Chapter 1- THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Introduction

• The Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Indus Civilisation/Harappan

Civilization , was a Bronze Age civilization in the northern areas of South Asia that
lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE in its full form.
It was one of three early civilizations of the Near East and South Asia, along with ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia, and it was the most widespread of the three, with sites spanning
an area stretching from today's northeast Afghanistan, through much of Pakistan, and into
western and northwestern India.

• The advent of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan
Civilization, marks the beginning of Indian history. This is also known as the Harappan
Civilization, after the first city unearthed, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
• The Indus Valley Civilisation was called after the Indus river system, on which alluvial
plains the early sites of the civilization were discovered and excavated.
• The Indus Valley Civilization began approximately 3300 BC.It thrived between 2600
and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It began to decline around 1900 BC and
vanished around 1400 BC.
• The first evidence of cotton production has been discovered in Mehrgarh, Pakistan,
dating back to the Pre-Harappan civilization.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of Egypt's, Mesopotamia's, India's, and China's
ancient urban civilizations. The Indus civilization was the largest of the world's three
early civilizations (the others being Mesopotamia and Egypt).
• The Archaeological Department of India conducted excavations in the Indus valley in the
1920s, unearthing the ruins of two ancient towns, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• In 1924, ASI Director-General John Marshall proclaimed to the world the finding of a
new civilization in the Indus Valley.
Origin and Evolution

• The archaeological discoveries made during the previous eight decades demonstrate the
Harappan culture's progressive growth.
• Pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan, and late Harappan are the four
major stages or periods of development.
• Eastern Balochistan is the location of the pre-Harappan stage.
• Excavations in Mehrgarh, 150 miles northwest of Mohenjodaro, have shown the presence
of pre-Harappan civilization. At this point, the nomadic people began to settle down
and live a stable agricultural existence.
• The Early Harappan Phase is associated with the Hakra Phase, which was discovered in
the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
• People lived in huge communities on the plains during the Early Harappan period. The
settlements in the Indus valley grew gradually.
• During this time, there was also a movement from country to urban life. The sites
of Amri and Kot Diji continue to provide evidence for the early Harappan period.
• Great cities arose during the mature-Harappan era.
• The excavations at Kalibangan, with their intricate town planning and urban elements,
demonstrate this stage of progression.
• The fall of the Indus civilization began in the late-Harappan era. This stage of
progression is revealed by the excavations at Lothal.
• Lothal, with its harbor, was established considerably later. As flood protection, it was
enclosed by a large brick wall.
• Lothal remained a commerce hub for the Harappan civilization and the rest of India, as
well as Mesopotamia.
Important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation
Salient Features of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Town Planning

• Harappan civilization was characterized by its urban planning system.

• Each of Harappa and Mohenjodaro had its own citadel or acropolis, which was likely
held by ruling class members.
• Each city has a lower town with brick homes that were occupied by the ordinary people
beneath the citadel.
• The grid method was used to arrange the dwellings in the city, which is exceptional.
• Granaries were an essential feature of Harappan towns.
• The usage of burnt bricks in Harappan towns is noteworthy, as dry bricks were often used
in Egyptian constructions at the time.
• Mohenjodaro's drainage system was rather outstanding.
• The Great Bath, which is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep, is Mohenjodaro's
most significant public space.
• At either end, a flight of steps leads to the surface. There are dressing rooms on the side.
The Bath's floor was constructed of burned bricks.
• Water was drawn from a large well in another room, and a drain was accessible from one
corner of the Bath. It was probably used for ceremonial bathing.
• A granary spanning 150 feet long and 50 feet wide is the biggest structure
in Mohenjodaro.
• However, there are as many as six granaries in Harappa's fortress.
• Practically every big or little property in almost every city has its own patio and
bathroom.
• Many residences in Kalibangan had wells.
• The entire community was fortified at locations like Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), and
portions of the town were also protected by walls.
Economic Life

• The presence of numerous seals, uniform script, and regulated weights and measures
across a large area demonstrates the importance of trade in the lives of the Indus people.
• Stone, metal, shell, and other materials were traded extensively by the Harappans.
• Metal money was not utilized, and trade was conducted through barter.
• They practiced navigation along the Arabian Sea's shore.
• They had established a commercial colony in northern Afghanistan, which aided
commerce with Central Asia.
• They also traded with people living around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• The Harappans engaged in long-distance lapis lazuli trading, which may have boosted the
ruling class's social standing.

Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilisation

• Harappan communities, which were generally located in river plains, generated enough
foodgrains.
• Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard were among the crops
grown.
• Millets have also been discovered in Gujarat. While rice was used infrequently.
• The Indus people were the first to cultivate cotton.
• Whole grain findings suggest the presence of agriculture, reconstructing real
agricultural operations is more challenging.
• The bull was recognized, according to representations on seals and terracotta art, and
archaeologists conclude that oxen were also utilised for ploughing.
• The majority of Harappan sites are in semi-arid regions where irrigation was likely
necessary for cultivation.
• Canal traces have been discovered in Afghanistan's Shortughai Harappan site, but not
in Punjab or Sindh.
• Although the Harappans were farmers, they also raised animals on a massive scale.
• A shallow level of Mohenjodaro and a dubious ceramic piece from Lothal provide
evidence of the horse. In any event, Harappan civilization was not centred on horses.
Social Life

• To comprehend the Harappan social life, there is a wealth of evidence. Both men and
women wore two pieces of fabric, one for the upper body and the other for the lower
body.
• Both men and women wore beads.
• Women wore bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings, and finger
rings, among other things.
• Gold, silver, copper, bronze, and semi-precious stones were used to create these
decorations.
• Cosmetic usage was widespread. At Mohenjodaro, several household items made of
pottery, stone, shells, ivory, and metal have been discovered.
• Copper is used to make spindles, needles, combs, fish hooks, and knives.
• Fishing was a popular hobby, while bullfighting and hunting were also popular.
• Axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, and arrows made of copper and bronze were among
the many weapons on display.

Social Institutions

• In the Indus valley, just a few written items have been uncovered, and academics have
yet to decode the Indus script.
• As a result, determining the nature of the Indus Valley Civilization's state and
institutions is challenging.
• At no Harappan site have temples been discovered. As a result, the prospect of priests
dominating Harappa is ruled out.
• Harappa was most likely dominated by a merchant class.
• Archaeological documents may not give obvious answers when looking for a power
centre or portrayals of powerful people.
• Some archaeologists believe that Harappan culture had no rulers and that everyone was
treated equally.
Art and Crafts

• The Harappans were well-versed in the production and application of bronze.

• Copper was acquired from Rajasthan's Khetri copper mines, while tin was likely
imported from Afghanistan.
• Several artefacts have been discovered with textile imprints.
• Large brick structures indicate that brick-laying was a valuable skill. This also
confirms the existence of a mason class.
• The Harappans were known for their boat-building, bead-making, and seal-making
skills. Terracotta production was also a significant skill.
• Goldsmiths created silver, gold, and precious stone jewellery.
• The potter's wheel was in full swing, and the Harappans were producing their own
distinctive glossy and gleaming pottery.

Religion

• Several clay figures of women have been discovered at Harappa. A plant is represented
sprouting out of a woman's embryo in one figure.
• As a result, the Harappans saw the earth as a fertility goddess, worshipping her in the
same way that the Egyptians revered the Nile goddess Isis.
• The masculine god is shown as a seal with three-horned heads seated in the pose of a
yogi.
• This god sits on a throne surrounded by elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, and buffalo.
• Two deer emerge at his feet. The divinity represented is known as Pushupati Mahadeva.
• There have been several stone phallus and female sex organ symbols discovered.
• Trees and animals were highly revered by the Indus people.
• The one-horned unicorn, which is related to the rhinoceros, is the most significant, while
the humped bull is the second most important.
• Numerous amulets have also been discovered.
Script in Indus Valley Civilisation

• The Harappan script is currently being deciphered in its entirety.

• There are between 400 and 600 signs, with 40 or 60 being fundamental and the rest being
modifications.
• The majority of the script was written from right to left.
• The boustrophedon approach — writing in the opposite way in alternate lines – was
used on a few lengthy seals.
• Dravidian was the language of the Harappans, according to Parpola and his
Scandinavian colleagues. This viewpoint is shared by a group of Soviet academics.
• Other researchers hold a different perspective on the Harappan and Brahmi scripts.
• The Harappan writing remains a mystery, and deciphering it will undoubtedly provide
new information on this civilisation.

Burial Methods

• Cemeteries unearthed near towns like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal,

and Rupar shed information on the Harappans' burial habits.
• At Mohenjodaro, both complete burial and post-cremation burial were prevalent.
• The burial hole at Lothal was lined with charred bricks, indicating that coffins were used.
At Harappa, wooden coffins were also discovered.
• Pot burials have been discovered in Lothal, occasionally with pairs of bones. However,
there is no concrete proof that Sati is practised.
• The dead bodies were offered with necessary household items for use in after life as they
believed in life after death.

Architecture and Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization

Architecture and Town Planning of Harappan Civilization was the most striking feature of the
Indus valley civilization. The town planning of the Indus Valley Civilization proves that the IVC
people lived a highly civilized and developed life.

• The people of IVC were the first to build planned cities with a scientific drainage system.
 • For architecture, it can be said that the Indus cities were built on a uniform plan and the
town planning was amazing in nature.
• Life in the Indus Valley Civilization gives the impression of a democratic bourgeois
economy like that of ancient Crete.

Facts About Indus Valley Civilization Streets

The streets of IVC were 13 to 34 feet wide and were well lined, straight and cut each other at
right angles. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks. The presence of
dustbins proves the presence of good municipal administration. Archaeologists have also
discovered the lamp posts at intervals, which suggests the existence of street lights.

Drainage System

The cities of the Indus valley civilization were provided with an excellent closed drainage
system. Brick-laid channels flowed through every street.

• Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to the public
drainage.
• They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes.
• The people of IVC had a perfect underground drainage system.
• Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and the recently partially-excavated Rakhigarhi demonstrate the
world’s first known urban sanitation systems.

Granaries of Indus Civilization

They constituted an important part of the Harappan cities and the Indus Valley Civilization. The
largest building in Mohenjodaro was the granary which was 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters
wide.

• In Harappan Civilization, there were a series of brick platforms that formed the base for
two rows of 6 granaries each.
• These granaries safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue or
storehouses to be used in emergencies.
 • In the Southern part of Kalibangan, brick platforms have also been found, which is an
important feature of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Architecture and Buildings of the Indus Valley Civilization

The houses and other buildings were built on the side of roads by the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization.

• The houses of the IVC were terraced houses made up of burnt bricks. Standardized burnt
bricks of ratio 1:2:4 were found in all the sites. No stones were used.
• Every house had two or more rooms. There were also more than one-storied houses.
• The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained pillared halls,
bathrooms, paved floors, kitchens, well etc.
• There was an excellent system of water supply which was verified by public wells by the
side of the streets. Every big house had its own well.
• The workmen’s quarters are also found. The quality of urban planning suggests efficient
municipal governments that placed a high priority on hygiene or religious ritual.

Harappan Civilization demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries,

warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. They also built a dockyard at Lothal.

The Great Bath of the Indus Valley Civilization

The most striking feature in Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath, which is a large quadrangle
structure.

• In the center is a huge swimming pool with the remains of galleries and rooms on all four
sides.
• The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. The water was discharged by a huge drain with
a corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth.
• There were arrangements for a hot water bath in some rooms.
• Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions
where water was used to purify and renew the well-being of the bathers.
Characteristic features of Harappan cities

There was great uniformity in Harappan town planning. Town planning was based on a grid
pattern or chessboard pattern. Streets and lanes intersect at right angles, creating a number of
rectangular blocks in the city. The entire city was divided into two major areas; The Citadel and
Lower Town.

• The Citadel was a fortified area with vital public buildings, including granaries and
dwellings for the ruling class. The lower town was larger and lay east of the Citadel.
• The lower town was intended for the common public, while the Citadel and the lower
town were separated by an area of ground.

Agricultural Pattern of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. The villages of the Harappan
Civilization were situated mostly near the flood plains and produced sufficient foodgrains, such
as wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard.

• Millets were found at sites in Gujarat. Animals were also reared on a large scale.
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures indicate that the bull was known, and
archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for plowing.

The IVC also developed some new tools known as plough which was used to dig earth for
planting the seeds and turning the soil. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of
Shortughai in Afghanistan.

Economy during Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization was a prosperous civilization. The economy of IVC was largely based
on agriculture and animal husbandry, supplemented by the exploitation of natural and wild
resources.
 • The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of
numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area.
• The Harappans carried on a considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money
was not used and a barter system carried trade.

Agricultural economy

The main crops produced were Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Mustard, and Cotton. The use of
wooden ploughshare, well irrigation, dams, and irrigation canals shows the advancement of
Harappans in agriculture technology.

• The Indus people set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan, which facilitated trade
with Central Asia.
• They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.

Manufacturing in IVC

A large number of terracotta articles show that it was used by common people. Harappans were
the first to use silver in the world, and the people did not use iron but used Copper, bronze,
silver, and gold. Owing to this, the Harappan people were good at metallurgy and producing
alloys. The Indus Valley people were an expert in bead-making jewelry.

Pottery

The Harappans used Red and Black pottery (redware painted with black designs) and also knew
the use of Potter’s wheel with ease. It shows the expertise of Harappans in pottery making e.g.,
Glazed pottery, incised pottery, perforated pottery, etc. Harappans produced their own
characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.

Trade in Indus Valley Civilization

Harappans had trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan Makan
(Oman), and Dilmun (Bahrain). Trade in the Indus Valley Civilization was through the barter
system.
 • Trade shows the advanced trade relation of the Harappan civilization with other parts of
India as well as also with other contemporary civilizations.
• Export items included Teak ( obtained from Gujrat), Amazonite (Hirapuri, GJ), Slate
(Kangra), Lead (Kashmir and South India), and Copper (from Baluchistan).
• The import items include Jade (from Central Asia), Turquoise (from Khorasan), Lapis
Lazuli, Gold, Silver, and Tin ( from Afghanistan), Gold was also obtained from Iran and
Kolar mines in Karnataka and Steatite (Iran).

Weights and Measures

The weights followed a binary system of 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so
on. Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and were generally cubical. The
standardization and accuracy of weights and measures throughout the IVC were remarkable.

Seals

Harappan seals are the greatest artistic creation and were used to mark ownership of property and
in trade. They were made up of Steatite (soft stone) and were half an inch to 2.5 inches. The seals
were generally square and rectangular, with carved animals and inscriptions. The humpless bull
is the most used animal in seals.

Major Sites of IVC

Some Facts About Indus Valley Civilization’s major cities are mentioned below.

Site of Indus Valley Civilization Found by Year

Harappa Daya Ram Sahani 1921

Mohenjo Daro R.D. Banerjee 1922

Amri M.G. Majumdar 1929

Chanhudaro M.G.Majumdar 1931

Kalibanga Amlanand Ghosh 1953

Lothal S.R. Rao 1957

Banwali R.S. Bisht 1973

Surkotada Jagat Pal Joshi 1964

Dholavira Jagat Pal Joshi 1967

Ropar Y.D.Sharma 1953

Rangpur M.S. Vats 1931

Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

• There is no universal agreement on what caused the Harappan civilization to fall. Several
hypotheses have been proposed.
• Natural disasters like repeated floods, river drying up, diminishing soil fertility owing
to overexploitation, and periodic earthquakes may have contributed to the downfall of the
Harappan towns.
• The invasion of Aryans, according to some experts, was the ultimate blow. The Rig
Veda mentions the demolition of forts.
• Human bones discovered crowded together at Mohenjodaro further suggest that the city
was attacked by strangers.
• The Aryans possessed stronger weaponry and fast horses, which may have helped them
to conquer this region.