Physical quantities and measurement techniques FOCUS POINTS ; % Describe how to measure length, volume and time intervals using simple at ‘ Know how to determine the average value for a small distance and a short time interval. Many physical quantities, such as force and velocity, have both magnitude and direction; they are termed vectors. When combining two vectors | to find their resultant, as well as their size, you need to take into account any difference in their | Units and basic quantities Before a measurement can be made, a standard or unit must be chosen. The size of the quantity to be measured is then found with an instrument having a 4 Figure 1.1.1 Aircraft flight deck scale marked in the unit. Three basic quantities we measure in physics are Powers of ten shorthand length, mass and time. Units for other quantities are based on them. The SI (Systéme International d'Unités) system is a set of metric units now used This is a neat way of writing numbers, especially if they are large or small. The example below shows in many countries. It is a decimal system in which how it works. units are divided or multiplied by 10 to give smaller 4000 =4x 10x 10x 10= 4 x 10? or larger unt. 400=4% 10x10 =4x 10? Measuring instruments on the flight deck of a passenger jet provide the crew with information about =4x 10! the performance of the aircraft (see Figure 1.1.1). a 04=410=4/0! — =4x 107 0.04 = 4/100 = 4/10? =4x 107 0.004 = 4/1000 = 4/107 =4 x 103 _ aThe small figures 1, 2, 3, etc. are called powers of ten. The power shows how many times the number has to be multiplied by 10 if the power is greater than 0 or divided by 10 if the power is less than 0. Note that 1 is written as 10°. This way of writing numbers is called standard notation. Length The unit of length is the metre (m) and is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum during a specific time interval. At one time it was the distance between two marks on a certain metal bar. Submultiples are: 1 decimetre (dm) 1 centimetre (em) 1 millimetre (mm) A multiple for large distances is I kilometre (km) = 10°m ($ mile approx) Many length measurements are made with rulers; the correct way to read one is shown in Figure 1.1.2, The reading is 76mm or 7.6m. Your eye must be directly over the mark on the scale or the thickness of the ruler causes a parallax error. conrect object ‘A. Figure 1.1.2 The correct way to measure with a ruler To obtain an average value for a small distance, multiples can be measured. For example, in ripple tank experiments (Topic 3.1), measure the distance occupied by five waves, then divide by 5 to obtain the average wavelength. Significant figures Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value and is subject to errors arising from limitations of the apparatus and the experimenter. The number of figures, called significant figures, given for a measurement indicates how accurate we think it is and more figures should not be given than are justified. For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement has two significant figures; 0.0385 has three significant figures, 3 being the most significant and 5 the least, i.e. it is the one we are least sure about since it might be 4 or it might be 6. Perhaps it had to be estimated by the experimenter because the reading was between two marks on a scale. When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation. For example, if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this would be written as 3.4 if the measurements had two significant figures. It would be written as 3.42 for three significant figures. Note that in deciding the least significant figure you look at the next figure to the right. If it is less than 5, you leave the least significant figure as it is (hence 3.41 becomes 3.4), but if it equals or is greater than 5 you increase the least significant figure by 1 (round it up) (hence 3,418 becomes 3.42). If a number is expressed in standard notation, the number of significant figures is the number of digits before the power of ten. For example, 2.73 x 103 has three significant figures. i.1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Test yourself How many millimetres are there in these measurements? tem dem 0.5m 47cm im hat are these lengths in metres? 300m 550em 870cm 43cm 100mm Write the following as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point: 100000 3500 428000000 504 27056 Write out the following inf 10° 2x 108 6.92x 10! 1.34% 10? 10° Write these fractions as powers of ten: W100 7/100000 1/10000000 3/6000 Express the following decimals as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point: 05 0.086 0.00036 ~—0.00104 weanceseance Area The area of the square in Figure 1.1.3a with sides 1cm long is 1 square centimetre (1 cm’ In Figure 1.1.3b the rectangle measures 4cm by 3cm and has an area of 4 x 3 = 12cm? since it has the same area as twelve squares each of area 1cm?. The area of a square or rectangle is given by area = length x breadth The ST unit of area is the square metre (m2) which is the area of a square with sides 1m long, Note that Ten? 2 2L nx ey 2 om = 709 Taq ™ = zoo00™ = 1m a _belom-} T| ten] T Sea be ian A Figure 1.1.3 i Sometimes we need to know the area of a triangle. Itis given by area of triangle The area of a circle of radius r is nr? where m= 22/7 or 3.14; its circumference is 2nr. 2° Worked example Calculate the area of the triangles shown in Figure 1.1.4. a area of triangle = 1 x base x height soarea of tiangle ABC = $ AB x AC x base x height =} dom xem = I2em* 1b area oftrangle POR= 3 xPQXSR =1xSemx4em= 10cm? i <4 | B Pp 2 Q A Figure 141.4 Now put this into practice 1 Calculate the area ofa triangle whose base is Bem and height is 12cm. 2 Calculate the circumference of a circle of radius 6cm. aaa Volume Volume is the amount of space occupied. The unit of volume is the cubic metre (m?) but as this is rather large, for most purposes the cubic centimetre (cm) is used. The volume of a cube with 1cm edges is ‘1cm?, Note that mx mx Jem? = 795 mx 75 mx TG Mm 1 =———-m’=10° m’ vo00000"™ =!" ™For a regularly shaped object such as a rectangular block, Figure 1.1.5 shows that volume = length x breadth x height 3x4x S cubes A Figure 1.1.5 The volume of a cylinder of radius r and height his mh, The volume of a liquid may be obtained by pouring it into a measuring cylinder (Figure 1.1.6). When making a reading the cylinder must be upright and your eye must be level with the bottom of the curved liquid surface, i.e. the meniscus. The meniscus formed by mercury is curved oppositely to that of other liquids and the top is read. Measuring cylinders are often marked in millilitres (ml) where 1ml = 1cm3; note that 1000cm? = 1dm? ( Litre). meniscus ‘A. Figure 1.1.6 A measuring cylinder 2? Worked example Calculate the volume of a block of wood which is 4dem long, 12cm wide and 5cm high in cubic metres. volume /= length x breadth x height = 400m x I2emx Sem =2400em? »400.x 10-#m? 4x 10m? b Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 10mm and height 5.0cm in cubic metres. volume of cylinder V= 17h r= 10mm= 10cm and h=5.0em soV=nth = mx (LOem)?x 50cm = 16cm) = 16x 10-6m? = 1.6 10-5? Now put this into practice 1 Calculate the volume of a rectangular box which is 30cm tong, 25em wide and 15cm high in cubic metres. 2 Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 50mm and height 25cm in cubic metres.‘1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Time The unit of time is the second (s), which used to be based on the length of a day, this being the time for the Earth to revolve once on its axis. However, days are not all of exactly the same duration and the second is now defined as the time interval for a certain number of energy changes to occur in the caesium atom, Time-measuring devices rely on some kind of constantly repeating oscillation. In traditional clocks and watches a small wheel (the balance wheel) oscillates to and fro; in digital clocks and watches the oscillations are produced by a tiny quartz crystal. A swinging pendulum controls a pendulum clock. __ To measure an interval of time in an experiment, first choose a timer that is precise enough for the task. A stopwatch is adequate for finding the period in seconds of a pendulum (see Figure 1.1.7 opposite), but to measure the speed of sound (Topic 3.4), a clock that can time in milliseconds is needed. To measure very short time intervals, a digital clock that can be triggered to start and stop by an electronic signal from a microphone, photogate ® Period of a simple pendulum For safe experiments/demonstrations related to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that is also part of this series. Lele a In this investigation you have to make time measurements using a stopwatch or clock. Amotion sensor connected to a datalogger and computer could be used instead of a stopwatch for these investigations. Attach a small metal ball (called a bob) to a piece of string, and suspend it as shown in Figure 1.1.7 opposite, Pull the bob a small distance to one side, and then release it so that it oscillates to and fro through a small angle. Find the time for the bob to make several complete oscillations; one oscillation is from cor mechanical switch is useful. Tickertape timers or dataloggers are often used to record short time intervals in motion experiments. Accuracy can be improved by measuring longer time intervals. Several oscillations (rather than just one) are timed to find the period of a pendulum; the average value for the period is found by dividing the time by the number of oscillations, Ten ticks, rather than single ticks, are used in tickertape timers. Test yourself The pages of a book are numbered 1 to 200 and each leaf is 0.1mm thick. If each cover is 0.20mm thick, what is the thickness of the book? How many significant figures are there in a length measurement of a 25cm b 5.32em ¢ 7.180cm 4 0.042cm? ‘A rectangular block measures 4.1 cm by 2.8cm by 2.1em, Calculate its volume giving your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. What type of timer would you use to measure the period of a simple pendulum? How many oscillations would you time? Ato OtoBto Oto A Figure 1.1.7). Repeat the timing a few times for the same number of oscillations and work out the average. 1. The time for one oscillation is the period 7. Determine the period of your pendulum, 2. The frequeney fof the oscillations is the number of complete oscillations per second and equals 1/7, Calculate a value for ffor your pendulum, 3. Comment on how the amplitude of the oscillations changes with time. 4, Plan an investigation into the effect on T of () alonger string and (i) a larger bob. 5 What procedure would you use to determine the period of a simple pendulum? | 6 InFigure 1.1.7 ifthe bob is first released at B, give the sequence of letters which corresponds to one complete oscillation.‘Systematic errors 7 Explain where you would take measurements from to determine the length of the pendulum shown in Figure 1.1.7. ‘metal plates string pendulum a |“ A Figure 1.1.7 Systematic errors Figure 1.1.8 shows a part of a ruler used to measure the height of a point P above the bench. The ruler chosen has a space before the zero of the scale. This is shown as the length x. The height of the point P > Cortina Vernier scales and micrometers Lengths can be measured with a ruler to a precision of about 0.5mm. Some investigations may need a more precise measurement of length, which can be achieved by using vernier calipers (Figure 1.1.9] or a micrometer screw gauge. is given by the scale reading added to the value of x. The equation for the height is height = scale reading +x height = 5.9-+x By itself the scale reading is not equal to the height. It is too small by the value of x. This type of error is known as a systematic error. The error is introduced by the system. A half-metre ruler has the zero at the end of the ruler and so can be used without introducing a systematic error. When using a ruler to determine a height, the ruler must be held so that it is vertical. If the ruler is at an angle to the vertical, a systematic error is introduced. bench A Figure 14.8 A. Figure 1.1.9 Vernier calipers in use1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Vernier scale The calipers shown in Figure 1.1.9 use a vernier scale. The simplest type enables a length to be measured to 0.01cm. Itis a small sliding scale which is 9mm tong but divided into ten equal divisions (Figure 1.110a) so 1 vernier division = mm = 09mm = 0,09em One end of the length to be measured is made to coincide with the zero of the millimetre scale and the other end with the zero of the vernier scale. The length ‘of the object in Figure 1.1.10b is between 1.3cm and 4.4m, The reading to the second place of decimals is ‘obtained by finding the vernier mark which is exactly ‘opposite lor nearest tol a mark on the millimetre scale. In this case itis the 6th mark and the length is 1.36cm, since OA=0B-AB A= (1.90em) - (6 vernier divisions) = 1.90em — 6(0.09)em =(1.90-0.54)em =1.36em Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling microscopes and spectrometers. vernier scale mmscale A Figure 1.1.10 Vernier scale Micrometer screw gauge This measures very small objects to 0.001 cm. One revolution of the drum opens the flat, parallel jaws by one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge; this is usually mm, i. 0.05cm. Ifthe drum has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by cone division opens the jaws by 0.05/50 =0.001cm {Figuret1.11], A friction clutch ensures that the jaws exert the same force when the abject is gripped. shaft drum ‘A. Figure 1.1.11 Micrometer screw gauge The object shown in Figure 1.1.11 has a length of 2.5mm on the shaft scale + 33 divisions on the drum scale =0.25em + 33(0.001)em =0.283em Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the reading is zero when the jaws are closed, Other the zero error must be allowed for when the reading is taken.Scalars and vectors Scalars and vectors Length and time can be described by a single number specifying size, but many physical quantities have a directional character. A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) only. Time is a scalar and is completely described when its value is known. Other examples of scalars are distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy and ‘temperature. A vector quantity is one such as force which is described completely only if both its size (magnitude) and direction are stated. It is not enough to say, for example, a force of 10N, but rather a force of 10N acting vertically downwards. Gravitational field strength and electric field strength are vectors, as are weight, velocity, acceleration and momentum. ‘A vector can be represented by a straight line whose length represents the magnitude of the quantity and whose direction gives its line of action, An arrow on the line shows which way along the line it acts, Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic; vectors are added geometrically, taking account of their directions as well as their magnitudes. In the case of two vectors Fy and F, acting at right angles to each other at a point, the magnitude of the resultant F, and the angle @ between F, and F can be calculated from the following equations: tan = Be Fe The resultant of two vectors acting at right angles to each other can also be obtained graphically. FajF +h PRA eke e rl) Calculate the resultant of two forces of 3.0N and 4.0N. acting at right angles to each other. Let Fy, =3.0N and F, = 4.0N as shown in Figure 1.1.12. scale Tom=1N F Vy ‘A. Figure 1.1.12 Addition of two perpendicular vectors BON Then F = (FL4FE = N30 +40 = S946 = V5 = 5.0N Graphical method The values for F and @can be found graphically by drawing the vectors to scale on a piece of graph paper as shown in Figure 1.1.12, First choose a scale to represent the size ofthe vectors em could be used to represent 1.0NI Draw the vectors at right angles to each other. Complete the rectangle as shown in Figure 1.1.12 and draw the diagonal from the origin as shown, The diagonal then represents the resultant force, F. Measure the length of Fwith a ruler and use the scale you have chosen to determine its size. Measure the angle 6, the direction of the resultant, with a protractor, Check that the values for Fand @ you obtain are the same. {as those found using the algebraic method. Now put this into practice 1 Calculate the following square roots, a Were b eT « Ee 2 Calculate a tan 30° b tan ds € tan 60°, 3. Calculate the resultant of two forces of 5.0N and 7.0N which are at right angles to each other. 4. Atacertain instant a projectile has a horizontal velocity of bm/s and a vertical velocity of 8m/s. a Calculate the resultant velocity of the projectile at that instant. b Check your answer to a by a graphical method ESE1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES eveemereeesExam-style questions 1. Achocolate bar measures 10cm long by 2em wide and is 2cm thick, a Calculate the volume of one bar. i} b How many bars each 2cm long, 2cm wide and 2cm thick have the same total volume? Bl © Appendulum makes 10 complete oscillations ‘in 8 seconds. Calculate the time period of the pendulum. (2 [Total: 8] 2 a Apile of 60 sheets of paper is 6mm high. Calculate the average thickness of a sheet of the paper. tbe fa Calculate how many blocks of ice cream each 10cm long, 10cm wide and 4cm thick can be stored in the compartment of a freezer measuring 40cm deep, 40cm wide and 20cm high. Geta datal VOU Ts) ae od Od Greta: 7 {A Perspex edhtainer has 26cm square base and contains water to a height of 7cm Figure 1.1.13). a Calculate the volume of the water. 402 b Astone is lowered into the water so as to _ be completely covered and the water rises to a height of 9cm. Calculate the volume ‘ofthestone. (oc) Ul a) [Total: 7] rliora £2 Exam-style questions © Write down expressions for i the area of acircle 9(v * i) he circumference of a circle “Jy | [1] i the volume of a cylinder. 2 yure xh iio. X = Going further 5 What are the readings on the micrometer screw gauges in Figures 1.1.14a and 1.1.14b? {Total: 7] AL Figure 11.16 [Total: 4] 6 a Select which of the following quantities is a vector, Alength B temperature Porce Dtime if b Two forces of SN and 12N act at right angles to each other. Using a piece of graph paper determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force graphically, State the scale you use to represent each vector. You will need a protractor to measure the angle the | resultant makes with the 5N force 1 Total: £Motion FOCUS POINTS ate equations to calculate these and average speed. + Define speed and velocity and use the appropri ; + Draw, plot and interpret distance-time or speed-lime graphs for objects at different speeds and use the graphs to calculate speed or distance travelled. Tony To find the actual speed at any instant we would need to know the distance moved in a very short Speed The speed of a body is the distance that it has interval of time. This can be done by multiflash travelled in unit time. When the distance travelled photograph. In Figure 1.2.1 the golfer is is s over a short time period s, the speed v is photographed while a flashing lamp illuminates him given by 4100 times a second, The speed of the club-head as it hits the ball is about 200 km/h, initioi ance travelled per uni Ifa car travels 300km in five hours, its average speed is 300km/5h = 60km/h. The speedometer would certainly not read 60km/h for the whole journey and might vary considerably from this value. That is why we state the average speed. Ifa car could travel at a constant speed of 60km/h for 5 hours, the distance covered would still be 300km. It is always true that total distance travelled average Speed ia ime taken _ A. Figure 1.2.4 Multflash photograph of a golf swingVelocity Speed is the distance travelled in unit time; velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction. If two trains travel due north at 20m/s, they have the same speed of 20m/s and the same velocity of 20m/s due north. If one travels north and the other south, their speeds are the same but not their velocities since their directions of motion are different. distance moved in a given direction time taken = speed in a given direction velocity = Key definition Velocity change displacement per unit time The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if it moves with a steady speed in a straight line. It is not uniform if it moves in a curved path. Why? ~The units of speed and velocity are the same, km/h, m/s. . 60km/h = £2000 3600s Distance moved in a stated direction is called the displacement. Velocity may also be defined as = 17 ms hhange in displacement yeloctty time taken Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity. Displacement isa vector, unlike distance | which is a scalar. Acceleration scm oi ye the velocity of an object changes, we say accelerates. If a car starts from rest BI nosed 2m/s after velocity has increased by 2m/s in n is 2m/s pe pot due Acceleration For a steady increase of velocity from 20m/s to 50m/s in 5s (50-20)m/s _ 35 acceleration = = 6m/s? Acceleration is also a vector and both its magnitude and direction should be stated... However, at present we will consider only motion in a straight line and so the magnitude of the velocity will equal the speed, and the magnitude of the acceleration will equal the change of speed in unit time. The speeds of a car accelerating on a straight road are shown below. Time/s 7 En BE Speed/m/s [0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 The speed increases by 5m/s every second and the acceleration of 5 m/s* is constant. An acceleration is positive if the velocity ‘increases, and negative if it decreases. A negative acceleration is also called a deceleration or retardation. Test yourself 11 What is the average speed of a acar that travels 400m in 20s b_ anathlete who runs 1500m in 4minutes? 2 Atrain increases its speed steadily from 10m/s to 20m/s in 1 minute. a Whatis its average speed during this time, in m/s? b_ How far does it travel while increasing its speed? 3. a Amotorcyclist starts from rest and reaches a speed of 6m/s after travelling with constant acceleration for 3s. What is his acceleration? The motorcyclist then decelerates ata constant rate for 2s. What is his acceleration? & Anaircraft travelling at 600kmn/h accelerates steadily at 10km/h per second. Taking the speed of sound as 1100km/h at the aircraft's, altitude, how long will it take to reach the ‘sound barrier’?1.2 MOTION Speed-time graphs If the speed of an object is plotted against the time, the graph obtained is a speed-time graph. It provides a way of solving motion problems. In Figure 1.2.2, AB is the speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant speed of 20m/s. Values for the speed of the object at 1s intervals can be read from the graph and are given in Table 1.2.1, The data shows that the speed is constant over the 5s time interval. Y Tat [Speed/m/s | 20 | 20] 20 | 20 | 20] 20 [Timers oli{2[s3]als 2 ‘A Figure 1.2.2 Constant speed The linear shape (PQ) of the speed-time graph shown in Figure 1.2.3a means that the gradient, and hence the acceleration of the body, are over the time period 0S. timels ‘A Figure 1.2.3a Constant acceleration Values for the speed of the object at 1 intervals can be read from the graph and are given in Table 1.2.2, The data shows that the speed increases by the same amount (4m/s) every second. Y Table 1.2.2 Speed/m/s | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 40 Time/s OSC 2" | aa a | You can use the data to plot the speed-time graph, Join up the data points on the graph paper with the best straight line to give the line PQ shown in Figure 1.2.3a. (Details for how to plot a graph are given on pp. 297-8 in the Mathematics for physics section.) Figure 1.2.3b shows the shape of a speed-time graph for an object accelerating from rest over time interval OA, travelling at a constant speed over time interval AB and then decelerating (when the speed is decreasing) over the time interval BC. The s ‘gradient in time interval BC than in time interval. ‘OA shows that the deceleration is greatef than the acceleration. The object remains at rest over the time interval CD when its speed and acceleration are zer0. constant Speed ‘A. Figure 1.2,38/Acceleration, constant speed and deceleration Faw 1.2.3¢ shows a speed-time graph for a changing acceleration. Th (OX means that the gradient of the graph, and Wires the acceleration of the object, aise over time period OY - the acceleratic Values forthe speed of the object at 15 inter are given in Table 1.2.3. The data shows that the speed is increasing over time interval OY, but by « smaller amount each second so the acceleration i decreasing.YY Table 1.2.3, Speedim/s | 0 | 175 | 230 | 260 | 205 | 300 Time/s OE alte 2icels dam otdinta a You can use the data to plot the speed-time graph. Join up the data points on the graph paper with a smooth curve as shown in Figure 1.2.3. Note that an’ ect at rst will have'zero ‘speed and zero a ‘its speed-time graph is a SonMad along the horizontal axis. \. 30 20) 10 Distance-time graphs ‘An object travelling with constant speed covers equal .qual times. Its distance-time graph is e ke OL in Figure 1.2.4a for a constant) she gradient of the graph is LW/OM = 40m/4s = 10m/s, which is the value of the speed. The following statement is true in general: The gradient of a distance-time graph represents the Speed of the object.) Values for the distance moved by the object recorded at 1s intervals are given in Table 1.2.4. The data shows it moves 10m in every second so the speed of the object is constant at 10m/s, Y Table 1.2.4 Distance/m | 10 | 20 | a0 | 40 Time/ i You can use the data to plot the distance-time graph shown in Figure 1.2.4a, | so Ne 1 {fee ! g ' 0 ' io 5 5 -. 4 times ‘A Figure 1.2.4a Constant speed Figure 1.2.4b shows the shape of a distance-time graph for an object that is at rest over time interval OA and then moves at a constant speed in time interval AB. It then stops moving and is at rest over time interval BC before moving at a constant speed in time interval CD. distancefm A. Figure 1.2.4b Constant speed1.2 MOTION The speed of the object is higher when the gradient of the graph is steeper. The object is travelling faster in time interval AB than it is in time interval CO; it is at rest in time intervals OA and BC when the distance does not change. When the speed of the object is changing, the gradient of the distance-time graph varies, as in Figure 1.2.5, where the upward curvé’of increasing Gradient of the solid green line shows the object, accelerating, The opposite, upward curve of ‘decreasing gradient (indicated by the dashed green line) shows an object decelerating above T. timels A Figure 1.2.5 Non-constant speed Area under a speed-time graph The area under a speed-time graph measures the distance travelled. In Figure 1.2.2, AB is the speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant speed of 20m/s, Since distance = average speed x time, after 5s it will have moved 20m/s x 5s = 100m, This is the shaded area under the graph, i.e. rectangle OABC. In Figure 1.2.3a, PQ is the speed-time graph for an object moving with constant acceleration. i At the start of the timing the speed is 20m/s, but it increases steadily to 40m/s after 5s, If the distance covered equals the area under PQ, i.e, the shaded area OPQS, then distance = area of rectangle OPRS + area of triangle PQ 2 Px OS +5 x PRX QR (area of a triangle = > base x height) = 20m/s x Ss +9 X 58x 20mis = 100m + 50m= 150m Note that when calculating the area from the graph, the unit of time must be the same on both axes. The rule for finding distances travelled is true even if the acceleration is not constant. In Figure 1.2.3c, the distance travelled equals the shaded area OXY. Test yourself 5 The speeds of a bus travelling on a straight road are given below at successive intervals of 1 second. Time/s ofa Speed/m/s ofsfef[uln Sketch a speed-time graph using the values. b Choose two ofthe following terms which describe the acceleration of the bus: constant changing positive _ negative Calculate the area under your graph. How far does the bus travel in 4s? & The distance of a walker from the start of her walk is given below at successive intervals of 1 second, Sketch a distance-time graph of the following values. ime/s if2[s 5 Distance/m 3 [elo fiafis b How would you describe the speed at which she walks? const actélerating ¢ Calculate her average speed. 3 changing _ increasingEquations for constant acceleration Equations for constant SCOUT AURUC acceleration Problems involving bodies moving with constant “3 acceleration in a straight line can often be solved From equation (i ven tar quickly using some equations of motion. From equation (2, Third equation souty Ted S$ _utusat Qual een 3 2 Fourth equation ‘This is obtained by eliminating from equations (1] and (3), Squaring equation (1] we have v=(utaft s+ 2Quat + a? =H? + 2atur+ dat) au Se But saul oat a Peut+2as Second equation The speed of an object moving with constant acceleration in a straight line increases steadily. Its average speed therefore equals half the sum of its initial and final speeds, that is, 2 average speed = 45> Worked example A sprint cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1rm/s* for 20 seconds. Find her final speed and the distance she fwe know any three of u,v, a, s and ¢, the others can be found from the equations. If s is the distance moved in time , then since average speed = total distance/total time = s/t, travelled. ety Sinceu=0 a=Imk? 1=208 rs. 3 Using v= w+ at, we have her maximum speed or v= 0+ Lm? x20s=20m/s Bey and distance travelled uty) 52H, +) zt Q ao = (0 20)m/s%205 _ 400 _ 50915 2 2 Now put this into practice 1. Anathlete accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 0.8m/s? for 4s. Calculate the final speed of the athlete, 3.2.1). /- 2. Acyclist increases his speed from 10m/s to 20m/s in Ss. Calculate his average speed over this time interval. [~~ 3 Calculate the distance moved by a car acceleratin= ' stata constant rate of 2m/s* for 5s. Fiyye1.2 MOTION Falling bodies In air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper. Ina vacuum they fall at the same rate, as may be shown with the apparatus of Figure 1.2.6. The difference in air is due to air resistance having a greater effect on light bodies than on heavy bodies. The air resistance to a light body is large when compared with the body's weight. With a dense piece of metal, the resistance is negligible at low speeds. There is a story, untrue we now think, that in t sixteenth century the Italian scientist Galileo Galil dropped a small iron ball and a large cannonball ten times heavier from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa (Figure 1.2.7). And we are told that, to the surprise of onlookers who expected the cannonball to arrive first, they reached the ground almost simultaneously, + oe = Perspex or Pyrex tube paper 1.5m Pate coin pressure tubing to vacuum screw clip — cee A Figure 1.2.6 A coin and a piece of paper fall at the same rate ina vacuum, A. Figure 1.2.7 The Leaning Tower of Pisa, where Galilec said to have experimented with falling objectsAcceleration of free fall § (Uj) Practical work Motion of a falling object 3. Why would a stopwatch not be chosen to measure the time of fal in this experiment? Safety 4. How would you expect the times taken for the © Place something soft on the floor to absorb the 100g and 200g masses to reach the ground to impact of the masses. differ? © Take care to keep feet well away from the 2vac falling masses. Arrange your experimental apparatus as shown in Figure 1.2.8 and investigate the motion of a 100g mass falling from a height of about 2m. Atickertape timer has a marker that vibrates at 80 times a second and makes dots at 1/50s intervals on a paper tape being pulled through it. Ignore the start of the tape where the dots are too close Repeat the experiment with a 200g mass and compare your results with those for the 100g mass. tickertape 1 The spacing between the dots on the tickertape increases as the mass falls. What does this tell you about the speed of the falling mass? ‘The tape has 34 dots on it by the time the mass falls through 2m. Estimate how long it has 1009 taken the mass to fall through 2m. mass { fe floor A Figure 1.2.8 Acceleration of free fall Key definition All bodies falling freely under the force of gravity _| Accelerationof ree fall gfor an object nearto the do so with uniform acceleration if air resistance is | surface ofthe Earth, this is approximately constant and is negligible (j.e. the ‘steps’ on the tape chart from the | 2pereximately .8m/s* practical work should all be equally spaced). This acceleration, called the acceleration of free fall, is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value varies slightly over the Earth but is constant in each place; on average it is about 9.8m/s’, or near enough 10m/s?. The velocity of a free-falling body therefore increases by about 10m/s every second, A ball shot straight upwards with a velocity of 30m/s decelerates by about 10m/s every second and reaches its highest point after 3s. In calculations using the equations of motion, g replaces a. It is given a positive sign for falling bodies (i.e. a 9,8m/s2) and a negative sign for rising bodies since they are decelerating ~g=-9.8m/s*). a.Measuring g Using the arrangement in Figure 1.2.9, the time for a steel ball-bearing to fall a known distance is measured by an electronic timer. ‘When the two-way switch is changed to the ‘down’ Position, the electromagnet releases the ball and simultaneously the clock starts. At the end of its fall the ball opens the ‘trap-door’ on the impact switch and the clock stops. The result is found from the third equation of motion saute i where s is the distance fallen lin m), ris the time taken [in s}, v= 0 {the ball starts from rest) and a=glinm/s'), Hence 1 ee or g=2s/t Air resistance is negligible for a dense object such as a steel ball-bearing falling a short distance. electromagnet electronic timer adjustable terminal inge trap-door of, impact switch A Figure 1.2.9 Arough estimate for g can be made by ti rubber ball from the top of a building. It will only take a second to reach the ground from a height of 5m, so you will need fast reactions if you use a stopwatch for the measurement. Watch out that you do not hit anybody below! Distance-time graphs for a falling object For an object falling freely from rest in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance, there will be constant acceleration g, so we have = 4 ott ‘Agraph of distance s against time sis shown in Figure 1.2.10a, The gradually increasing slope indicates the speed of the object increases steadily. A graph of s against 1? is shown in Figure 1.2. 10b; it is a straight line through the origin since s/? [g being constant at one placel 8 Cy 40 Figure 1.2.10 A graph of distance against time for a body falling freely from rest 4.8 2 16 (time)?is? Figure 1.2.10b A graph of distance against {time]? for a body falling freely from restAcceleration of free fall Test yourself ‘An object falls from a hovering helicopter and hits. the ground at a speed of 30m/s. How long does it take the object to reach the ground and how far does it fall? Sketch a speed-time graph for the object lignore air resistancel. Astone falls from rest from the top of a high tower. Ignore air resistance and take g =9.8m/s?. Calculate a the speed of the stone after 2 seconds b_ how far the stone has fallen after 2 seconds. Ata certain instant a ball has a horizontal velocity of 12m/s and a vertical velocity of Sms. Calculate the resultant velocity of the ball at that instant. LS ATU Projectiles The photograph in Figure 1.2.11 was taken while a lamp emitted regular flashes of light. One ball was dropped from rest and the other, a projectile, was thrown sideways at the same time. Their vertical accelerations [due to gravity] are equal, showing that a projectile falls like a body which is dropped from rest. Its horizontal velocity does not affect its vertical motion. The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are independent and can be treated separately. 8 7 ) ‘A. Figure 1.2.11 Comparing free fall and projectile motion using multiflash photography For example, if a ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff and takes 3s to reach the beach below, we can calculate the height of the cliff by considering the vertical motion only. We have v=0 [since the ball has no vertical velocity initially, a= g = +9.8mis? and ¢=3s. The height sof the cliff is given by + tat Sault Jat Zia shades) time/hours ~ aw Figure 1.2.17 J The distance-time graph for a motorcyclist riding off from rest is shown in Figure 1.2.18. a. Describe the motion. @ b Calculate how far the motorbike moves in 30seconds. © Calculate the speed. (2) [Total: 5] distances Figure 1.2.18 8 A ball is dropped from rest from the top of a high building, Ignore air resistance and take g=9.8m/s2. a Calculate the speed of the ball after iis a ii 3s, fo] b Calculate how far it has fallen after 1s (2 ii 3s, Q [Total: 8] 9 Figure 1.2.19 shows the forces acting on a raindrop which is falling to the ground. ae r raindop . A A Figure 1.219 a i Ais the force which causes the raindrop to fall. Give the name of this force. [1] ii B is the total force opposing the motion of the drop. State one possible cause of this force, a b What happens to the drop when force A = force B? ie} [Total: 4]Mass and weight FOCUS POINTS or force meter. % Define mass and weight and know that weights [and therefore masses) may be compared using a balance strength and know that this i RUE SNe ee of gravity is | Sey Cail Pus ARE: gravity, m: TNT ae vel CMa cera en On TNT e the force of gravity there It can be stated that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at test relative to an observer. The standard unit of mass is th and until 2019 was the mass of a piece of platinum- iridium alloy at the Office of Weights and Measures in Paris. It is now based on a fundamental physical constant which can be measured with great precision. The gram (g) is one-thousandth of a kilogram. kg =103kg= 18= [99g KB= 107s = 0.001 ke The term weight is often used when mass is really meant. In science the two ideas are distinct and have different units. The confusion is not helped by the fact that mass is found on a balance by a process we unfortunately call ‘weighing’! Key definitions There are several kinds of balance used to measure mass. In the beam balance the unknown mass in ete RIAU NAA Sun ete Men ees cy on than it is on the Earth and this counts for their different and time, and the Meuron ech in ater tr Elta e the quantity of matter ina body, In the presence of mass and the Clee taa ten ia een eee ae ors ESCM) rength of the gravitati SSC Mere one pan is balanced against known masses in the other pan. In the lever balance a system of levers acts against the mass when it is placed in the pan. A direct reading is obtained from the position on a scale of a pointer joined to the lever system. A digital top-pan balance is shown in Figure 1.3.1. 1k Figure.3.1 A digital top-pan balance Weight We all constantly experience the force of gravity, in other words, Che puIDEE Earl Te causes an unsupported body to fall from rest to the ground. :1.3 MASS AND WEIGHT For an object above or on the Earth's surface, the nearer it is to the centre of the Earth, the more the Earth attracts it. Since the Earth is not a perfect sphere but is flatter at the poles, the weight of a body varies over the Earth's surface TOP RERTPEC Gravity is a force that can act through space, that is there does not need to be contact between the Earth and the object on which it acts as there does when we push or pull something, Other action-at- acdistance forces which, like gravity, decrease with distance are Whee teens rere errr say it is in ‘Weight is the result of a gravitational field acting on a mass: The newton Tt will be defined later (Topic 1.5); Weight is a force and therefore should be measured in newtons. more the spring stretches. newton spring balance A. Figure 1.3.2 The weight of an average-sized apple is about 1 newton, On most of the Earth's surface: The weight of an object of mass I kg is 98N. Often this is taken as 10N. A mass of 2kg has a weight of 20N, and so on, The mass of an object is _i = the same wherever it is and, unlike weight, does no, depend on the presence of the Earth. Test yourself ‘An object of mass 1kg has weight of 10N at a certain place. What is the weight of a 1009 b kg ¢ 50g? * The force of gravity on the Moon is said to be one- sixth of that on What would a mass of 12kg weigh f a onthe Earth b onthe Moon? Weight and gravity The weight IV of an object is the force of gravity acting on it which gives it an acceleration g when it is falling freely near the Earth’s surface. If the object has mass m, then IV can be calculated from F = ma (Newton's second law, see p. 39). We put F=Wand a=g to give W=mg Taking g = 9.8m/s? and m = 1kg, this gives W'= 9.8N, that is an object of mass 1kg has weight 9.8N, or near enough 10N, Similarly, an object of mass 2kg has weight of about 20N, and so on. Gravitational field The force of gravity acts through space and can cause an object, not in contact with the Earth, to fall to the ground. It is an invisible, action-at- a-distance force. We try to explain its existence by saying that the Earth is surrounded by a gravitational field which exerts a force on any object in the field. Later, magnetic and electric fields will be considered. The gravitational field strength is defined as the force acting per unit mass. ¥ Rearranging the equation = mg gives g =~. Key definition e Gravitational field strength force per unit massMeasurement shows that on the Earth's surface a mass of 1kg experiences a force of 9.8N, i.e. its weight is 9.8N. The strength of the Earth's field is therefore 9.8N/kg (near enough 10N/kg). It is denoted by g, the letter also used to denote the acceleration of free fall. Hence g=98Nikg = 9.8m/s? We now have two ways of regarding g. When considering objects falling freely, we can think of it as an acceleration of 9.8m/s®. When an object of known mass is at rest and we wish to know the force of gravity (in N) acting on it, we think of g as the Earth’s gravitational field strength of 9.8N/kg. The gravitational field strength is equivalent to the acceleration of free fall. Gravitational field While the mass of an object is always the same, its weight varies depending on the value of g. On the Moon gravitational field strength is only about 1.6N/kg, and so a mass of 1kg has a weight of just 1.6N there. The weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass, which explains why g is the same for all objects. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is the force of gravity on it but it does not accelerate faster when falling because of its greater inertia (i.e. its greater resistance to acceleration). Kentte atte Test yourself 3. An astronaut has a mass of 80kg. Calculate the weight of the astronaut on the Moon where the gravitational field strength is = LON/kg. 8 On the journey back to Earth, the astronaut ~ reaches a point X where the gravitational field strengths due to the Earth and the Moon are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. ot GB'the resultant value ofthe gravitational eld strength at X 6y @ the Paar tint auanal ae ¥ describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a gra al field on a mas:1.3 MASS AND WEIGH Exam-style questions 1 a i Explain what is meant by the mass of an 2a Define gravitational field strength. [2] object. b On the Earth the acceleration of free fall is ii Explain what is meant by the weight of about 9.8m/s?, On Mars the acceleration of an object. free fall is about 3.7 m/s? iii Describe how weights may be The weight of the Mars Rover Opportunity on compared. [4] the Earth was 1850N. b State which of the following definitions for i Calculate the mass of the Rover. re weight W is correct. ii Calculate the weight of the Rover A on Mars. 1] [Total: 6] 3. a Explain what is meant by a gravitational i g a field. i) © Which of the following properties is the same for an object on the Earth and on the Moon? A weight Cc) ass 5 C acceleration of free fall. a ¢ Define gravitational field strength. fa D gravitational field strength (1) The gravitational field strength on Venus d State the SI units of is 8.8N/kg. The mass of a rock is 200kg. weight ff’ Calculate the weight of the rock on Venus. [2] acceleration of free fall [Total: 7] iii gravitational field ofa N Vee 5 a otal:‘| Yi A Density FOCUS POINTS % Define density and catculate the density of a liquid and both regular- and irregular-shaped solid objects. * Use density data to determine whether an object will float or sink. Vass Objects of Rose THEN hy eH SIE! Siac SW welt: mele EMR Eee To m density of an object is greater than that of than that of the liquid it will float In everyday language, lead is said to be heavier ‘than wood. By this it is meant that a certain volume of lead is heavier than the same volume of wood. In science such comparisons are made by using the Peers SMSO net teil nces with the ic ure the di mass and its volume, The mass can be found using a a liquid it wi substances are given in Table 1.4 Y Table 1.61 Densities of some common substances id) butla Wooden object will float Sear a EEC eee BOC M aren pectic rial you will need to know both it TEMA MN A ty) Smeets ink, but if the density of the object is tne Bie ue The approximate densities of some common term density. This is the mass per unit volume of a_, | Solids Density/g/cm? | Liquids Density/g/cm? substance and is calcutated from ‘aluminium 27 paraffin 0.80 ; copper ag petrol 0.80 i mass density = Sohame iron 79 | pure water 10 For a mass m of volume V, the density p= m/V. gold 193 | mercury 13.6 glass 25 [eases Density/kg/m? Ke ition wood [teak} 0.80 air 13, per unit ice 092 [hydrogen 0.09 ythen bon dia The density of lead is 11 grams per cubic centimetre [Povthene 0.90. Rarbonisionide| 26320, (11.g/cm?) and this means that a piece of lead of : volume 1m? has mass 11g. A volume of 5cm? Calculations of lead would have mass 55g. If the density of a substance is known, the mass of any volume of it can be calculated, This enables engineers to work out the weight of a structure if they know from the plans the volumes of the materials to be used and their densities. Strong enough foundations can then be made. The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre. To convert a density from g/cm?, normally the most suitable unit for the size of sample we use, to kg/m?, we multiply by 10%, For example, the density of water is 1.0g/cm? or 1.0 x 10?kg/m3, Using the symbols p (rho) for density, m for mass and V for volume, the expression for density is =” Pry Rearranging the expression gives =VxpandV=% m=Vxp 3 These are useful if p is known and m or V have to be calculated. If you do not see how they are obtained refer to the Mathematics for physics section on p. 2° i.1.4 DENSITY The triangle in Figure 1.4.1 is an aid to remembering a them. If you cover the quantity you want to know with a finger, such as m, it equals what you can still see, ite. px V. To find V, cover V and you get = m/p. + measuring gyinder ; LL 2nd reading A Figure 1.6.1 tstreading Worked example Taking the density of copper as 9g/cm?, find a the mass of woter Sem? and b the volume of 639. a g/cm, V= Scm® and mis to be found. x p= Sem’ x 9g/em? = 45g a fem}, m= 63g and Vis to be found. ee SOR Fa Seem 3 Now put this into practice ‘A. Figure 1.6.2 Measuring the volume of an irregular solid 1 Assheet of aluminium has a mass of 200g and a volume method 1 of 73cm®, Calculate the density of aluminium, a; Taking the density of lead as 11 g/cm?, find water a the mass of 46cm? the volume of 55g. ee Simple density tiegteoer Feng bee measurements seid ered) Tf the mass m and volume V of a substance are known, its density can be found from p= m/V. ] Regularly shaped solid | ‘measuring cylinder — The mass is found on a balance and the volume by | measuring its dimensions with a ruler. | Irregularly shaped solid: volume by displacement | Use one of these methods to find the volume of a pebble or glass stopper, for example. The mass of the solid is found on a balance. Its volume is measured by one of the displacement methods shown in Figure 1.4.2. In Figure 1.4.2a the volume is the difference between the first and second readings. In Figure 1.4.2b it is the volume of water a Figure 1.4.2b Measuring the volume of an irregular solid: collected in the measuring cylinder. method 2 _iLiquid The mass of an empty beaker is found on a balance. A known volume of the liquid is transferred from a burette or a measuring cylinder into the beaker. The mass of the beaker plus liquid is found and the mass of liquid is obtained by subtraction. Air Using a balance, the mass of a 500¢m? round- bottomed flask full of air is found and again after removing the air with a vacuum pump; the difference gives the mass of air in the flask. The volume of air is found by filling the flask with water and pouring it into a measuring cylinder. Floating and sinking An object sinks in a liquid of lower density than its own; otherwise it floats, partly or wholly submerged. For example, a piece of glass of density 2.5 g/cm? sinks in water (density 1.0g/cm3) but floats in mercury (density 13.6g/cm?). An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats because its average density is less than that of water, due to the low- density air enclosed in the hull. Floating and sinking Test yourself a Calculate the density of a substance of 1 mass 100g and volume 10cm? Hi volume 3m? and mass 9kg. b_ The density of gold is 19g/cm?. Find the volume of 1 38g i 95g of gold. Arectangular steel bar is 4cm long, Sem wide and 11cm thick. When weighed itis found to have a mass of 969. Calculate its density in a g/cm? b kg/m. ‘The water in a measuring cylinder is at the 50cm? level. A pebble is dropped into the water and the water level rises to 60cm?. The pebble is completely covered by water, Calculate a the volume of the pebble the density of the pebble, if it weighs 60.1.4 DENSITY Exam-style questions 1a Choose which of the following definitions for density is correct. \_Armass/volume B mass x volume © volume/mass D weight/area b Calculate i the mass of 5m? of cement of density 3000kg/m3 = Iyer hy ii. the mass of air in a room measuring 10m x 5.0m x 2.0m if the density of air is 1.3kg/m?, 2 a Describe how you could determine the density of a liquid. b An empty beaker is weighed and found to have a mass of 130g. A measuring cylinder contains 50cm? of an unknown liquid. All the liquid is poured into the beaker which is again weighed and found to have a mass of 170g. Calculate the density of the liquid. ¢ Explain why ice floats on water [Total: 10] [Total: it 3. a A block of wood has dimensions of 10cm x 8cm x 20cm. i Calculate the volume of the block in cubic metres. a ii The block is placed on a balance and found to weigh 1.2kg. Calculate the density of the block in kg/m. @) b When a golf ball is lowered into a measuring cylinder of water, the water level rises by 30cm? when the ball is completely submerged. If the ball weighs 339 in air, calculate its density in kg/m? [Total ftForces 1.5.1 Effects of forces FOCUS POINTS % Understand that the size and shape of objects can be altered by forces. * Become familiar with load~extension graphs for an elastic solid and describe an experiment to show how a spring behaves when itis stretched. + Understand that when several forces act simultaneously on an object that a resultant can be determined. + Know that, unless acted upon by a resultant force, an object will remain at rest or will continue moving with a constant speed in a straight line. + Understand that solid friction acts to slow an object and produce heat. * ExHaihe terms ‘drag’ and ‘air resistance’ in terms of friction acting on objects. pri ov the equation =a cl cribe motion in a circular path and under: Force ‘A force is a push or a pull. It can cause an object A for fs shape or size, at rest to move, or if the body is already moving For example, a spring (or wire) will stretch when it can change its speed or direction of motion. loaded with a weight. A. Figure 1.5.1 A weightlifter in action exerts first a pull and then a push.1.5 FORCES ) o (WU) Practical work Stretching a spring For safe experiments/demonstrations related to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that is also part of this series, Safety Eye protection must be worn (in case the spring snaps). Arrange a steel spring as in Figure 1.5.2. Read the scale opposite the bottom of the hanger Add 100g loads one at a time (thereby increasing the stretching force by steps of 1N) and take readings from the scale after each one. Enter the readings in a table for loads up to 800g, Note that at the head of columns (or rows) in data tables it is usual to give the name of the quantity or its symbol followed by / and the unit, Stretching force/N | Scale reading/mm | Total extension/mm. Sometimes it is easier to discover laws by displaying the results on a graph. Do this on graph paper by plotting total extension readings along the x-axis (horizontal axis) and stretching force readings along the y-axis (vertical axis) in a load-extension graph. Every pair of readings will give a point; mark them by small crosses and draw a smooth line through them, steel spring Figure 1.5.2 What is the shape of the graph you plotted? Do the results suggest any rule about how the spring behaves when itis stretched? What precautions could you take to improve the accuracy of the results of this experiment How could you test if the extension of the spring is proportional to the stretching force? Extension in springs Springs were investigated by Robert Hooke just over, 350 years ago. He found that the extension was proportional to the stretching force provided the spring was not permanently stretched. This means that doubling the force doubles the extension, trebling the force trebles the extension, and so on. Using the sign for proportionality, o<, we can write extension « stretching force It is true only if the Limit of proportionality of the spring is not exceeded. Key definition Limit of the point at which the load- extension graph becomes non-Uneat The graph of Figure 1.5.3 is for a spring stretched beyond its limit of proportionality, E. OE is a straight line passing through the origin O and is. graphical proof that the extension is proportional to the stretching force over this range. If the force for point A on the graph is applied to the spring, the proportionality limit is passed and on removing the force some of the extension (0S) remains. stretching force/N 3 total extension/mm A Figure 1.5.3 oa a Eruentdn darcy praparhoves ® Rtetelvny ee1.5.1 Elfects of forces Test yourself 1. In Figure 1.5.3, over which part of the graph does a spring balance work? Spring constant Now put this into practice 1. Calculate the spring constant of a spring which is stretched 2mm by a force of 4N. 2 A2N weight is applied toa s constant of 250N/m. Catculal spring in mm. which has a spring 1¢ extension of the The s stant, k, is defined as force per unit extension. It is the force which must be applied to a spring to cause an extension of 1m. Ifa force F produces extension x then ¥r Fe ek Rearranging the equation gives Proportionality also holds when a force is applied to an elastic solid such as a straight metal wire, provided it is not permanently stretched. Load-extension graphs similar to Figure 1.5.3 are obtained. You should label each axis of your graph with the name of the quantity or its symbol followed by / and the unit, as shown in Figure 1.5.3. The limit of proportionality can be defined as the point at which the load-extension graph becomes non-linear because the extension is no | Longer proportional to the stretching force. PA ey) _Aspringis stretched 10mm (0.01 m) by a.weight of 2.0N. Calculate ptter ce | a the spring constant & an | b the weight iV of an object that causes an extension of | 80mm (0.08). ‘ ) W= stretching force F kK. —-=200Nim x 0.08m haematite at banter vnstt mela tom 9 =16N Test yourself 2. State two effects which a force may have on an object. 3. Make a sketch of a load-extension graph for a spring and indicate the region over which the extension is proportional to the stretching force. 4 Calculate the spring constant of a spring which is stretched 4cm by a mass of 200. 5 Define the limit of proportionality for a stretched spring. Toy 7 ileal yh feck do on Forces and resultants’ 9 Force has both magnitude (size) and direction. It is represented in diagrams by a straight line with an arrow to show its direction of action. Usually more than one force acts on an object. As a simple example, an object resting on a table is pulled downwards by its weight IV and pushed upwards by a force R due to the table supporting it (Figure 1.5.4). Since the object is at rest, the forces must balance, ie, R = W. a A Figure 1.5.4 In structures such as a giant oil platform (Figure 1.5.5), two or more forces may act at the same point. It is then often useful for the desi ‘ ty id1.5 FORCES ‘A Figure 1.5.5 The design of an offshore oil platform requires an understanding of the combination of many forces. © Parallelogram law Cot vim W5XSE Practical work Safety © Take care when using the mass in case it drops. Arrange the apparatus as in Figure 1.5.7a with a sheet of paper behing it on a vertical board. ‘We have to find the resultant of forces P and Q. Read the values of P and Q from the spring balances. Mark on the paper the directions of P, Q and Was shown by the strings. Remove the Paper and, using a scale of I cm to represent 1N, draw OA, OB and OD to represent the three forces P, Q and W which act at O, as in Figure 1.8.7b. (IV = weight of the 1 kg mass = 98N; therefore OD = 9.8cm) spring balance (0-108), string tho A Figure 1.5.70 Pand Q together are balanced by WW and so their resultant must be a force equal and opposite to engineer to know the value of the single force, ive. the resultant force, which has exactly the same effect as these forces, If the forces act in the same straight line, the resultant is found by simple addition or subtraction as shown in Figure 1.5.6; if they do not they are added by using the parallelogram law. a ——- ‘A. Figure 1.5.6 The resultant of forces acting in the same straight line is found by addition or subtraction, Complete the parallelogram OACB. Measure the diagonal OG; ifit is equal in size (Le. 9.8cm) and opposite in direction to W then it represents the resultant of P and Q. ‘A. Figure 1.5.7b Finding a resultant by the parallelogram law The parallelogram law for adding two forces is If two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point. List the equipment you would need for this, experiment & What quantity would you vary to test the law under different conditions?Test yourself Jo, Daniel and Helen are pulling a metal ring. Jo pulls with a force of 100N in one direction and Daniel with a force of 140N in the opposite direction. Ifthe ring does not move, what force does Helen exert if she pulls in the same direction as Jo? Aboy drags a suitcase along the ground with a force of 100N. If the frictional force opposing the motion of the suitcase is SON, what is the resultant forward force on the suitcase? A picture is supported by two vertical strings. Ifthe weight of the picture is BON, what is the force exerted by each string? Newton's first law Friction and air resistance cause a car to come to rest when the engine is switched off. If these forces were absent, we believe that an object, once set in motion, would go on moving forever with a constant speed in a straight line. That is, force is not needed to keep a body moving with uniform velocity provided that no opposing forces act on it, This idea was proposed by Galileo and is summed up in Isaac Newton's first law of motion’ ‘An object stays at rst, or continues to move in ‘straight line at constant speed, unless acted on resultant f6ree, It seems that the question we should ask about a moving body is not what keeps it moving but what changes or stops its motion. The smaller the external forces opposing a moving body, the smaller is the force needed to keep it moving with constant velocity. A hover scooter, which is supported by a cushion of air (Figure 1.5.8), can skim across the ground with little frictional opposition, so that relatively little power is needed to maintain motion. A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by changing its direction of motion or speed. Key definitions Resultant force may change the velocity of an object by changing its direction of motion orits speed 1.5.1 Effects of forces A. Figure 1.8.8 Friction is much reduced for a hover scooter. => Going further Mass and inertia Newton's first law is another way of saying that all matter has a built-in opposition to being moved if itis at rest or, if tis moving, to having its motion changed. This property of matter is called inertia {from the Latin word for tazinessl, Its effectis evident on the occupants of a car that stops suddenly: they lurch forwards in an attempt to continue moving, and this is why seat belts are needed. ‘The reluctance ofa stationary object to move can be shown by placing a large coin ona piece of card on your finger (Figure 1.5.9]. Ifthe card is flicked sharply the coin stays where itis while the card flies off. coin ‘A Figure 1.5.9 Flick the card sharply The larger the mass of a body, the greater is its inertia, i.e. the more difficult itis to move it when at rest and to stop it when in motion. Because of this we consider that the mass ofa body measures its inertia. This isa better definition of mass than the one given earlier {Topic 1.3) which it was stated to be the amount of matter in ei1.5 FORCES Effect of force and mass on acceleration For safe experiments/demonstrations related to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that is also part of this series, Safety Take care when rolling the trolley down the ramp. Ensure it is clear at the bottom of the ramp and use a side barrier to prevent the trolley from falling onto the floor. ‘The apparatus consists of a trolley to which a force is applied by a stretched length of elastic (Figure 1.5.10). The velocity of the trolley is found from a tickertape timer or a motion sensor, datalogger and computer. First compensate the runway for friction: raise one end until the trolley runs down with constant velocity when given a push. The dots on the tickertape should be equally spaced, or a horizontal trace obtained on a speed-time graph. There is now no resultant force on the trolley and any acceleration produced later will be due only to the force caused by the stretched elastic. talley tickertape timer stretched elastic (ormotion sensor) ‘A Figure 1.5.10 (a) Force and acceleration (mass constant) Fix one end of a short length of elastic to the rod at the back of the trolley and stretch it until the other end is level with the front of the trolley. Practise pulling the trolley down the runway, keeping the same stretch on the elastic. After a few trials you should be able to produce a steady accelerating force. Repeat using first two and then three identical pieces of elastic, stretched side by side by the ‘same amount, to give two and three units of force. Ifyou are using tickertape, make a tape chart for each force and use it to find the acceleration produced in cm/ten-tick’. Ignore the start of the tape (where the dots are too close) and the end (where the force may not be steady). If you use a motion sensor and computer to plot a speed-time graph, the acceleration can be obtained in m/s* from the slope of the graph (Topic 1.2). Put the results ina table. Force (Fi/{no. of pieces of elastic) ‘Acceleration {al/cm/ten-tick? or m/s* {b) Mass and acceleration [force constant) Do the experiment as in part (a) using two pieces of elastic (ie. constant F) to accelerate first one trolley, then two (stacked one above the other) and finally three. Check the friction compensation of the runway each time. Find the accelerations from the tape charts or computer plots and tabulate the results. Mass (mal/{no. of trolleys) 1 Acceleration (al/em/ten-tick? or m/s? For part (@), does a steady force cause a steady acceleration? Do your results in part (@) suggest any relationship between acceleration a and force F? Do your results for part (b) suggest any relationship between a and m? 10 Name the two independent variable quan in experiments (@) and (b). 11 How could you use the results to verify the equation F= ma?mgt a body we Momtut uy tolas dial place iw dpe dlivectivés in whieh iv S 6 aPoe is rie) 1.5.1 Effects of forces Newton's second law The previous experiment should show roughly that the acceleration a is i directly proportional to the applied force F for a fixed mass, i.e. a « F, and {i inversely proportional to the mass m for a fixed force, i.e. ac 1/m. Combining the results into one equation, we get gee m or Fema Therefore Fokma where kis the constant of proportionality. One newton is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s*, ise, 1N = 1kg m/s’, so if m = 1kg and a = 1m/s, then F=1N. Substituting in F = kma, we get k we can write and so ‘=ma Pe Och enuyC} Ablock of mass 2kg has a constant velocity when itis pushed along a table by a force of SN. When the push is increased to 9N what is a the resultant force b the acceleration? When the black moves with constant velocity the forces ‘acting on it are balanced. The force of friction opposing its mation must therefore be 5N. a When the push is increased to 9N the resultant [unbalanced] force F on the block is (9 ~5)N=4N {since the frictional force is still SN). b_ The acceleration ais obtained from F= ma where F=4N and m=2kg, FAN _ dkemis? _ im 2kg 2kg Now put this into practice 1. box of mass Skg has a constant velocity when i is pushed along a table by a force of BN, When the push isincreased to 10N calculate 2. the resultant force D_ the acceleration 2. Aforce F produces a constant acceleration in a ‘straight line of 0.5 m/s? on a block of mass 7kg. Calculate the value of F. SL 2m This is Newton's second law of motion. When using it, two points should be noted. First, F is the resultant (or unbalanced) force causing the acceleration a in the same direction as F. Second, F must be in newtons, m in kilograms and a in metres per second squared, otherwise k is not 1. The law shows that a will be largest when F is large and m small. You should now appreciate that when the forces acting on a body do not balance there is a net (resultant) force which causes a change of motion, i.e. the body accelerates or decelerates, The force and the acceleration are in the same direction, If the forces balance, there is no change in the motion of the body. However, there may be a change of shape, in which case internal forces in the body (j.e. forces between neighbouring atoms) balance the external forces. > Test yourself (10 Which one of the diagrams in Figure 1.5.11 shows the arrangement of forces that gives the block of mass M the greatest acceleration? 8 i n 30! j ; A Figure 1.5.11 49 In Figure 1.5.12 if Pis a force of 20N and the object \ moves with constant velocity, what is the value of the opposing force F? hn. A Figure 1.5.121.5 FORCES aD ced na : ‘resultant force of 30N? Hs of pe 5009 isplad jon ie ae 0 ictionless bench by a steady forc a nies eed of Bm/s in 2s, Cal ceeler 2kg Friction Friction is the force that opposes one surface moving, or trying to move, over another) It can be a help or a hindrance. We could not walk if there was no friction between the soles of our shoes and the ground. Our feet would slip backwards, as they tend to when we walk on ice. On the other hand, engineers try to reduce friction to a minimum in the moving parts of machinery by using lubricating oils and ball-bearings. spring balance Figure 1.5.13 Friction opposes motion between surfaces in contact, EArt ite Newton's third law Ufa body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A. | This is Newton’s third law of motion and states that forces never occur singly but always in pairs as a result of the action between two bodies. For example, when you step forwards from rest your foot pushes backwards on the Earth, and the Earth exerts an equal and opposite force forward on you. Two bodies and two forces are involved. The small force you exert on the large mass of the Earth gives no noticeable acceleration to the Earth but the equal force it exerts on your very much smaller mass causes you to accelerate. When a gradually increasing force P is applied through a spring balance to a block on a table (Figure 1.5.13), the block does not move at first. This is because an equally increasing but opposing frictional force F acts where the block and table | touch. At any instant P and F are equal and opposit If P is increased further, the block eventually moves; as it does so F has its maximum value, called starting or static friction. When the block is moving at a steady speed, the balance reading is slightly less than that for starting friction. Sliding or dynamic friction is therefore less than starting or static friction.) Placing a mass on the block increases the force pressing the surfaces together and increases friction. When work is done against friction, the temperatures of the bodies in contact rise (as you can test by rubbing your hands together); kinetic energy is transferred to thermal energy by mechanical working (see Topic 1.7). Solid friction can be described as the force between two surfaces that may impede motion and produce heating, > Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through gas (air resistance), such as a vehicle or falling leaf, which opposes the motion of the object. Similarly, friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid. Drag increases as the speed of the object increases, and acts to reduce acceleration and slow the object down, Note that the|pair of equal and opposite forces donot act on the same body: if they did, there could never be any st resultant forces and acceleration would be impossible. For a book resting on a table, the book exerts a downward force on the table and the table exerts a equal and opposite upward force on the book; this pai ‘of forces act on different objects and are represented by the red arrows in Figure 1.5.14. The weight of the book {blue arrow! does not form a pair with the upward force cn the book (although they are equal numerically) as these two forces act on the same body.push of table contact fn book force pat oe push of book on table ‘A. Figure 1.5.14 Forces between book and table An appreciation of the third law and the effect of friction is desirable when stepping from a rowing boat [Figure 1.5.15). You push backwards on the boat and, although the boat pushes you forwards with an equal force, itis itself now moving backwards [because friction with the water is slight). This reduces your forwards motion by the same amount - so you may fall in! 1.5.1 Effects of forces pull of Earth ‘on book gravtational force pair pul of book on Earth step forwards! PRE we GS Circular motion There are many examples of bodies moving in circular paths ~ rides at a funfair, clothes being spun dry in | a washing machine, the planets going round the Sun and the Moon circling the Earth. When a car turns ‘a corner, it may follow an arc of a circle. ‘Throwing the hammer’ is a sport practised at Highland Games ‘in Scotland (Figure 1.5.16), in which the hammer is whirled round and round before it is released. Centripetal force sigieaa arate In Figure 1.5.17 a ball attached to a string is being whirled round in a horizontal circle Its direction of motion is constantly changing, At A, it is along the tangent at A; shortly afterwards, at B, it is along the tangent at B; and so on. It can be seen that motion in a circular path is due to a force perpendicular to the mation.1.5 FORCES It follows from Newton's first law of motion that if we consider a body moving in a circle to be accelerating, then there must be a force acting on it to cause the acceleration. In the case of the whirling ball it is reasonable to say the force is provided by the string pulling inwards on the ball, Like the acceleration, the force acts towards the centre of the circle and keeps the body at a fixed distance from the centre. A larger force is needed if the speed v of the ball is increased, with mass and radius constant the radius r of the circle is decreased, with mass and speed constant the mass m of the ball is increased, with speed and radius constant. | This force, which acts towards the centre and keeps | @ body moving in a circular path, is called the centripetal force (centre-seeking force). | Should the force be greater than the string can | bear, the string breaks and the ball flies off with | steady speed in a straight line along the tangent, _ ile. in the direction of travel when the string broke | @s Newton's first law of motion predicts). It is not | thrown outwards. Whenever an object moves in a circle (or circular arc) there must be a centripetal force acting on it. In throwing the hammer it is the pull of the athlete's arms acting on the hammer towards the centre of the whirling path. When a car rounds a bend, a frictional force is exerted inwards by the “toad on the car's tyres. Satellites "For a satellite of mass m orbiting the Earth at radius r with orbital speed v, the centripetal force, F is the Earth’s gravitational force on the mass. | To put an artificial satellite in orbit at a certain height above the Earth it must enter the orbit | at the correct speed. If it does not, the force of | gravity, which decreases as height above the Earth increases, will not be equal to the centripetal force needed for the orbit. Communication satellites Communication satellites circle the Earth in orbits above the equator. Geostationary satellites have an orbit high above the equator (36000km); they travel with the same speed as the Earth rotates, so appear to be stationary at a particular point above the Earth's surface ~ their orbital period is 24 hours. They are used for transmitting television, intercontinental telephone and data signals. Geostationary satellites need to be well separated so that they do not interfere with each other; there is room for about 400. Mobile phone networks use many satellites ‘in much lower equatorial orbits; they are slowed by the Earth’s atmosphere and their orbit has to be regularly adjusted by firing a rocket engine, Eventually they run out of fuel and burn up in the atmosphere as they fall to Earth. Monitoring satellites Monitoring satellites circle the Earth rapidly in low polar orbits, i.e. passing over both poles; at a height of 850km the orbital period is only 100 minutes. The Earth rotates below them so th scan the whole surface at short range in a 24-hour period and can be used to map or monitor regions of the Earth's surface which may be inaccessible by other means. They are widely used in weather forecasting as they continuously transmit infrared pictures of cloud patterns down to Earth (Figure 1.5.18), which are picked up in turn by receiving stations around the world.Test yourself ie Explain the conditions under which friction occurs. b_ Name two effects resulting from solid friction. 15 Acar is moving at a constant speed along a straight road. Describe how the forces acting on the car influence the speed of the car. How is a constant speed achieved? 1.5.2 Turning effect of forces 1.5.2 Turning effect of forces FOCUS POINTS equation to calculate the moment of a force. % Describe and give everyday examples of the turning effect of a force [its moment} and use the appropriate * Apply the principle of moments to different situations. ‘Recall the conditions for an object being in equitibriu Aseesaw ina childre Rickie eM their distan Sn Mecca eels ats Prensa Mee ia cies ele ona body is such that there is nonet forc (eavene naira additional forces a Be rene) eith Tegner fied Moment of a force The handle on a door is at the outside edge so that it opens and closes easily. A much larger force would be needed if the handle were near the hinge. Similarly, itis easier to loosen a nut with a long spanner than with a short one. [The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force, It depends on both the size of the force and how far it is applied from the pivot. It is measured by multiplying the force by the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the pivot. The unit is the newtonmetre (Nm). [moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance ] | from the pivot { Rien eae encent Me Nee Sec eno ane uke Ce eC Nees tuueat UNS neu etae Menge ee cee es e er to the pivot. When the combination of all the forces acting ACI nee Citi ie st Deen tele cry ends on both its magnitude and feenreete-i the body is in equilibrium [the seesaw is Wd Key definition ‘Moment of a force moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot In Figure 1.5.19a, a force F acts on a gate at its edge, and in Figure 1.5.19b it acts at the centre. In Figure 1.5.19a moment of F about O=$N x 3m=15Nm In Figure 1.5.19b moment of F about O = SN x 1.5m=7.5Nm The turning effect of F is greater in the first case. This agrees with the fact that a gate opens mast easily pushed or pulled at the edge furthest from the hing1.5 FORCES i Balancing a beam Ik eee! To balance a beam about a pivot, like the ruler hinge (ulcun) jp Figure 1.5.20, the weights must be moved so that the clockwise turning effect equals the ii anticlockwise turning effect and the net moment on the beam becomes zero. If the beam tends to swing clockwise, m, can be moved further from the pivot to increase its turning effect; alternatively, m, can be moved nearer to the pivot to reduce its turning f=" Sm: 1. 15m. =| 9 effect. What adjustment would you make to the “y positon of m, to balance the beam if ts tending to swing anticlockwise? A Figure 1.5.19 @ dete ACLS Law of moments Balance a half-metre ruler at its centre, adding For safe experiments/demonstrations related _ Plasticine to one side or the other until itis to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge horizontal. IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that Hang unequal loads m, and m, from either side is also part of this series. ofthe pivot and alter their distances d, andd, from the centre until the ruler is again balanced [+ 4 4s —+} (Figure 1.5.20). Forces F, and F, are exerted ‘ by gravity on m, and m, and so on the ruler; the force on 100g is 0.98N. Record the results ina table and repeat for other loads and distances. pivot (nal through m hole in ruler) m ‘A Figure 1.5.20 [ma FIN [afem Fxdinem [milo [FIN [ayfem Fed iNem Fis trying to turn the ruler anticlockwise and -—_‘12Name the variables you will need to measure F, Xd, is its moment. F, is trying to cause in this experiment. clockwise turning and its moment is F, x dy 19 Calculate the moments of a force of §N acting When the ruler is balanced or, as we say, at a perpendicular distance from the pivot of in equilibrium, the results should show that a 10cm the anticlockwise moment F, x d, equals the b 15cm clockwise moment F, x d, © 30cm.Principle of moments The law of moments (also called the law of the lever) is stated as follows: ‘When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the ‘sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point. There is no resultant moment on an object in equilibrium: The law of moments is an equivalent statement to the principle of moments. If the clockwise moments are regarded as positive and the anticlockwise moments are regarded as negative, then the sum of the moments is zero when the body is in equilibrium. 2 Worked example The seesaw in Figure 1.5.21 balances when Shani of weight 320N is at A, Tom of weight 540N is at Band Harry of weight Wis at C. Find W. See pe eee Lim. vot & Figure 1.5.21 | Taking moments about the pivot, 0: anticlockwise moment = (320N x 3m) + (S40N x 1m) =960Nm +S40Nm =1500Nm clockwise moment = 173m By the law of moments, , i Calculate the resultant force on the rocket [2] (Total: 6]one orbit. 2] ¢ Calculate the time it takes for the | satellite to complete one orbit. (4 aa t [Total: 7] 7 Acar rounding a bend travels in an arc of a circle. a What provides the force to keep the car travelling in a circle? @ b Isa larger or a smaller force required if ithe car travels faster t) the bend is less curved tt) iii the car has more passengers? fi} Explain why racing cars are fitted with tyres called ‘slicks, which have no tread pattern, for dry tracks and with ‘tread’ tyres for wet tracks. fa} [Total: 7] 8 A satellite close to the Earth (at a height of about 200km) has an orbital speed of 8km/s. Take the radius of the orbit to be approximately equal to the Earth’s radius of 6400km. a Write down an expression for the circumference of the orbit. b Write down an equation for the time for 164) 2 Figure 1.5.38 shows three positions of the pedal on a bicycle which has a crank 0.20m long. The cyclist exerts the same vertically downward push of 25N with his foot. Calculate the turning effect in aa (2) bB 2) eC (2 [Total: 6] force | ra oar A 8 c & Figure 1.5.98 10 The weight of the uniform bar in Figure 1.5.39 is 10N. a Calculate the clockwise moment about the pivot. GB] b Calculate the anticlockwise moment about the pivot. G8] Does the beam balance, tip to the right or tip to the left? 2] [Total: 8] oem 10 4050 100m aN A Figure 1.5.39 ‘11a Describe how you could find the centre of gravity of an irregular lamina. (5) b A heavy box with a square base and a height twice the length of a side is to be transported by a lorry. Explain how the stability of i the lorry 2] ii the box fal will be affected if the box lies on its side in the van rather than its base. (Total: 9]1.5 FORCES Alternative to Practical T2A physics class is asked to investigate the extension of a stretched spring. You will be supplied with a spring, a clamp stand, a half-metre ruler, a set square and a hanger with 100g weights and sticky tape. a Describe how you would carry out the experiment. b Mention any precautions you would take to achieve good results. @ [Total: 8] 13a The table below shows the extension of a spring for increasing stretching forces. Stretching force/N | 0 | 1 | 2| 3 [4 | 5 Extension/mm of 2[4[e [es] 2 i Plot a graph with extension/mm along the x-axis and stretching force/N on the y-axis. 4 Draw the best line through the points; mark the region over which proportionality holds. [Total: 10] 141n an experiment to investigate the law of moments, a half-metre ruler is balanced at its centre as shown in Figure 1.5.40. $44 4 fulerum (nail through m hole in ruler) ™ ‘& Figure 1.5.40 : Masses of 50g, 100g and 150g are placed in turn at the positions given in the table below. a Complete the table, filling in values for i the units at the head of each column [1] ii force (F) (2) iii distance from pivot (d) (2 iv moment about pivot (Fx d). fal o State which combinations of two different masses could be used to balance the beam. [3] Mass/g | Force/ | Rulerreading/em | d/ | Fxd/ 50 5 A 50 10 B 50 15 c 50 20 D 100 30 E 100 35 F 100 40 a 150 150) 4}