
culture.
 is idea act as different lenses critics use to view and talk about art, literature, and
even culture. These different lenses allow critics to consider works of art based on
certain assumptions within that school of theory. The different lenses also allow critics to
focus on particular aspects of a work they consider important
A literary critic is someone who argues on behalf of an interpretation or understanding of the
particular meaning(s) of literary texts.
 The task of a literary critic is to explain and attempt to reach a critical understanding of
what literary texts mean in terms of their aesthetic, as well as social, political, and
cultural statements and suggestions.
There are a variety of schools of literary theory, including feminist theory, post-modernist
theory, post-structuralism theory, and more. Here are:
To help you decide on a literary theory and to begin analyzing your chosen text, consider
the most significant theories presented below and some of the questions.
1. Feminism
As the feminist movement gained steam in the mid-twentieth century, literary critics began
looking to gender studies for new modes of literary criticism.
Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural
productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological
oppression of women" (Tyson).
 One of the earliest proponents of feminist critics was Virginia Woolf in her seminal
essay ―A Room of One's Own.‖

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Questions for analysis:
 Is the author male or female?
 Is the text narrated by a male or female?
 What types of roles do women have in the text?
 Are the female characters the protagonists or secondary and minor characters?
 Do any stereotypical characterizations of women appear?
 What are the attitudes toward women held by the male characters?
 What is the author's attitude toward women in society?
 How does the author's culture influence her or his attitude? Is feminine imagery used? If
so, what is the significance of such imagery?
 Do the female characters speak differently than to the male characters? In your
investigation, compare the frequency of speech for the male characters to the frequency
of speech for the female characters.
2. Marxism
Socialist thinker Karl Marx established this branch of literary theory alongside Marxism, his
political and sociological ideology.
Based on the theories of Karl Marx, this school concerns itself with class differences,
economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and complications of the
capitalist system.
Questions for analysis:
 Is there an outright rejection of socialism in the work?
 Does the text raise fundamental criticism about the emptiness of life in bourgeois
society?
 How well is the fate of the individual linked organically to the nature of societal forces?
What are the work's conflicting forces?
 At what points are actions or solutions to problems forced or unreal?
 Are characters from all social levels equally well sketched?
 What are the values of each class in the work?
 What is valued most? Sacrifice? Assent? Resistance?
 How clearly do narratives of disillusionment and defeat indicate that bourgeois values -
competition, chauvinism - are incompatible with human happiness?

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  Does the protagonist defend or defect from the dominant values of society? Are those
values in ascendancy or decay?
3. Deconstruction
Proposed by Jacques Derrida, deconstructionists pick apart a text‘s ideas or arguments, looking
for contradictions that render any singular reading of a text impossible.
4. Psychoanalytic criticism
Using Sigmund Freud‘s principles of psychoanalysis—like dream interpretation—
psychoanalytic criticism looks to the neuroses and psychological states of characters in
literature to interpret a text's meaning.
 Other notable psychoanalytic critics include Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva.
5. Reader-response
Reader-response criticism is rooted in the belief that a reader's reaction to or interpretation of
a text is as valuable source of critical study as the text itself.
6. Formalism
Formalism forces readers to judge the artistic merit of literature by examining its formal
elements, like language and technical skill. Formalism favours a literary canon of works that
exemplify the highest standards of literature, as determined by formalist critics.
7. The new criticism
New critics focused on examining the formal and structural elements of literature, as
opposed to the emotional or moral elements.
 Poet T.S. Eliot and critics Cleanth Brooks and John Crowe Ransom pioneered the school
of the new criticism.
8. Cultural Poetic or New Historicism
This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a
work with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and
political movements of the time.
Questions for analysis:
 What kinds of behavior, what models of practice, does this work seem to reinforce?
 Why might readers at a particular time and place find this work compelling?
 Are there differences between my values and the values implicit in the work I am
reading?

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  Upon what social understanding does the work depend?
 Whose freedom of thought or movement might be constrained implicitly or explicitly by
this work?
 What are the larger social structures with which these particular acts of praise or blame
might be connected?
9. Gender studies:
Gender studies and queer theory explore issues of sexuality, power, and marginalized
populations (woman as other) in literature and culture.
Questions for analysis:
 What elements of the text can be perceived as being masculine (active, powerful) and
feminine (passive, marginalized) and how do the characters support these traditional
roles?
 What sort of support (if any) is given to elements or characters who question the
masculine/feminine binary? What happens to those elements/characters?
 What are the politics (ideological agendas) of specific gay, lesbian, or queer works, and
how are those politics revealed in...the work's thematic content or portrayals of its
characters?
 What does the work contribute to our knowledge of queer, gay, or lesbian experience and
history, including literary history?
 How is queer, gay, or lesbian experience coded in texts that are by writers who are
apparently homosexual?
 How does the literary text illustrate the problematics of sexuality and sexual "identity,"
that is the ways in which human sexuality does not fall neatly into the separate categories
defined by the words homosexual and heterosexual?

10. Post-structuralism
Post-structuralist literary theory abandoned ideas of formal and structural cohesion,
questioning any assumed ―universal truths‖ as reliant on the social structure that influenced
them.
 One of the writers who shaped post-structuralist theory is, Roland Barthes—the father
of semiotics, or the study of signs and symbols in art.

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 11. Post-colonial theory
Post-colonial theory challenges the dominance of Western thought in literature, examining
the impacts of colonialism in critical theory.
 Edward Said's book Orientalism is a foundational text of postcolonial theory.

12. Post-modernism
Post-modernist literary criticism emerged in the middle of the 20th c. to reflect the fractured
and dissonant experience of 20th c. life. While there are many competing definitions
of postmodernism, it is most commonly understood as rejecting modernist ideas of unified
narrative.
13. Practical criticism
This study of literature encourages readers to examine the text without regarding any of the
outside context—like the author, the date and place of writing, or any other contextual
information that may enlighten the reader.
14. Cultural studies:
In direct opposition to practical criticism, cultural theory examines a text within the context of
its socio-cultural environment. Cultural critics believe a text should be read entirely through
the lens of the text's cultural context.
Critique a literary text
Critique is a literary technique that means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work, or a
political or philosophical theory in detail.
 A critique could be a critical essay, an article evaluating a literary piece, or a review.
 It may be just like a summary that identifies the central issue, raises questions, takes
notice of theoretical and experimental approaches, and reviews the significance of the
results.
Apart from that, its purpose is to highlight both the shortcomings as well as strengths of a literary
piece or a work of art. Moreover, critical evaluation or assessment requires sufficient
knowledge about the subject matter.
Examples of Critique in Literature

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Example #1: The Washington Post (By The Washington Post)
A famous writer, Jonathan Yardley, gives a complete analysis of F. Scott Fitzgerald‘s
popular novel, The Great Gatsby in The Washington Post. He calls the novel an enormous
achievement in Fitzgerald‘s career. It is his masterwork and seems that no other American novel
could ever come close to its literary artistry.
This novel is very popular, and its every passage is famous, thus there is no need to retrace its
details and familiar background. Fitzgerald has written it with unusual subtlety and sustained
that tone in the entire novel. In the end, he says that this novel is ―the most beautiful, compelling
and true in all of American literature.‖ Then he says, ―If from all of our country‘s books I could
have only one, The Great Gatsby, would be it.‖
Example #3: Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (By Harold Bloom)
In his book, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited, Harold Bloom declares William
Shakespeare‘s Hamlet as ―unlimited,‖ coming ―of no genre,‖ because its greatness ―… competes
only with the world‘s scriptures.‖ This amazing significance cannot emerge from a work, which
is about tendentious and politicized things.
Bloom abandons the idea that Prince Hamlet‘s double shock of his father‘s death and his
mother‘s second marriage has brought a drastic change in Hamlet. The truth, however, is that
―Something in Hamlet dies before the play opens.‖ In fact, the theme or central idea of this play
is ―Hamlet‘s consciousness of his own consciousness, unlimited yet at war with itself.‖ Thus, the
play is about awakening of self-awareness, and Hamlet fights with ―his desire to come to an end
of playacting.‖
Critiquing a Text
Let‘s review:
 When we summarize a text, we capture its main points.
 When we analyze a text, we consider how it has been put together—we dissect it,
more or less, to see how it works
When we critique a text, we evaluate it, asking it questions. Critique shares a root with the
word ―criticize.‖
 Most of us tend to think of criticism as being negative or mean, but in the academic
sense, doing a critique is a constructive way to better explore and understand the material
we‘re working with.

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  The word critique‘s origin means ―to evaluate,‖ and through our critique, we do a deep
evaluation of a text.
When we critique a text, we interrogate it. Our own opinions and ideas become part of our
textual analysis. We question the text, we argue with it, and we delve into it for deeper meanings.
Ideas to Consider when Critiquing a Text
 How did you respond to the piece? Did you like it? Did it appeal to you? Could you identify with
it?
 Do you agree with the main ideas in the text?
 Did you find any errors in reasoning? Any gaps in the discussion?
 Did the organization make sense?
 Was evidence used correctly, without manipulation? Has the writer used appropriate sources for
support?
 Is the author objective? Biased? Reasonable? (Note that the author might just as easily be
subjective, unbiased, and unreasonable! Every type of writing and tone can be used for a specific
purpose. By identifying these techniques and considering why the author is using them, you
begin to understand more about the text.)
 Has the author left anything out? If yes, was this accidental? Intentional?
 Are the text‘s tone and language text appropriate?
 Are all of the author‘s statements clear? Is anything confusing?
 What worked well in the text? What was lacking or failed completely?
 What is the cultural context[1] of the text?
These are only a few ideas relating to critique, but they‘ll get you started. When you critique, try
working with these statements, offering explanations to support your ideas. Bring in content
from the text (textual evidence) to support your ideas.
How to Critique /analyse A literature
A literature critique, sometimes called a literary analysis or a literary critical analysis, is an
examination of a piece of literature.
 The scope of a critique of literature may be to examine a single aspect of the work, or the
work in its entirety, and involves breaking the literary piece apart into its separate
components and evaluating how they fit together to accomplish the piece's purpose.

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Literary critiques are commonly performed by students, scholars, and literary critics, but anyone
can learn how to critique literature by applying Advanced Critical Techniques as follow.
1. Read the work of literature critically. When you read a work of literature with the
purpose of critiquing it, whether a poem, short story, nonfiction essay, or memoir, you
must read it with an active mind. This means that you should ask questions as you read.
 You should read with a pen and paper handy, as well as with a dictionary. Write
down the main ideas in the margins and look up words as you go.
 Ask ―how,‖ ―why,‖ and ―so what‖ questions to help you read critically.
2. Evaluate as you read. Aside from noting when important ideas occur in the margins of
the text, you should write down important ideas and themes on a piece of paper as you
read, noting the page numbers. You should also think about the text in terms of critical
thinking, such as evaluating the work‘s clarity, accuracy, and current relevance to
society.
 Evaluate elements of the work as you go, such as plot, themes, instances of
character development, setting, symbols, conflicts, and point of view. Think about
how these elements interact to form the main theme.
3. Brainstorm which aspect to write about. Before you settle on a thesis statement—in fact,
to formulate a thesis statement in the first place—you should brainstorm what aspect of
the work you want to write about. Look at your notes from while you were reading and
see if there are any ideas that you have already extracted from the piece, and place these
ideas in your brainstorming. You may want to choose a theme from the work that
particularly struck you and critique how well the author presented this theme through the
elements you evaluated in your notes. There are many ways to brainstorm, including:
 making a list,
 mapping out a web, and
 freewriting.
 For example, while reading Pride and Prejudice, you might feel that Mr. Darcy‘s
character needed more development than Jane Austen gave him, or you might
prefer Jane‘s character to Lizzy‘s and feel that she would have made a better
heroine (for example, Jane shares a name with the author, giving you grounds to

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 explore the argument that Austen might have actually preferred her). Make a list,
web, or free- write out of ideas like these.
4. Formulate a thesis statement. Once you have populated a brainstorming list and selected
a critical perspective (whether based on your own observation or on a critical theory),
you should compose a working thesis statement. A ―working‖ thesis is one that can be
changed and adapted to your writing as you compose the essay.
 The thesis should present your opinion in an arguable manner accompanied by a
solid reason why your opinion is true.
 The formula for a basic thesis statement might look like this: _______ is true
because of __________, ____________, and ___________.
5. Create an outline. You should always use an outline as it requires you to organize your
thinking in a logical manner so that your critique is sound and credible. An outline will
include elements like your thesis statement, the content of your body paragraphs, and quotes
and examples with page numbers. It makes writing the actual essay much easier because all
of your research is compiled in one place.
 You can also take advantage of an outline to form key sentences like the hook
(first line of the intro paragraph), topic and transition sentences for each body
paragraph, and your conclusion.
6. Select quotes and patterns that support your thesis. While you are creating the outline, you
can start to pick out direct quotes and examples from the text itself (the primary source) and
any research you have done (secondary sources). If you place a topic sentence in each body
paragraph, you can add the right quotes to support each idea.
 Look at your notes and identify any patterns you see in the text that support your
thesis statement, such as how no one is ever sure what Mr. Darcy is doing until
after the fact, contributing to a lack of character development in Pride and
Prejudice (if you were trying to prove the validity of an argument that Mr. Darcy
is not developed enough, for example).
 You must include a page number or authorial attribution anytime that you: talk
about a specific event; paraphrase a quote; paraphrase a passage; or use any direct
quote. You usually insert a page number in parentheses after the sentence.

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7. Find other criticism to support your thesis. In order to write a strong critique, you need
outside sources to agree with you. This boosts the credibility of your argument and shows
that you have the strength of mind to think critically about what you read. Outside sources
are also called secondary sources, and you need to make sure they are reliable, such as peer
reviewed literary journal or magazine articles, published books, and chapters from books.
 You should also address any criticism that does not agree with your thesis, as
refuting the counterargument also builds your credibility.

8. Use the outline to write your paper. Once you have gathered your research, formed a thesis
statement, and filled in a detailed outline, it is time to write the critique. At this point, you
will have plenty of information, and all the organization has been done already, so writing
the piece should go smoothly.
 If you created your outline on a word processor, then you can simply fill in the
outline with additional information.
 You can also treat the outline as a roadmap. Consult it as you draft your paper to
make sure that you are including all of the points and examples that you have
identified.
9. Pay attention to assignment and style guidelines. Make sure that you follow your instructor‘s
guidelines for the assignment. For example, you may have specific questions that you need to
answer in your paper. You might also have a page length or word count requirement that you
need to meet. You will also need to use the correct style to format your paper, such as MLA,
APA, or Chicago.
 MLA is more common for literary-based essays, but you should ask your
instructor if you are not sure.
10. Discuss your quotes. Your paper should include quotes from the primary source (the work of
literature itself) and from secondary sources (articles and chapters that help your argument).
Make sure you analyse every quote that you include so that you are expressing your own
opinion rather than regurgitating someone else‘s.
 For example, after offering a quote, you might explain what the quote means or
demonstrates as well as how it supports your thesis. Do not simply paraphrase or
summarize the quotes after you offer them. Summary does not show critical

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 thinking. Instead, try to explain the significance of each quote or example to your
readers.
 Try to create quote sandwiches. A quote sandwich is simply how you position a
quote in an essay. You should have a sentence introducing the quote and its
author, then have the quote itself, followed by one or more sentences analysing
the quote right after it.
 Make sure you include a references/works cited list with all sources you quote
from or paraphrase in the essay. This prevents plagiarism.
11. Revise your critique. Proofreading, editing, and revision are all important parts of the writing
process and should be done before turning in or publishing a critique of literature. When
doing the revision, it is helpful to have someone else look over the essay or read it out loud
yourself to find careless mistakes, awkward phrasing, and weak organization.
Steps to Literary Criticism
Step 1: READ

As you read the work, ask yourself questions, such as:

 Why did the author write this?
 What is the theme or themes?
 How is the style relevant to the content?
 How are the characters developed?
 What do the characters learn?
 How are the characters connected to the themes?
 What does the format and style suggest about the story?
Step 2: THESIS

The thesis is a road map for the paper—it tells the reader what to expect. A good thesis is
specific, limited in scope, and offers a perspective or interpretation on a subject.
 Focus on specific attribute(s) of the text(s).
 Make a specific, arguable point (thesis) about these attributes.
 Defend this point with reasons and evidence drawn from the text and secondary sources.
 As you do research and your paper evolves, don't hesitate to revamp your original thesis
statement.

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 Thesis Statement Examples
Step 3: RESEARCH

Find evidence that supports your thesis. This evidence may include:
 Opinions of other critics.
 Discussion of the text's historical and social context.
 Discussions in books or articles about your text.
 Discussions in books and articles about theories related to your argument.
Step 4: SUPPORT

In addition to support for your thesis in sources you have located in your research, you will
use support directly from the text, such as:
 Direct quotations
 Summaries of scenes
 Paraphrases
Reminder: Do not summarize the plot. You are writing an analysis; not a review or summary.
Step 5: EDIT

The final step is to edit and polish the paper:

 Check for spelling and grammar mistakes.
 Ask a friend to review it for you. Since you have read it so many times, you may
overlook obvious mistakes.
 Make sure you follow all formatting guidelines.
Some questions to consider as you review your paper:
 Do you get the reader's attention in the introductory paragraph?
 Do you vary the sentence structure?
 Do your paragraphs transition well?
 Do your quotes and research clearly support your thesis?
 Does your conclusion tie up all the loose ends?

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 13. Editing
The Definition of Editing
Editing involves making revisions to and suggestions about the content of a document. It
includes improving the accuracy of language, the flow, the organization and structure, and the
overall readability of the text. It also involves checking for grammatical and spelling errors.
In other words, editing involves a detailed review of a document while making additions,
deletions, or other changes to conform to a specific, agreed-upon standard in order to prepare the
document for a specific audience. A document should be edited at least once before it is
proofread.
What Makes a Good Editor?
Editing requires not only English language skills but also the intuition to know, at a glance, what
is right or wrong on the page. An editor must gain a "feel" for a project's meaning and intention.
An editor must look for consistency and clarity and should be able to look at any piece of writing
without bias.
An experienced editor recognizes unusual figures of speech and peculiar usage. He or she will
know when to make an actual change, when to suggest one, and how to do so tactfully. Helping
the author find his or her "voice" is a part of this process.
In work done by an effective editor, the mechanics are seamless and nothing is taken away from
the author's message or the reader's experience.
Key Features of Journalistic Writing
News writing traditionally has a very distinct journalistic style. Key features include:
 A concise, objective, formal writing style, favouring straightforward terminology over
technical jargon.
 Use of the third person and past tense when reporting what has happened.
 Short sentences and paragraphs to ensure clarity and accessibility.
 An inverted pyramid structure, where essential information (i.e., the five Ws) is always
given first.
 Content selected on the basis of its newsworthiness (e.g., its timeliness and relevance for
the audience).
 Use of quotations from experts and witnesses to the events reported on.

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Editing news writing may therefore involve ensuring this general style is applied (although you
should also look out for journalese, which refers to clichéd and potentially obscure use of
journalistic language).
However, other types of journalism may be less formal or more subjective (e.g., feature stories
often start with an anecdotal lead and use the first person). In addition, different publications
vary in style (e.g., tabloid papers are generally less formal, more biased, and more inclined to use
emotive language). How you approach editing or proofreading a document will therefore depend
on the type of journalism at hand.
Who is a copy editor?
A copy editor is responsible for ensuring that a written work is free of errors in grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and syntax. They also check for consistency in style and formatting. Copy
editing involves making changes to the text to improve its readability and clarity. Copy editors
use various techniques such as proofreading, fact-checking, and rewriting to enhance the quality
of the written work.
What are the Copy editing techniques?
Copy editing techniques include:
 checking for spelling errors,
 Ensuring that the text is grammatically correct, and ensuring that the style and tone are
consistent throughout the document.
 Check for clarity and coherence, ensuring that the text flows smoothly and is easy to
read.
 Suggest changes to improve the overall structure and organization of the text.

Headline
A headline is a short, attention-grabbing phrase or sentence that appears at the top of an article or
news story.
It is designed to capture the reader's attention and encourage them to read on.
A caption is a brief description or explanation that accompanies an image or photograph.
Purposes of headlines
 Give the news at a glance
 Draw attention and capture drama

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  Organize the story
 Set a tone – Reflect the attitude and personality not only of the stories they introduce, but
of the entire publication
Styles of Headlines
Down and up style – capitalization in heads
 down style – treated like a sentence, with only the first word and proper nouns
capitalized
 Up style – capitalize all major words in the way book titles do. Most magazines, few
newspapers and websites favour this headline styles
 Main heads – some headlines are the combination of two or more headlines. In this
case, the main head is the anchoring head and usually the largest.

Steps in writing simple heads

 Read and summarize the story
 Cast the summary in a sentence
 Shorten the sentence by putting it in headline form
 Tighten further by eliminating less essential elements
 Find synonyms for key word in the lead
Nature of headlines
headlines caption hard news stories
headlines are summaries (of leads, of stories)
but they can sell a unique part of a story
they tap the benefit of sentences to convey complete thought
headline sentences are often skeleton zed (they are stripped of non-essentials: a, an, the,
and) to save space and make them forceful
be verbs and auxiliaries are not usually forceful
they show editors' sense of news judgement
they help readers to easily identify stories that are of interest to them
They are elements of page design: they give weight, create a personality and bring beauty
to news pages.

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Prerequisites needed for writing good headlines
 Deep understanding of the story: The headline writer should recognize what parts of the
story are newsworthy, dramatic, significant and new.
 A vocabulary that is far-reaching and deep
 A sharp sense of sentence structure – writers need flexibility both in the choice of words
and sentence structure so that they can switch word order without damaging meaning.
 An aptitude for detecting ambiguity and inconsistencies. Most editors prefer to read the
story first, before writing the headline. This is to get a full grasp of the story. It is easy to
write ambiguous and inconsistent headlines.
Mechanisms of writing Headline
 Use present tense: past form of verbs is unusual in headlines. It is the same with putting
headlines in present continuous and present perfect forms.
 Omit present tense forms of the verb to be: Sometime the verb, especially the ‗be verbs‘
are eliminated in headlines: this makes headlines shorter and terse.
 Replace will with to
 Use figures of spelling out numbers
 Omit articles
 Replace and with a comma or semi colon
 Drop end punctuation ( don‘t end in periods)
 Use colon when the attribution comes first and dash at last
 Use active voice than passive: It is advised to write headlines in the active voice because
they convey a sense of immediacy and make the head concrete. However, when the doer
of the action is not what makes the news, it becomes necessary –even better – to use the
passive form of the verb.
Here are five short paragraphs that need comprehensive editing:
1. Unedited: The company was founded in 1985, it has since grown to become a major player
in the industry. Their products are known for their quality and reliability, and they have a
loyal customer base. However, recent financial difficulties have led to a decline in sales.
Edited: The Company, founded in 1985, has grown to become a major player in the industry
thanks to its quality and reliable products. Despite a loyal customer base, recent financial
difficulties have led to a decline in sales.

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2. Unedited: John went to the store to buy some groceries, he picked up some bread, milk, and
eggs. He then went home and made himself a sandwich.
Edited: John went to the store to buy groceries and picked up bread, milk, and eggs. He
made himself a sandwich when he got home.
3. Unedited: The movie was really good, I liked the plot and the acting was great. The special
effects were impressive too, and the soundtrack was amazing.
Edited: The movie was impressive, with a great plot, acting, special effects, and an amazing
soundtrack.
4. Unedited: The book was about a girl who falls in love with a vampire, it was really popular
when it came out. It spawned a series of movies and made the author very rich.
Edited: The book, which tells the story of a girl who falls in love with a vampire, was
incredibly popular upon its release. It spawned a series of movies and made the author very
wealthy.
5. Unedited: The restaurant serves Italian food, it's located downtown and has been around for
years. They have a great selection of pasta dishes and their pizza is delicious.
Edited: The downtown restaurant has been serving Italian cuisine for years, offering a great
selection of pasta dishes and delicious pizza.
Here are five headlines that need editing based on headline writing techniques:
1. Unedited: Company announces new product
Edited: Company unveils innovative new product
2. Unedited: Study shows benefits of exercise
Edited: Study reveals surprising benefits of regular exercise
3. Unedited: Local man wins lottery
Edited: Local man becomes overnight millionaire with lottery win
4. Unedited: New restaurant opens in town
Edited: Exciting new restaurant brings fresh flavors to town
5. Unedited: Company lays off workers
Edited: Company cuts jobs in response to changing market conditions

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 14.Public Relations
1. Promote communications between organizations and their public
This statement refers to the need for organizations to establish effective communication with
their target audience. This involves creating a two-way communication system that allows for
feedback and interaction between the organization and its stakeholders.
Public relations are the practice of building and maintaining relationships between organizations
and their publics, which can include customers, employees, investors, media, and other
stakeholders. Effective communication is essential for successful public relations, and there are
many ways to promote communication between organizations and their publics.
One way to promote communication is through media relations, which involves working with
journalists and media outlets to share news and information about the organization. This can
include press releases, media pitches, and interviews with company spokespeople.
Another way to promote communication is through social media, which allows organizations to
engage with their audiences in real-time and share information, updates, and content. Social
media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram can be used to build relationships
with customers, employees, and other stakeholders.
Events and sponsorships are also effective ways to promote communication between
organizations and their public. Hosting events such as product launches or community outreach
programs can provide opportunities for organizations to interact with their audiences and build
relationships. Sponsorships of events or organizations can also help increase visibility and
promote positive associations with the sponsoring organization.
In addition, internal communication is crucial for effective public relations. Organizations should
prioritize communication with employees and other internal stakeholders to ensure that they are
informed and engaged with the organization's goals and activities.
Overall, promoting communication between organizations and their public is essential for
successful public relations. By using a combination of media relations, social media, events and
sponsorships, and internal communication strategies, organizations can build strong relationships
with their audiences and achieve their communication goals.
In the field of public relations, promoting communication between organizations and their public
refers to the various methods and strategies employed to facilitate effective and meaningful
interactions between an organization and its target audience. It involves creating channels and

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platforms for dialogue, exchanging information, building relationships, and conveying messages
that enhance understanding, trust, and engagement between the organization and the public. This
may include activities such as media relations, social media engagement, public events,
community outreach, stakeholder communication, and other initiatives aimed at fostering open
and transparent communication between the organization and its stakeholders. The ultimate goal
is to establish a positive image, reputation, and mutually beneficial relationships with the public.
Questions:
- Why is it important for organizations to promote communication with their public?
- What are some effective communication strategies that organizations can use to engage with
their
target audience?
- How can organizations measure the effectiveness of their communication efforts?
-Why is it important for organizations to have good communication with the public?
-How can organizations promote effective communication with their target audience?
-What are some strategies or tools that organizations can use to engage with the public?
2. Manage organizational communication activities
This statement refers to the need for organizations to have a structured approach to managing
their communication activities. This involves developing communication plans, setting
objectives, and coordinating communication efforts across different departments.
Organizational communication activities refer to the processes and strategies used by an
organization to effectively communicate with its internal and external stakeholders. These
activities include both formal and informal communication channels, such as meetings, emails,
newsletters, social media, and other forms of messaging.
To manage organizational communication activities effectively, an organization should follow
some key principles:
1. Develop a communication strategy: This involves setting clear goals and objectives for
communication, identifying target audiences, and selecting appropriate channels and messages.
communication involves the process of planning and development of strategies in a manner to
reach the desired results. Communication may take the form of news releases, news conferences,
special events, brochures, speeches, newsletters, posters, and the like.

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2. Establish a communication plan: This outlines the specific steps and timelines for
implementing the communication strategy, including who will be responsible for each activity.
3. Create a communication culture: This involves fostering an environment where open and
honest communication is encouraged and valued, and where all stakeholders feel heard and
respected.
4. Use multiple channels: Effective communication requires using a variety of channels to reach
different audiences, such as face-to-face meetings, emails, social media, and other digital
platforms. A good message sent through the wrong or less appropriate media would achieve
wrong or less desired results. Therefore, determining what media are best suited to get your
message across to your organizations or client‘s publics is very essential.
5. Monitor and evaluate communication effectiveness: Regularly assessing the effectiveness
of communication activities can help organizations identify areas for improvement and make
necessary adjustments.
Overall, effective management of organizational communication activities requires a strategic
approach that is responsive to the needs and expectations of all stakeholders. By prioritizing
clear and consistent communication, organizations can build strong relationships with their
stakeholders and achieve their goals more effectively.
Managing organizational communication activities in the field of public relations involves
several key steps and considerations. Here are some strategies to effectively manage
organizational communication:
1. Develop a Communication Strategy: Start by creating a comprehensive communication
strategy that aligns with the organization's goals and objectives. This strategy should outline
the target audience, key messages, communication channels, and desired outcomes. It should
serve as a roadmap for all communication efforts.
2. Internal Communication: Ensure that communication within the organization is clear,
consistent, and transparent. Establish channels for internal communication, such as newsletters,
intranets, or team meetings, to keep employees informed and engaged. Encourage two-way
communication and feedback from employees to foster a culture of open communication.
3. Media Relations: Build strong relationships with journalists and media outlets relevant to
the organization's industry or sector. Regularly share newsworthy information, press releases,

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 and story pitches to generate media coverage. Prepare spokespersons within the organization to
effectively communicate with the media and handle interviews or press conferences.
4. Social Media Engagement: Utilize social media platforms to engage with the target
audience and build an online presence. Develop a social media strategy that includes regular
posting, responding to comments or messages, sharing relevant content, and leveraging
influencers or brand advocates. Monitor social media conversations about the organization and
address any concerns or issues promptly.
5. Crisis Communication: Have a crisis communication plan in place to effectively handle
potential crises or issues that may arise. This includes preparing key messages, designated
spokespersons, and communication channels to provide timely and accurate information during
challenging times. Transparency and empathy are crucial in maintaining public trust during a
crisis.
6. Stakeholder Engagement: Identify and engage with key stakeholders, such as customers,
investors, community members, and industry influencers. Develop tailored communication
strategies to address their specific needs and concerns. Regularly communicate with
stakeholders through newsletters, events, surveys, or direct meetings to foster relationships and
gather feedback.
7. Measurement and Evaluation: Continuously measure the effectiveness of communication
activities through key performance indicators (KPIs) aligned with the communication strategy.
Monitor media coverage, social media metrics, audience engagement, and stakeholder
feedback. Use this data to evaluate the impact of communication efforts and make informed
adjustments to the strategy if needed.
Remember, effective organizational communication in public relations is a dynamic and ongoing
process. Regularly review and adapt your communication strategies based on feedback,
emerging trends, and the evolving needs of the organization and its target audience.
Questions:
- What are the key components of a communication plan?
- How can organizations ensure that their communication activities align with their overall
business objectives?
- What are some common challenges that organizations face when managing their
communication activities?

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-What are the key elements involved in managing organizational communication activities?
-How can effective communication contribute to the overall success of an organization?
-What challenges might arise when managing communication activities, and how can they be
addressed?
3. Analyze uses of communication channels in public relations practices
This statement refers to the need for organizations to understand the different communication
channels available to them and how they can be used effectively in public relations. This
involves analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of different channels and selecting the most
appropriate ones for specific communication objectives.
Analyzing the uses of communication channels in public relations practices involves evaluating
the effectiveness of various communication channels in reaching and engaging with target
audiences. This analysis involves examining the strengths and weaknesses of different channels,
such as traditional media (e.g., newspapers, television), social media platforms, email, and face-
to-face interactions.
To conduct an analysis of communication channels in public relations practices, organizations
should consider the following factors:
1. Target audience: Understanding the demographics, interests, and communication preferences
of target audiences are essential in selecting the most effective communication channels.
2. Message content: Different types of messages may require different channels to effectively
reach audiences. For example, a crisis communication message may require a more immediate
and direct channel, such as social media or email, while a longer-term marketing message may
be better suited for traditional media.
3. Timing: The timing of communication can also impact the effectiveness of different channels.
For example, social media may be more effective for real-time updates during an event or crisis,
while traditional media may be better for longer-term storytelling.
4. Resource Availability: Organizations must also consider their available resources, including
budget, staff, and technology when selecting communication channels.
5. Evaluation: Regularly evaluating the effectiveness of communication channels is essential in
determining which channels are most effective and identifying areas for improvement.
Overall, analyzing the uses of communication channels in public relations practices requires a
strategic approach that considers the unique needs and preferences of target audiences and

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leverages the strengths of various communication channels to effectively reach and engage with
stakeholders.
Analyzing the uses of communication channels in public relations practices involves assessing
and evaluating the effectiveness of different channels in achieving the desired communication
goals. Here are some ways to analyze the uses of communication channels in public relations:
1. Audience Reach and Targeting: Evaluate the reach and target audience of each communication
channel. Consider factors such as the size of the audience, demographics, geographic location,
and relevance to the organization's target market. Determine if the channel effectively reaches
and engages the intended audience.
2. Message Delivery: Assess how well each communication channel conveys the organization's
messages. Evaluate the channel's capacity to deliver messages clearly, concisely, and in a manner
that resonates with the target audience. Consider the channel's ability to accommodate different
types of content, such as text, visuals, or multimedia.
3. Interactivity and Engagement: Analyze the level of interactivity and engagement provided by
each communication channel. Assess whether the channel allows for two-way communication,
feedback, and dialogue with the target audience. Consider the potential for audience
participation, sharing, and discussion.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of each communication channel. Compare
the resources required to utilize the channel, such as financial investment, time, and personnel,
with the potential benefits gained. Consider the return on investment (ROI) and whether the
channel offers a cost-effective means of reaching the target audience.
5. Measurement and Analytics: Utilize measurement tools and analytics to assess the
performance of each communication channel. Track key metrics such as website traffic, social
media engagement, click-through rates, conversion rates, or media mentions. Analyze the data to
understand the impact and effectiveness of each channel in achieving communication goals.
6. Feedback and Evaluation: Gather feedback from the target audience and stakeholders to
evaluate their perceptions and experiences with each communication channel. Conduct surveys,
interviews, or focus groups to gather insights on the effectiveness and usability of the channels.
Use this feedback to identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement.
7. Benchmarking and Best Practices: Research and benchmark the industry's best practices for
utilizing communication channels in public relations. Analyze successful case studies or

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examples from other organizations to identify innovative or effective strategies. Adapt and apply
these learnings to enhance the use of communication channels in your own public relations
practices.
By analyzing the uses of communication channels in public relations practices, organizations can
make informed decisions about which channels to prioritize, how to optimize their effectiveness,
and how to align them with their overall communication goals and objectives.
Questions:
- What are some common communication channels used in public relations?
- How can organizations determine which communication channels are most effective for their
target audience?
- What are some best practices for using different communication channels in public relations?
-What are some commonly used communication channels in public relations?
-How can the selection of communication channels impact the effectiveness of PR practices?
-Can you provide examples of successful PR campaigns that utilized specific communication
channels effectively?
4. Evaluate features of channels of communication in public relations:
This statement refers to the need for organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of different
communication channels in achieving their communication objectives. This involves assessing
the features of each channel, such as reach, engagement, and cost-effectiveness.
The features of channels of communication in public relations can be evaluated using different
metrics. Reach measures the number of people exposed to the message, engagement measures
the level of interaction between the audience and the message, cost-effectiveness measures the
efficiency of the communication channel in terms of cost per impression or engagement,
feedback measures the response from the audience, and conversion measures the number of
people who take action after being exposed to the message. These evaluations can help
determine the effectiveness of different communication channels and inform future
communication strategies.
Questions:
- What are some key features of communication channels that organizations should consider
when evaluating their effectiveness?

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- How can organizations measure the impact of their communication efforts across different
channels?
- What are some limitations or challenges associated with using different communication
channels in public relations?
-What are some commonly used communication channels in public relations?
-How can the selection of communication channels impact the effectiveness of PR practices?
-Can you provide examples of successful PR campaigns that utilized specific communication
channels effectively?

There are several ways to evaluate the features of channels of communication in public relations,
including:
1. Reach: This refers to the number of people who are exposed to the message. To evaluate
reach, you can use metrics such as website traffic, social media followers, or email subscribers.
2. Engagement: This refers to the level of interaction between the audience and the message. To
evaluate engagement, you can use metrics such as likes, comments, shares, or click-through
rates.
3. Cost-effectiveness: This refers to the efficiency of the communication channel in terms of
cost per impression or cost per engagement. To evaluate cost-effectiveness, you can compare the
cost of using different channels and the results they generate.
4. Feedback: This refers to the response from the audience to the message, including positive or
negative feedback. To evaluate feedback, you can use surveys, focus groups, or social media
monitoring tools.
5. Conversion: This refers to the number of people who take action after being exposed to the
message, such as making a purchase or signing up for a newsletter. To evaluate conversion, you
can use conversion tracking tools or analyze sales data.
To evaluate the features of communication channels in public relations, consider the following
approaches:
Channel Effectiveness: Assess the effectiveness of each communication channel in achieving
the desired goals and objectives. Measure the impact of the channel on key metrics, such as
audience reach, engagement, conversions, or brand visibility. Determine whether the channel
aligns with the organization's communication objectives and if it generates the desired outcomes.

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Audience Analysis: Evaluate the compatibility of each channel with the target audience.
Understand the audience's preferences, behaviors, and media consumption habits. Consider
whether the channel effectively reaches and engages the intended audience. Analyze audience
feedback, surveys, or market research data to gain insights into their perception of the channel.

Message Alignment: Evaluate how well each communication channel aligns with the
organization's messages and branding. Assess whether the channel allows for the delivery of key
messages in a clear, consistent, and compelling manner. Consider the channel's suitability for
conveying different types of content, such as text, images, videos, or interactive elements.
Channel Reach and Coverage: Analyze the reach and coverage of each communication
channel. Consider the channel's potential to reach a wide or specific audience, including
demographics, geographic locations, or niche markets. Evaluate the channel's ability to amplify
the organization's messages to maximize visibility and exposure.
Channel Accessibility and Usability: Assess the accessibility and usability of each
communication channel. Consider factors such as user-friendliness, ease of navigation, and
availability across different devices or platforms. Evaluate whether the channel provides a
seamless experience for users to access and engage with the organization's content.
Cost-effectiveness: Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of each communication channel. Assess the
resources required to utilize the channel, including financial investments, time, and personnel.
Consider the channel's ability to deliver the desired results within the allocated resources and
budget. Compare the return on investment (ROI) of each channel to identify the most cost-
effective options.
Feedback and Evaluation: Seek feedback from the target audience, stakeholders, and internal
teams to evaluate their experiences with each communication channel. Gather insights through
surveys, interviews, focus groups, or social media listening. Analyze the feedback to understand
strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement for each channel.
Comparative Analysis: Conduct a comparative analysis of different communication channels.
Compare their features, advantages, and limitations. Consider factors such as audience reach,
interactivity, cost, measurability, and potential risks. Identify the unique benefits of each channel
and determine which ones are most suitable for specific communication objectives.

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By evaluating the features of communication channels in public relations, organizations can
make informed decisions about channel selection, optimization, and resource allocation. This
evaluation process ensures that the chosen channels align with the organization's goals and
effectively engage the target audience.

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 15.Research and Report Writing
Understand the core concepts of research works
What is Research?
Research in simple term refers to a search for knowledge. It is also known as a scientific and
systematic search for information on particular topic or issue. Similarly, it is the art of scientific
investigation. As Haile Shibabaw et al (2011: 3) states research is ―the manipulation of things,
concept or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in practice of an art.‖
According to Kothari( 2004) research comprises ―defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis‖. Thus, research is an original addition to the available
knowledge, which contributes to its further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through
the methods of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for
knowledge, using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem.
It may be said that the general aims of research are
-to observe and describe
-to predict
-to determine causes and explain
Generally, research is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge that is a discovery of
hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be
collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A
research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research that is
possible to make progress in a field. Research is indeed civilization and determines the
economic, social and political development of a nation.
Importance of Research
Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events,
phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions
are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them

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and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to
understand nature and natural phenomena.
Regarding to the importance of research, Kothari (2004) states the following important points:
A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an
industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a
practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.
Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them.
It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.
Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to
prepare a budget.
It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the
quality of products.
Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them.
It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars,
etc.
Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and
processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.
Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek
solution to social problems.
Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research?
This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following:
2. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
3. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
4. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
5. Desire to be of service to society;
6. Desire to get respectability.

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However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations
Science and Scientific Research

What is science? To some, science refers to difficult high school or college-level courses such as
physics, chemistry, and biology meant only for the brightest students. To others, science is a
craft practiced by scientists in white coats using specialized equipment in their laboratories.
Etymologically, the word ―science‖ is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is
acquired using ―the scientific method‖ (the scientific method is described further below). Science
can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science and social science. Natural science is
the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth,
celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural sciences can be further classified into physical
sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as
physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy (the
science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as geology (the science of
the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as biology (the science of human bodies) and
botany (the science of plants). In contrast, social science is the science of people or collections of
people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective
behaviors. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as psychology (the science of
human behaviors), sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of firms,
markets, and economies).
The natural sciences are different from the social sciences in several respects. The natural
sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and independent of the person making the
scientific observations. For instance, a scientific experiment in physics, such as measuring the
speed of sound through a certain media or the refractive index of water, should always yield the
exact same results, irrespective of the time or place of the experiment, or the person conducting
the experiment. If two students conducting the same physics experiment obtain two different

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values of these physical properties, then it generally means that one or both of those students
must be in error.
Scientific Knowledge
The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to a
generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are
acquired using the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors,
while theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior. For
instance, in physics, the Newtonian Laws of Motion describe what happens when an object is in
a state of rest or motion (Newton‟s First Law), what force is needed to move a stationary object
or stop a moving object (Newton‟s Second Law), and what happens when two objects collide
The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural
or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is important to understand
that this knowledge may be imperfect or even quite far from the truth. Sometimes, there may not
be a single universal truth, but rather equilibrium of ―multiple truths.‖ We must understand that
the theories, upon which scientific knowledge is based, are only explanations of a particular
phenomenon, as suggested by a scientist. We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a
process of logic and evidence. Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only
two, pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based. In science, theories and observations are
interrelated and cannot exist without each other. Theories provide meaning and significance to
what we observe, and observations help validate or refine existing theory or construct new
theory. Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or authority cannot be
considered science.
Scientific Research
Given that theories and observations are the two pillars of science, scientific research operates at
two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical level. The theoretical level is concerned with
developing abstract concepts about a natural or social phenomenon and relationships between
those concepts (i.e., build ―theories‖), while the empirical level is concerned with testing the
theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they reflect our observations of reality,
with the goal of ultimately building better theories. Over time, a theory becomes more and more
refined (i.e., fits the observed reality better), and the science gains maturity. Scientific research
involves continually moving back and forth between theory and observations. Both theory and

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observations are essential components of scientific research. For instance, relying solely on
observations for making inferences and ignoring theory is not considered valid scientific
research.
It is important to understand that theory-building (inductive research) and theory-testing
(deductive research) are both critical for the advancement of science. Elegant theories are not
valuable if they do not match with reality. Likewise, mountains of data are also useless until they
can contribute to the construction to meaningful theories. Though both inductive and deductive
research are important for the advancement of science, it appears that inductive (theory-building)
research is more valuable when there are few prior theories or explanations, while deductive
(theory-testing) research is more productive when there are many competing theories of the same
phenomenon and researchers are interested in knowing which theory works best and under what
circumstances.
Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given the
imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure them, and the presence
of many unaccounted factors that can also influence the phenomenon of interest. It is also very
difficult to refute theories that do not work. For instance, Karl Marx‟s theory of communism as
an effective means of economic production withstood for decades, before it was finally
discredited as being inferior to capitalism in promoting economic growth and social welfare.
Erstwhile communist economies like the Soviet Union and China eventually moved toward more
capitalistic economies characterized by profit-maximizing private enterprises.
Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills: theoretical and
methodological needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels respectively.
Methodological skills (―know-how‖) are relatively standard, invariant across disciplines, and
easily acquired through doctoral programs. However, theoretical skills (―know-what‖) is
considerably harder to master, requires years of observation and reflection, and are tacit skills
that cannot be ―taught‖ but rather learned though experience. All of the greatest scientists in the
history of mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr, Adam Smith, Charles
Darwin, and Herbert Simon, were master theoreticians, and they are remembered for the theories
they postulated that transformed the course of science. Methodological skills are needed to be an
ordinary researcher, but theoretical skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher!

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Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples
of variables. Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal
points are called „continuous variables. But all variables are not continuous. If they can only
be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language
„discrete variables‟. Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is
an example of non-continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of
the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to
the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that
height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent
variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the
individual‟s sex, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent
variables. Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables,
whereas behavioral changes, occurring as a result of the environmental manipulations, are
examples of dependent variables.
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the
researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children‟s gains in
social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent
variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well
affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is
noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as
an „experimental error‟. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the
dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables.
3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term „control‟ is used when we design the
study minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental

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 researches, the term „control‟ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions. Therefore,
the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant,
neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other
variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.
4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a
research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested are not termed research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be
of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed „experimental hypothesis-testing research‟
and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called „non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research‟. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study
whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he
randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the
coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable,
intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50
students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them
into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies program, and 25 to
Group B, the special studies program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each
group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the student‟s
performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in
this case the independent variable and the type of training program, is manipulated.

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7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a „control group‟, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an „experimental group‟. In the
above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an
experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programs, then
both groups would be termed „experimental groups.‟ It is possible to design studies which
include only experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control
groups.
8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to as „treatments‟. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are
the usual studies program and the special studies program. Similarly, if we want to determine
through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of
wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to
determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our
experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake
comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
Know principles of research when conducting research as a small scale research
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are the two most important and fundamental features in the evaluation of
any measurement instrument or tool for a good research. Validity concerns what an instrument
measures, and how well it does so. Reliability concerns the faith that one can have in the data
obtained from the use of an instrument, that is, the degree to which any measuring tool controls
for random error. An attempt has been taken here to review the reliability and validity and threat
to them in some details. Reliability is referred to the stability of findings, whereas validity is
represented the truthfulness of findings (Wiersma, 1995). Regarding to the purpose of validity

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and reliability (Singh 2014) states as they can increase transparency, and decrease opportunities
to insert researcher bias.
Validity
What is validity in research?
Validity is concerned with the meaningfulness of research components. When researchers
measure behaviors, they are concerned with whether they are measuring what they intended to
measure. Kumar (1996) states that validity is foremost on the mind of those developing measures
and that genuine scientific measurement is foremost in the minds of those who seek valid
outcomes from assessment. Validity can be seen as the core of any form of assessment that is
trustworthy and accurate. Similarly, according to (Bollen 1989) validity refers the degree to
which empirical evidences and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness
of interpretations and actions based on test scores.
In addition to the above definition, validity refers to the appropriateness of the inferences made
about the results of an assessment. Inferences being ―…conclusions derived from empirical
evidence bearing on score meaning…‖ (Creswell: 2014). Secondly, validity is a matter of degree
and not a specific value. Thirdly, validity is applied to a specific purpose or use and therefore is
not valid for all purposes. Fourthly, validity is seen as a unitary concept, meaning that there are a
number of different types of validity. Lastly, validity is concerned with an evaluative judgment
about an assessment.
Validity is how researchers talk about the extent that results represent reality. Research methods,
quantitative or qualitative, are methods of studying real phenomenon – validity refers to how
much of that phenomenon they measure vs. how much ―noise,‖ or unrelated information, is
captured by the results.
Validity and reliability make the difference between ―good‖ and ―bad‖ research reports. Quality
research depends on a commitment to testing and increasing the validity as well as the reliability
of your research results. Any research worth its weight is concerned with whether what is being
measured is what is intended to be measured and considers the ways in which observations are
influenced by the circumstances in which they are made.
The basis of how our conclusions are made play an important role in addressing the broader
substantive issues of any given study. For this reason we are going to look at various validity
types that have been formulated as a part of legitimate research methodology.

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Here are the 7 key types of validity in research:
-Face validity -Content validity
-Construct validity -Internal validity
-External validity -Criterion-related -validity
-Statistical conclusion validity

1. Face validity
Face validity is how valid your results seem based on what they look like. This is the least
scientific method of validity, as it is not quantified using statistical methods.
Face validity is not validity in a technical sense of the term. It is concerned with whether it seems
like we measure what we claim. Here we look at how valid a measure appears on the surface and
make subjective judgments based off of that. For example,
Imagine you give a survey that appears to be valid to the respondent and the questions are
selected because they look valid to administer.
The administer asks a group of random people, untrained observers, if the questions appear valid
to them
In research it‟s never enough to rely on face judgments alone and more quantifiable methods of
validity are necessary in order to draw acceptable conclusions. There are many instruments of
measurement to consider so face validity is useful in cases where you need to distinguish one
approach over another. Face validity should never be trusted on its own merits.
2. Content validity
Content validity is whether or not the measure used in the research covers all of the content in
the underlying construct (the thing you are trying to measure).
This is also a subjective measure, but unlike face validity we ask whether the content of a
measure covers the full domain of the content. If a researcher wanted to measure introversion,
they would have to first decide what constitutes a relevant domain of content for that trait.
Content validity is considered a subjective form of measurement because it still relies on
people‟s perception for measuring constructs that would otherwise be difficult to measure.
Where content validity distinguishes itself (and becomes useful) is through its use of experts in
the field or individuals belonging to a target population. This study can be made more objective
through the use of rigorous statistical tests. For example you could have a content validity study

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that informs researchers how items used in a survey represent their content domain, how clear
they are, and the extent to which they maintain the theoretical factor structure assessed by the
factor analysis.
3. Construct validity
A construct represents a collection of behaviors that are associated in a meaningful way to create
an image or an idea invented for a research purpose. Construct validity is the degree to which
your research measures the construct (as compared to things outside the construct). Depression is
a construct that represents a personality trait which manifests itself in behaviors such as over
sleeping, loss of appetite, difficulty concentrating, etc.
Construct validity is the degree to which inferences can be made from operationalization
(connecting concepts to observations) in your study to the constructs on which this
operationalization is based. To establish construct validity you must first provide evidence that
your data supports the theoretical structure. You must also show that you control the
operationalization of the construct, in other words, show that your theory has some
correspondence with reality.
4. Internal validity
Internal validity indicates whether the results of the study are legitimate because of the way the
groups were selected, data were recorded or analyses were performed. It refers to whether a
study can be replicated (Willis, 2007). Given that there is a relationship, is the relationship a
causal one? Are there no confounding factors in my study? Internal validity speaks to the validity
of the research itself. Internal validity refers to the extent to which the independent variable can
accurately be stated to produce the observed effect. If the effect of the dependent variable is only
due to the independent variable(s) then internal validity is achieved. This is the degree to which a
result can be manipulated.
Put another way, internal validity is how you can tell that your research ―works‖ in a research
setting. Within a given study, does the variable you change affect the variable you‟re studying?
5. External validity
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond
the sample which is to say that you can apply your findings to other people and settings. Think of
this as the degree to which a result can be generalized. How well do the research results apply to
the rest of the world?

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A laboratory setting (or other research setting) is a controlled environment with fewer variables.
External validity refers to how well the results hold, even in the presence of all those other
variables.
6. Statistical conclusion validity
Statistical conclusion validity is a determination of whether a relationship or co-variation exists
between cause and effect variables.
This type of validity requires:
Ensuring adequate sampling procedures
Appropriate statistical tests
Reliable measurement procedures
This is the degree to which a conclusion is credible or believable.
7. Criterion-related validity
Criterion-related validity (also called instrumental validity) is a measure of the quality of your
measurement methods. The accuracy of a measure is demonstrated by comparing it with a
measure that is already known to be valid. In other words, your measure has a high correlation
with other measures that are known to be valid because of previous research.
For this to work you must know that the criterion has been measured well. And be aware that
appropriate criteria do not always exist. What you are doing is checking the performance of your
operationalization against criteria. The criteria you use as a standard of judgment accounts for
the different approaches you would use:
Predictive Validity: operationalization‟s ability to predict what it is theoretically able to predict.
The extent to which a measure predicts expected outcomes.
Concurrent Validity: operationalization‟s ability to distinguish between groups it theoretically
should be able to. This is where a test correlates well with a measure that has been previously
validated.
When we look at validity in survey data we are asking whether the data represents what we think
it should represent. We depend on the respondent‟s mind set and attitude in order to give us valid
data. In other words we depend on them to answer all questions honestly and conscientiously.
We also depend on whether they are able to answer the questions that we ask. When questions
are asked that the respondent cannot comprehend or understand, then the data does not tell us
what we think it does.

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 Reliability
The reliability refers to a measurement that supplies consistent results with equal values
(Blumberg et al., 2005). It measures consistency, precision, repeatability, and trustworthiness of
a research. It indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free), and hence insures
consistent measurement cross time and across the various items in the instruments (the observed
scores). Some qualitative researchers use the term „dependability‟ instead of reliability. It is the
degree to which an assessment tool produces stable (free from errors) and consistent results. It
indicates that the observed score of a measure reflects the true score of that measure. It is a
necessary, but not sufficient component of validity (Kummar, 1996)). In quantitative research,
reliability refers to the consistency, stability and repeatability of results, that is, the result of a
researcher is considered reliable if consistent results have been obtained in identical situations
but different circumstances. But, in qualitative research it is referred to as when a researcher‟s
approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects Reliability is used to
evaluate the stability of measures administered at different times to the same individuals and the
equivalence of sets of items from the same test (Creswell, 2014). The better the reliability, the
more accurate the results; which increases the chance of making correct decision in research.
Reliability is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for the validity of research.
Types of Reliability
There are four main types of reliability. Each can be estimated by comparing different sets of
results produced by the same method.
Test-retest Reliability
The reliability coefficient is obtained by repetition of the same measure on a second time, is
called the test-retest reliability (Kothari, 2004). It assesses the external consistency of a test. The
test-retest reliability indicates the score variation that occurs from testing session to testing
session as a result of errors of measurement. It is a measure of reliability obtained by managing
the same test twice over a period of time ranging from few weeks to months, on a group of
individuals.
Parallel Forms Reliability
It is a measure of reliability obtained by administering different versions of an assessment tool to
the same group of individuals. The scores from the two versions can then be correlated in order

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to evaluate the consistency of results across alternate versions. If they are highly correlated, then
they are known as parallel-form reliability.
Inter-rater Reliability
It is the extent to which the way information being collected is in a consistent manner (Keyton et
al., 2004). It establishes the equivalence of ratings obtained with an instrument when used by
different observers. No discussion can occur when reliability is being tested.
Split-half reliability
It measures the degree of internal consistency by checking one half of the results of a set of
scaled items against the other half. It requires only one administration, especially appropriate
when the test is very long. It is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results
from the other half. A test can be split in half in several ways; for example, first half and second
half, or by odd and even numbered items. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this
would suggest that the test has internal reliability.
Produce reports on research outputs
Writing the Research Report
The Structure of the Research Report
Once the data have been analyzed and the results obtained, the last phase in the research process
is to summarize and report the results. The hardest part of writing a paper is deciding on its
structure: what information to provide and the order in which to provide it.
Report Types
1. Formal or Informal Reports 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports
2. Short or Long Reports 6. Internal or External Reports
3. Informational or Analytical Reports 7. Periodic Reports
4. Proposal Report 8. Functional Reports.

Characteristics of Good Report

An ideal report must have following characteristics:
 An ideal report should be clear, concise, accurate and well organized with clear section
headings.
 Easy for the audience to understand

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 A. Presentation is a key element in successful report writing. Formatting, revising and proof
reading are important process for good report writing.
B. All reports should have an executive summary that presents the essential elements of the
report from the introduction through to the recommendations and outcomes.
C. Reports should be visually appealing and easy to read. Diagrams, figures, charts, tables
and graphs can all add interest to a report.

Purpose of Report Writing

Research report is an indispensable task of every research work in which findings of a research
make known to others. Needs or purposes of research report can be outlined as follow:
 To provide the information regarding the findings of research work i.e. methods, data
analysis, conclusion and so on in the systematic, scientific and accepted way.
 To elicit crucial facts for solution derived and decision making.
 To prove the worth and legitimacy of assigned research job
 To provide the judgment tools for the judgment of quality and talent of researcher within
and outside the academia.
 To communicate the research findings professionally
 To pertain the credibility of the research
 To develop appreciation of standards, consolidate arguments and identify the knowledge
gaps.
There is standard structure or outline for research reports in the social sciences. Research reports
consist of three main sections. Each main section consists of several sub-sections.
The purpose of research report is to convey the interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to determine the validity of the conclusions. As the culmination of the
research investigation, the research report contains a description of different stages of the survey
and the conclusions arrived at. Thus it is an end product of a research activity which gives an
account of a long journey on the path of finding a new knowledge or modified knowledge.

Preliminary section
Preface, including acknowledgements (if necessary)
Table of contents

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List of tables (if any) nList of figures, maps or illustrations (if Body of the Report or Text
A. Introduction
d. Background of the study
e. Statement of the problem
f. Review of related literature
g. Relation of present problem to theoretical position of the previous research
h. Significance of the problem
i. Delimitations of the study
j. Assumptions underlying hypotheses
k. Statement of hypotheses
B. Design of the Study
1. Procedures employed
2. Sources of data
3. Data gathering instruments
4. Sampling and methods of gathering data.
C. Analysis and interpretation of the data
Text
Tables (if any, are usually included into the text)
Figures (if any, are usually included into the text).
D. Summary and conclusions
A. Brief restatement of problem and procedures
B. Principal findings and conclusions with their practical implications (if any)
C. Suggestions for further research
E. Reference Section
1. Bibliography
2. Appendix
3. Index (if any).
Preliminary Section
Title page. Several pages of preliminary material are presented prior to the body of a research
report. Generally, it contains the following information:
(i) Title of the study.

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2. Name of the institution to which the report is being submitted.
3. Name of the candidate (if desired, previous academic degrees may be listed after name)
Date of submission of the report.
2. Preface. The preface usually includes a brief statement of the purpose and scope of the report.
A preface should also include thanks for those who gave the researcher substantial guidance or
assistance in the conduct of the study.
3. Table of contents. The table of contents includes the major divisions of the report, the
introduction, and chapters with their sub-sections, the bibliography and the appendix. Page
numbers for each of these divisions and sub-divisions are given. The titles of chapters and sub-
divisions within chapters should correspond exactly with those included in the body of the report
with correct page citation. The preface or acknowledgements, list of tables and list of figures are
also entered in the table of contents. The table of contents provides reader a bird‟s-eye view of
the report and enables him to locate quickly each section of it.
Body of the Report
The main body of the research report usually contains four logical divisions:
1) an introduction
(2) design of the study
(3) analysis and interpretation of the data and
(4) summary and conclusions
1. Introduction. The introduction of a research report should be lucid complete and
concise. It should introduce the research problem in a proper context, and arouse and stimulate
the reader‟s interest. In the introduction the researcher defines, analyses and states the nature of
the problem. He also reviews the related studies so as to lay a foundation for research. The
review of the results of previous researches brings out areas of agreement and disagreement, and
shows how the present study arose from contradictions or inadequacies of earlier investigations.
The introduction also includes the significance of the problem and the need for conducting the
investigation. After reviewing the background of the problem, its scope and delimitations, the
researcher presents hypotheses and the assumptions on which the hypotheses are based. He then
defines the terms used in the study that have a special meaning or significance for the
investigation.

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2. Design of the study. This section explains the design of the study in detail. It includes a
detailed description of the manner in which decisions have been made about the type of data
needed for the study, the tools and devices used for their collection, and the method by which
they have been collected. A researcher may present definition of the population, the size of the
sample and the rationale for the size of the sample, the method of sampling, the number of
individuals who declined to participate and weeded out, or did not participate in different phases
of study and why, where, when and what types of data were collected, the tools and devices used
for collecting data along with their reliability and validity, directions given to the subjects, the
characteristics of interviewers or observers and the type of training provided to them, the types of
data analyses made, the statistical methods employed and reasons for selecting such methods.
3. Analysis and interpretation of the data. This section is the heart of the research report. The
data analysis and interpretation may either be presented in separate chapters or may be integrated
and presented in one chapter. The data is presented in tables and figures accompanied by textual
discussion. The tables and figures should be constructed and listed in such a way that they clarify
significant relationships and become self-explanatory. In the textual discussion of the data, the
report should not repeat all the detailed information that is provided in the tables and figures. It
should only point out important facts and relationships to give meaning to the data and make
certain generalizations about the data.
The formulae and statistical procedures which were used in the analysis of the data should be
clearly specified and explained in detail. Statistical information may be presented in the form of
sums, ratios, proportions or percentages, frequency distributions, means and variances or
standard deviations, coefficients of correlation, and prediction.
Summary and conclusions. This section includes a brief re-statement of the problem, a
description of the procedures used, and discussion of findings and conclusions of the study. The
conclusions are presented concisely and related directly to the hypotheses that were tested. They
announce whether the findings of the study accept or reject the hypotheses. Conclusions are
answers to the questions raised and suggest modification in the existing theory. In addition, the
researcher may list unanswered questions that have occurred in the process of study and which
require further research beyond the scope of the problem investigated. If no further research
would appear to be advantageous in the area investigated and a new approach to the problem is
needed, the researcher should make suggestions. In short, the discussion and presentation of the

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conclusions should leave the reader with the impression of completeness and of positive gain.
The summary and conclusion section is the most widely used part of the research report because
it reviews all the information that has been presented in its previous sections.

Reference Section

The reference section includes bibliography and appendix. The bibliography follows the main
body of the report. In a research article the heading 'references' is used in place of bibliography.
The bibliography is a record of those sources and materials that have been used for the study. If
the number of references is large, the researcher may divide the bibliography into various
sections, one for books, one for periodicals and journals, and possibly one for reports and special
documents.
An appendix follows the bibliography. All the relevant supporting unwieldy materials that are
important but not essential to the understanding of the report are presented in the appendix.
These materials include questionnaires, copies of covering letters used, evaluation sheets, and
check-lists, courses of study, long quotations, documents, tests, interview forms, and raw data.
If a study is of major importance and is to be published in book or monograph form, the
researcher also prepares an index in alphabetical order which follows the appendix. Its language
should be formal and straightforward avoiding slang, proverbial or discourteous phrases. The
personal pronouns I, we, you, my, our, and us should not be used. For example, instead of
saying, "I administered achievement test in general science to both the groups of students", the
passive voice construction "Achievement' test in general science was administered on both the
groups of students", would be preferable. The personal pronouns may be avoided by the use of
such expression as the "the researcher" or "the investigator". The use of abbreviations, except
some universally acceptable ones such as IQ, M.A, etc. should be avoided in the main text of the
research report. In the footnotes, the tables and the bibliography, some standard abbreviations are
used to conserve space.

Style and Language in Report Writing

A writer's style is his or her distinctive way of writing. Style is a series of choices: words,
sentence length and structure, figures of speech, punctuation, and so on. The research report

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should be presented in a style that is creative, clear, and concise. Phraseology should be dignified
and straightforward. It need not be dull or pedantic. Even the most profound ideas can best be
explained in simple language and short, coherent sentences. Slang, hackneyed (clichéd) or
flippant phrases and folksy style should be avoided. Because objectivity is the primary goal,
there should be no clement of exhortation or persuasion. The research report should describe and
explain rather than try to convince or move to action. In this respect the research report differs
from an essay or feature articles where the writers try to convince the reader. The style you select
for your research paper depends on the following factors: Audience, Purpose and Tone
Audience: Knowing with whom you are communicating is fundamental to the success of any
message. You need to tailor your writing style to suit the audience's needs, interests, and goals.
The audience for your research paper is likely to be one of the following three people or groups:
Your boss, supervisor, professor, teacher, and instructor. Your colleagues or classmates Any
outside readers, such as clients
To tailor your research paper to your audience, do an audience analysis. Before you write, ask
yourself these questions: Who will be reading my research paper? How much do my readers
know about the topic at this point? What is the basis of the information they have? How does my
audience feel about this topic? Are they neutral, hostile, enthusiastic-or somewhere in between?
What style of writing does my audience anticipate and prefer?
In writing your research paper, your purpose is to persuade. As a result, select supporting
material (such as details, examples, and quotations) that best accomplishes this purpose. As you
write, look for the most convincing examples, the most powerful statistics, and the most
compelling quotations to suit your purpose.
Tone: The tone is the writer's attitude toward the subject matter. For example, the tone can be
angry, bitter, neutral, or formal. The tone depends on your audience and purpose. Since your
research paper is being read by educated professionals and your purpose is to persuade, use a
formal, unbiased tone. The writing should not condescend to the audience, insult them, or lecture
them. The language used in most academic and professional writing is called Standard Written
English, the writing found in magazines and newspapers. Such language conforms to the widely
established rules of grammar, sentence structure, usage, punctuation, and spelling. It has an
objective, learned tone. It's the language to use in your research paper.
The Basics of Research Paper Style

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Words: 1. Write simply and directly. Perhaps you were told to use as many multisyllabic
words as possible since "big" words dazzle people. Much of the time, however, big words just
set up barriers between you and your audience. Instead of using words for the sake of impressing
your readers, write simply and directly. Select your words carefully to convey your thoughts
vividly and precisely.
Example: "Blissful," "blithe," "cheerful," "contented," "gay," "joyful," and "gladdened" all mean
"happy." Yet each one conveys a different shade of meaning.
Use words that are accurate, suitable, and familiar. Familiar words are easy to read and
understand. Accurate words say what you mean. Suitable words convey your tone and fit with
the other words in the document. As you write your research paper, you want words that express
the importance of the subject but aren't stuffy or overblown. Refer to yourself as if you are
involved with the subject, but always keep the focus on the subject rather than on yourself.
Remember, this is academic writing, not memoir.
Avoid slang, regional words, and nonstandard diction. Here's a brief list of words that are never
correct in academic writing:

Warning! Even if you run a grammar check in your word processor, check and double-check
your punctuation and grammar as you draft your research paper.
3. Referencing of Sources
Referencing is a standardized method of acknowledging all the sources of information, data, and
ideas one uses in writing a manuscript, book, or thesis. This is usually done in two places: briefly
within the actual text and then in one overall full list at the end of the text. The second (i.e. the
full list at the end) can be put in two different forms. The first one is ―reference‖. References are
sources of information or statements e.g. books, journal articles, web sites, which have been used
in writing a manuscript, book, or thesis. The other one is bibliography which includes not only
references but also details of other documents you have consulted but have not mentioned
directly in your work. In the following section, referencing sources in the form of bibliography
(as it is the common method) will be discussed.

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