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Physical Science ➔
Nuclear Reactions
★ Are processes in which a nucleus
The Big Bang Theory
either combines with another nucleus
★ Most widely accepted explanation to
(nuclear fusion) or splits into smaller
the origin of the universe
nuclei (nuclear fission)
★ First evidence by Edwin Hubble
★ Involve emission of energetic particles
★ Hubble observed that many stars and
of an atom (radioactivity)
galaxies shine when the light shifted
toward the end of the visible spectrum
Common Types of Nuclear
Reactions Hubble’s Law
1. Alpha Decay ★ a galaxy's velocity (or as is sometimes
➔ Loss of an alpha particle plotted, its redshift) is directly
proportional to its distance
➔ ★ The size of the redshift is proportional
to the distance and speed of a star
➔ that is moving away from Earth
2. Beta Decay
➔ Loss of an beta particle
➔ v = recessional velocity
Ho = Hubble’s constant
➔ d = proper distance
3. Gamma Radiation
➔ Emission of a gamma ray The Big Bang Theory
1. Approximately 14 billion years ago, a
➔ hot, dense mass about 1 centimeter in
diameter experiences a huge
explosion, spreading its products as a
fast moving cloud of gas
➔
2. The event was accompanied by an
4. Positron Emission emission of huge amount of light
➔ Conversion of a proton in a 3. Within the first second after the
nucleus into a neutron along explosion, subatomic
with a release of a positron 4. As the expanding universe cooled, the
protons, and neutrons started to fuse
➔ to form heavier nuclei of deuterium
➔ and some into helium
5. Electron Capture ➔ The Formation of Helium
➔ Drawing of a an electron
into an atom’s
nucleus
➔ ➔
6. Bombardment of Alpha Particle 5. Subsequent nuclear fusion reactions
resulted in the formation of other light
➔ Addition of Alpha particle
elements and their isotopes
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6. A few minutes after the big bang, the occurred until it became a red giant
universe was composed of star
approximately 75% (by mass) 5. Younger yellow stars were fueled by
hydrogen, 25% helium (primarily the energy released from the fusion of
hydrogen nuclei to form helium
) and trace amounts of lithium (burning of hydrogen through nuclear
fusion)
The Big Bang Nucleo-Synthesis
6. Once enough was produced,
these nuclei become concentrated at
the core of the star, making the
temperature hotter at that region
7. Hydrogen fusion continued, but in a
shell surrounding the helium core.
These reactions occurred in the
hydrogen fusion shell
Stellar Formation and Evolution
Stellar Formation and Evolution
The Fusion Shells
On the Helium Fusion Shell
Helium burning when the temperature was
enough for helium fusion to occur, which
caused the star to become red
Stellar Formation and Evolution
➔ Another nucleus fused with
On the Hydrogen Fusion Shell
Stellar Formation and Evolution
1. The universe continuously expanded , forming
for several years and the cloud of
hydrogen and helium gases
condensed to form stars, including the
sun.
2. Over millions of years, the stars made
of hydrogen and helium became hotter
and denser On the Carbon Fusion Shell
3. Nuclear reactions continued, which ➔ Carbon fusion produced neon
produce elements heavier than lithium,
the light elements combined to form
atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon,
and
4. Starting from a small, young, yellow
star, successive nuclear reactions
duane 🐰ྀི🐻ིྀ
➔ Seed nucleus - isotope that is the
On the Neon Fusion Shell starting point for any of a variety of
fusion chain reactions
➔ For seed nuclei with relatively few
neutrons (from iron to bismuth),
neutron occurred so slowly that beta
decay of the product isotope
happened before it captured another
neutron (s-process)
On the Oxygen Fusion Shell S-process of formation of Cu and Zn to
form Ni
On the Silicon Fusion Shell
➔ The fusion of produced ➔ Some series of neutron capture
occurred very fast that the seed
nucleus turned into a relatively heavier
radioactive , which then
nucleus before beta decay took place
decayed to iron.
(r-process)
➔ More nuclear fusions happened
between nuclei to form the other
R-process from the formation of Co and Fe
elements.
➔ The production of elements stopped
when iron was formed
➔ Iron is the most stable nuclei it cannot
undergo nuclear fusion
➔ The star has also already exhausted
Atomic Theory Timeline
its nuclear fuel
1. Empedocles (420 BC)
➔ Asserted that all things are
Stellar Explosion
composed of four primal
➔ As the red giant star exhausted the
elements Earth, Air, Fire and
nuclear fuel of light elements, its core
Water
started to collapse that eventually led
2. Democritus (400 BC)
to the explosion of the star
➔ All matter is made up of very
(supernova)
small particles (atoms) which
➔ The supernova released a huge
cannot be divided into smaller
amount of nuclear energy and
units.
produced, through neutron capture
and radioactive decay, other elements
3. Aristotle (380-320 BC)
heavier than iron ➔ All matter was continuous and
➔ Stable isotopes continued to capture be further divided into smaller
neutrons and formed other heavier pieces.
isotope of a new element. 4. Joseph Proust (1799)
➔ Unstable isotopes underwent beta ➔ Proposed the law of definite
decay, producing isotope of new proportions.
element. ➔ Law of Definite Proportions -
When forming a compound,
duane 🐰ྀི🐻ིྀ
elements always combine in ability of a material to undergo
similar proportions by mass a spontaneous emission of
regardless of the size of the particle or radiation
sample. ➔ Three types of ray are
5. Joseph Dalton (1808) produced
➔ Proposed the Law of Multiple ● Alpha ray
Proportions ● Beta
Dalton’s Atomic Theory ● Gamma
1. Elements are made up of small 9. Joseph John Thomson
indivisible particles called atoms. ➔ Discovered electron (1897)
2. In any given pure element, the mass ➔ Produced the Plum Pudding
and other properties of all atoms are Theory (1904)
the same. Atoms of different elements ➔ Electrons (plum) surrounded
differ in mass and other properties. by positive charge (pudding)
3. Compounds are composed of atoms 10. Robert Millikan (1908-1917)
of more than one element. The
Proton Neutron Electron
constituent atoms in a given
compound are present in a consistent mass 1.67 * 1.67 * 9.11 *
or constant whole number ratio. 10^-27 kg 10^-27 10^-31 kg
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are kg
neither created or destroyed. They
charge 1.60 * 0 -1.60 * 10
simply combine, separate, or rearrange
10^-19 C ^-19
(Law of Conservation of Mass)
➔
Law of Multiple Proportions 11. Ernest Rutherford (1910-1911)
➔ If two or more different compounds ➔ Observed that atoms are
are composed of the same two mostly empty spaces
elements, then the ratio of the masses ➔ Father of Nuclear Physics
of the second element combined with ➔ Discovered Protons (1919)
a certain mass of the first element is 12. Niels Bohr (1913)
always the ratio of small whole ➔ Proposed an atomic model
numbers. that shows electrons move in
➔ E.g: CO (1:1) and C02 (1:2) concentric orbits around the
6. Dmitri Mendeleyev/Mendeleev nucleus.
(1869) ➔ Planetary Model
➔ Arranged the known elements 13. Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley
in a periodic table based on (1913)
their atomic mass ➔ Found relationship between
7. Wilhelm Röntgen/Roentgen (1895) X-ray wavelength and atomic
➔ Discoverd X-rays number in 1913
8. Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie ➔ This allowed calculation of
atomic number, and
(1890’s)
re-organization of elements
➔ Observed that radioactivity
➔ Used X-ray Spectra to study
causes some atoms to break
atomic structure.
down spontaneously.
14. James Chadwick (1932)
Marie Curie
➔ He discovered Neutrons
➔ Student of Becquerel,
proposed the term
radioactivity to describe the
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QUANTUM MODEL OF THE
ATOMS
Quantum Number
- Describe the atomic orbital as
well as the properties of the
electrons in those orbitals
Spin Quantum Number
● PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
- Denoted by ms
NUMBER
- Indicates the spins of the
● MAGNETIC QUATUM
electrons and may only have tw
NUMBER
possible values, +½ and -½
● AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM
- The + and - signs refers to the
NUMBER
orientation of the spin.
● SPIN QUANTUM NUMBERS
ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION
Principal Quantum Number
- Denoted by letter n
Electron Configuration
- Indicated the size of the orbital
- Uses the symbols of the orbitals
and as well as the energy level
and the number of electron that
occupied by an electron.
occupy each orbital.
- Takes on a positive integer
Azimuthal Quantum Number
- Denoted by letter l, also known
as angular momentum quantum
number
- Coressponds to the shape of
orbital
Orbital Diagram
- Consists of boxes and arrows
that represent the orbital and
electron, respectively.
- The up and down orientations of
the arrows represents the two
Magnetic Quantum Number magnetic spins of the electrons.
- Denoted by ml
- Indicated the orientation of an
orbital around the nucleus.
- ml= 2l + 1
Ground State
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- The atom’s electrons occult the
lowest possible energy level.
- The basic electron distribution is
made when an atom is in its
ground state.
-
GENERAL RULES FOR
ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION
Hund’s Rule
Aufbau Principle
- States that electron should
occupy first the orbitals with
lower energy before those with
higher energy
ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS IN
THE PERIODIC TABLE
Early attempts to arrange elements
- The very first version of periodic
table was developed in the 19th
century.
- In 1869. Julius Lothar Meyer and
Dmitry Mendeleyev separately
proposed the arrangement of
elements based on increasing
atomic mass.
- Meyer came up with the same
Aufbau Principle Mnenomics arrangement, but Mendeleyev
- Si Suzzane, Pumasok Sa Pinto, published the idea first.
- Five years later, John A.R.
Sa Door Pinto, Sa Door Pinto.
Newlands already attempted to
Sa Front Door Pinto establish an arrangement based
on increasing atomic masses and
Pauli Exclusion Principle observed regularities every eight
element.
- States that no two electron in an
atom can possess the same set Law of Octaves
of quantum numbers - Every eight element has similar
properties when the elements are
arranged in the increasing order of
their atomic masses.
Early attempts to arrange elements
- The idea was not accepted by the
scientific community because of
the irregularities with elements
beyond calcium.
duane 🐰ྀི🐻ིྀ
- The proposal of Mendeleyev was
an improvement of Newlands
efforts.
- Used the Sanskrit word “Eka”
- 1911- Henry Moseley realized that
aside from atomic mass, atomic
number is a property that supports
periodicity.
- The arrangement is describes as
periodic because it reflects the
repeating chemical properties of
elements.
Parts of the Periodic Table
- Periods/Series - Rows
- Families/Groups - Columns
- Group A Elements -
Representative or Main group
elements
- Group B elements - Transition
elements
- Two Long rows - Inner transition
metals
(4-diamond)
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical Bond
- An Electrival attraction between
the nuclei and valence electrons of
LEWIS DOT SYMBOLS
an atom and which bonds atoms
together.
Lewis Dot symbol
- Also called intermolecular forces.
- Consists of a symbol of an
elements (representing its nucleus
and inner electrons) surrounded by TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
one or more dots; each fot
corresponds to every valence Ionic Bond
electron in an atom of the element. - Results from the transfer of one or
more valence electrons from one
Valence Electron atom to another.
- Refer to the electrons found in the - Exists between a metal that has a
outermost shell of an orbital; that tendency to lose electrons, and a
is, those that occupy the shell with nonmetal that has a tendency to
the highest value on n. accept electrons.
Lewis Dot Symbols HOW TO
- First Round: Espiritu, Santo, Ama,
Anak
- Second Rpund: Ama, Santo, Anak,
Espiritu
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Covalent Bond
- Atleast two atoms of nonmetals
(similar or different elements)
share electrons to obtain a stable
filled octet.
- NONPOLAR AND POAR
COVALENT
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
- A bond in which the electrons are TYPE OF BOND ACCORDING TO
equally shared by the bonded ELECTRONEGATIVITY
atoms
- E.g.: two hydrogen bonds
Metallic Bond
- Bonds holding metal atoms
together
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
LINEAR
Polar Covalent
- Refers to the bond in which the
bonded atoms have an unequal
sharing of electrons.
- E.g.: iodine monochloride
TRIGONAL PLANAR
BENT OR ANGULAR
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity
- A measure of tendency of an atom
to attract electron towards itself.
- Greater electronegativity, greater
pull. TETRAHEDRAL
duane 🐰ྀི🐻ིྀ
TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL
BENT OR ANGULAR
TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL
OCTAHEDRAL
