UNIT 3

PARAPHRASING, SUMMARIZING AND SYNTHESIZING

What are paraphrasing, summarizing, and synthesizing? In academic writing, you will often
have to write about something you have read. Therefore, it is important to learn how to
paraphrase (use different language to say the same thing), summarize (express the same idea
in a smaller number of words), and synthesize (combine information from two or more
sources) to answer a specific question of interest.

PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing is a writing skill in which information from published sources is written in different
words (rephrased) without changing its original meaning. It is often used in place of directly
quoting what a writer has said. Paraphrasing is used to rewrite short selections, such as
sentences, a series of sentences, or paragraphs. A paraphrase is usually as long as the original
text in order to communicate its full meaning. It can be incorporated or used in your own
compositions or it can be separate. At the end of the paraphrase, there must be a reference /
footnote.

The following are examples of paraphrases.

Original text Paraphrase

In 1950, Brazil lost the World Cup in
When the Maracana soccer stadium [in Rio de soccer to Uruguay in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil] was opened to the public in 1950, Janeiro. The entire country was
and Brazil lost the World Cup to the Uruguayan overcome by sadness; some people
team, the Brazilians were so disheartened one had the even died from it. Brazilians react
impression that the country itself had died. And very strongly to potential defeat in
people did die of sadness. Mere threats of defeats in a championship soccer games. Some
championship match can cause heart attacks and the people have heart attacks, and
despair of the public is so great that many beat their others beat their heads against
cement posts. Brazilians are very
heads against the cement posts. Such is the
emotional about soccer.
Brazilian’s passion for soccer.
Vinicius de Moraes and Ferreira Gullar, The
Vinicius de Moraes and Ferreira Gullar, The Joy of Rio (New Joy of Rio ( New York: The Vendome Press,
York: The Vendome Press, 1980) 1980)

Original text Paraphrase

Howard Van Zandt, who studied Japanese Van Zandt maintains that the Japanese
 business practices extensively, said, “The people would rather work together in
Japanese prefer to work as members of groups groups, not individually. He believes that
rather than individually. This characteristic is this trait is one of the most important
often cited as one of the most important in factors, which have contributed to the
success of Japan’s economy.
explaining Japan’s economic success.”

Here are some techniques you can use to write a paraphrase:

- Use different vocabulary when possible, usually more common synonyms / expressions and
simpler phrases.
- Use synonyms wherever possible. Some of the words from the original passage may appear
in your paraphrase, but try to use synonyms.
- Keep specialized vocabulary which has no synonyms (e.g. calcium, theory, plastic,
neutron), proper names (e.g. Europe, World Health Organization), numbers and formulae
(e.g. 50%, 200KW/m, 1987).
- Change active sentences to passive sentences or vice-versa .
- Change direct quotations to indirect quotations.
- Change the verb into noun phrase (and vice versa)
- Change clause order in complex sentences
- Joining up short sentences or dividing up long sentences

Follow these steps to write a paraphrase:

- Read the original text carefully several times until you understand it fully.
- Look up any words you do not understand; find synonyms for them.
- Write a brief outline, including:
- the main idea (topic and controlling ideas)
- the main supporting points
- primary and secondary supporting details
- Write the paraphrase. Use your own words, but do not omit any essential ideas. Above all,
do not change the meaning of the original. Remember to document the source of the original
passage.

PRACTICE
1. Paraphrase the following sentences
1. China has long been the world’s most populous nation, but no one knew exactly how
populous it was until last week.
 2. Overpopulation causes unemployment.
3. The overuse of cars and buses leads to air pollution.
4. The energy consumption in the US has increased dramatically in the following year.
5. As unemployment brings about crime, jobs must be created.
6. The first reason for high rate of accidents is drivers’ ignorance about traffic rules. The
second reason is that of poor traffic infrastructures.
7. Adolescents cannot escape the constant barrage of advertisements on television and radio
and in magazines and newspapers. While some teenagers take this new –found
knowledge and begin eating more appropriate foods and exercising regularly, others
become obsessed with weight loss.

2. Which of the following paraphrases is better and why?

Original passage

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different
languages have developed that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international, universal language which all people could speak and understand. The arguments in
favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same tongue,
cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might increase between countries
(Kispert).

Paraphrase 1

Language is the principal means of communication between peoples. However, because there are
numerous languages, language itself has frequently been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among the world population. For many years, people have envisioned a common
universal language that everyone in the world could communicate in. The reasons for having a
universal language are clearly understandable. If the same tongue were spoken by all countries,
they could undoubtedly become closer culturally and economically. It would probably also create
good will among nations (Kispert).

Paraphrase 2

Humans communicate through language. However, because there are so many languages in the
world, language is an obstacle rather than an aid to communication. For a long time, people have
wished for an international language that speakers all over the world could understand. A
universal language would certainly build cultural and economic bonds. It would also create better
feelings among countries (Kispert).

3. Work in pairs, paraphrase the following passages. Then exchange the paraphrased
versions with the other pairs for peer editing.

THE WORK ETHIC OF AMERICANS AND EUROPEANS

Europeans often observe that Americans schedule everything except time for relaxation. This is
particularly true of American executives, who drive themselves hard, often at the expense of
their families and their health. Americans have fewer holidays and take shorter vacations than do
Europeans. In the opinion of many German and French executives, American executives are
obsessed with work; they are workaholics. Most Europeans do not accept working on weekends
or holidays; they reserve these times for themselves and their families (Hall and Hall 145).

Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. 2004, Writing Academic English, Addision Wesley Longman.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication, or “body language”, is communication by facial expressions, head or

eye movements, hand signals, and body postures. It can be just as important to understanding as
words are. Misunderstanding – often amusing but sometimes serious – can arise between people
from different cultures if they misinterpret nonverbal signals. Take, for example, the differences
in meaning of a gesture very common in the United States: a circle made with the thumb and
index finger. To an American, it means that everything is OK. To a Japanese, it means that you
are talking about money. In France, it means that something is worthless, and in Greece, it is an
obscene gesture. Therefore, an American could unknowingly offend a Greek by using that
particular hand signal.

The following incident illustrates how conflicting nonverbal signals can cause serious
misunderstandings. While lecturing to his poetry class at Ain Shams University in Cairo, a
British professor became so relaxed that he leaned back in his chair and revealed the bottom of
his foot to the astonished class. Making such a gesture in Muslim society is the worst kind of
insult. The next day, the Cairo newspapers carried headlines about the student demonstration that
resulted, and they denounced British arrogance and demanded that the professor be sent home.
 EDITING CHECKLIST

Comments
and suggestions
ORGANIZATION

1. Are the ideas and points of the paraphrase well

connected with appropriate transition devices that
ensure a smooth presentation?

CONTENT

2. Does the paraphrase contain all the information of the

original text (the main idea, the main supporting points,
primary and secondary supporting details)?
3. Does the paraphrase exclude the writer’s opinion /
comment or any other material that is not in the
original?
4. Does the paraphrase display a high level of
understanding and do you understand the information
and how it is interrelated?

LANGUAGE

5. Is there an appropriate change in the use of vocabulary

and sentence structures to avoid plagiarism?
6. If the writer uses the exact words of the original, are
quotation marks used?
7. Does the writer try not to rewrite specialized vocabulary
or technical terms?
8. Is the paraphrase grammatically correct?
9. Does the writer document the source of the original text
appropriately?

LENGTH
10. Is the length of the paraphrase similar to that of the
original text?
SUMMARIZING

A summary is similar to a paraphrase except that a summary is usually shorter. When you
summarize, you compress large amounts of information into the fewest possible sentences. In
order to do this, you include only the main points and main supporting points, leaving out the
details. The length of a summary depends on the assignment, the length and complexity of the
article, and the audience.

There are various types of summary you may need to make during your course. Three main types
can be distinguished.

 One or two sentence summarizing is needed for the abstract of a short essay or article you
have written. It should contain only the controlling idea, no examples or details.
 Global summarizing is needed for the entire content of an article you are reading. It may
contain a lengthier version of controlling idea and of the primary relationship, as well as
some details and examples.
 Selective summarizing involves the extraction of relevant material from a large body of
prose.
The following is an example of a summary.

Original text Summary

Recently, many Americans have
For generations, Americans have researched their
become interested in
past to discover who their ancestors were. In recent
years, many more people have developed an avid researching their backgrounds
interest in their genealogy and the cultural heritage in order to identify their
of their ancestors. This interest was sparked for two ancestors and learn about their
reasons. First, Americans celebrated the bicentennial cultural heritage. This interest
of the United States in 1976 and paid tribute to this in genealogy began with the U.S
country’s history. Second, and more recently, the Bicentennial celebration and
book Roots, which traces the family history of an intensified with the televising of
American black man named Alex Haley back to the family history of Alex Haley,
Africa, was serialized on national television. As a a black American.
result of these two events, a new pastime for
thousands of Americans was created.
The qualities of a summary are:

- Objectivity: No idea that is not the author’s should be included in the summary, and no
opinion of the summary writer should be in the summary. No judgments (i.e., whether the
article was “good” or “interesting”) are permitted in a summary.
- Completeness: Depending on the assignment, the summary should contain every main
idea in the article. Stating only the first main idea, or only one main idea and details to
support it, will not give the reader a complete idea of what the text was about.
- Balance: Giving equal attention to each main idea, and stressing ideas that the author
stressed, will result in an accurate summary.
When you write a formal summary of someone else’s ideas, you should keep in mind the
following guidelines:
- Keep the same order of facts and ideas as the original.
- Always try to use your own words, except for technical terms.
- Use simpler vocabulary than the original.
- Do not try to paraphrase specialized vocabulary or technical terms.
- Use different sentence patterns from the original.
- Include enough support and detail so that the presentation is clear.
- Focus on the content of the original.
- Make sure the summary reads smoothly. Use enough transition devices and supporting
detail. You do not want a collection of sentences that do not flow.
The process of summarizing materials:
- Skim the text, noting in your mind the subheadings. If there are no subheadings, try to
divide the text into sections.
- Consider why you have been assigned the text. Determine what type of text you are dealing
with. This can help you identify important information and focus your reading strategies.
- Read the text, highlighting important information or taking notes. You should look for the
thesis and topic sentences; they give you the main ideas of the text that you will need for
your summary.
- In your own words, write down the main points of each section. Try to write a one-sentence
summary of each section.
- Write down the key supporting points for the main points, but include minor details only
when necessary.
- Arrange the main points and supporting points carefully in order to achieve balance and
completeness. (You should make an outline as you do when writing a paraphrase.)
- Begin the summary with a sentence that informs your reader of the title and author of the
text and the main idea of the text.
For example:
 In the article “The Making of the Dutch Landscape,” Audrey Lambert states that ...
 Assignments in Exposition, a book by Louise E. Rorabaches, discuss…
 According to Boskin (2004), …
 Bernstein (2004) states / claims / argues / maintains that…
 Bainaga (2004) suggests / asserts / hypothesizes / states / concludes that …
- In a long summary, you may want to mention the source author’s name at different points
in your summary – the beginning, the middle, and /or the end. When you mention the
author in the middle or end of the summary, be sure to use the surname only:
For example:
 Goodman goes on to say that ... , Bradley et al. also believe that … , The author
further argues that …
- When you have finished the preliminary draft, you have to improve the draft in terms of
coherence (Is the flow of ideas logical and smooth?), the length of the summary (Is the
summary too long or too short, according to the limits set by your instructor?), too much
use of the words of the original – plagiarism (Do you use the writer’s words and
expressions frequently?), clearness (Does the draft display a high level of understanding
and do you understand the information and how it is interrelated?), the source (Is the
source appropriately written?)

PRACTICE
1. Read the text and do the exercises that follow
HALLEY’S COMET
There can be few people who have not heard of Halley’s Comet, but there are still a great many
non-scientists who have no real idea of what a comet is. The most popular mistake is to assume
that a comet streaks quickly across the sky, disappearing in a few seconds. In fact all comets are
very distant - far beyond the top of the Earth’s atmosphere - and they do not move perceptibly
against a starry background. If you see an object moving visibly, it certainly cannot be a comet. It
will be either an artificial satellite, of which thousands have been launched since the Space Age
opened with the ascent of Russia’s Sputnik 1 in October, 1957, or else a meteor (unless it is
something much more mundane, such as a weather balloon or a high-flying aircraft).
Comets are members of the Sun’s family or solar system, but they are quite unlike planets. They
are not solid and rocky; a large comet consists of an icy central part (or nucleus), a head (or
coma) and a tail or tails made up of tiny particles of ‘dust’ together with extremely thin gas.
Though comets may be of immense size - the head of the Great Comet of 1843 was larger than
the Sun - they are very flimsy, since the nucleus, the only relatively massive part of a comet,
cannot be more than a few miles in diameter. Even a direct collision between the Earth and a
comet would do no more than local damage.
Comets move around the Sun, but in almost all cases their paths (or orbits) are elliptical, and
with one exception - Halley’s - all the really bright comets take hundreds, thousands or even
millions of years to complete one circuit. This means that we cannot predict them, and they are
always liable to take us by surprise. During the last century several were seen but in our own
time they have been depressingly rare, and the last really ‘great’ comet was that of 1910, though
there have been many others which have become bright enough to be seen with the naked eye.
In addition there are many short-period comets which reappear after only a few years. But these
short -period comets are faint, and usually remain well below naked - eye visibility. Moreover,
they often lack tails, and appear as nothing more than tiny, fuzzy patches. Halley’s Comet is in a
class of its own. It has a period of 76 years, and it has been seen regularly since well before the
time of Christ; there is even a Chinese record of it dating back to 1059 BC, though it was not
until more modern times that astronomers realized that there was anything particularly unusual
about it.
From Catching Halley’s Comet by Patrick Moore, Illustrated London News, November 1985.

A. The first stage in preparing a factual summary is to decide which items of information are
most important. Study each paragraph in turn, and choose from the alternatives given
which offers the most accurate summary of it

1. (a) Most people who think they see a comet do not really know what comets are like, and are
actually looking at satellites or balloons.
(b) Almost everyone has heard of Halley’s comet, but most people do not know what comets
are. They think they are bright objects that move quickly across the sky, and then disappear,
but in fact you cannot see them moving.
(c) Since the Space Age began with the launching of Russia’s Sputnik 1 in 1957, many
people have imagined that they have seen comets moving across the sky, but they are
mistaken because you cannot see comets moving.

2. (a) Comets have an icy central part (or nucleus), a head (or coma), and a tail or tails made of
tiny particles of ‘dust’. They are members of the Sun’s family
(b) Comets belong to the solar system, but are quite different from planets. Though they can
be very large, they are not solid and if they crashed into the Earth, they would only do local
damage.
(c) Comets are sometimes enormous - the head of the Great Comet of 1843 was larger than
the Sun- but do no much damage because they are not solid.
3. (a) Bright comets, apart from Halley’s, take a very long time to go round the Sun, so we
cannot predict when they will be visible.
(b) Bright comets have an elliptical orbit, and are likely to take us by surprise because we do
not know when they will reappear.
(c) It is disappointing that there have not been very many bright comets in this century. This
is because they take such a long time to go round the Sun.

4. (a) There are a lot of short-period comets, but we cannot see them clearly, like Halley’s.
(b) Halley’s Comet is in a class of its own, because it has a period of 76 years, and has been
seen regularly since before the time of Christ.
(c) Short -period comets cannot often be seen with the naked eye, so Halley’s Comet is
unique, because records of its appearance every 76 years go back to before the time of Christ,
though they were not calculated until more modern times.

B. Which of the following summaries is better? Give the reasons for your answer
1) Almost everyone has heard of Halley’s comet, but most people do not know what comets are.
They think they are bright objects that move quickly across the sky, and then disappear, but in
fact you cannot see them moving. Comets belong to the solar system, but are quite different
from planets. Though they can be very large, they are not solid and if they crashed into the
Earth, they would only do local damage. Bright comets, apart from Halley’s, take a very long
time to go round the Sun, so we cannot predict when they will be visible. Short -period
comets cannot often be seen with the naked eye, so Halley’s Comet is unique, because records
of its appearance every 76 years go back to before the time of Christ, though they were not
calculated until more modern times. (140 words)

2) Almost everyone has heard of Halley’s comet, but most people do not know what comets are.
They think they are bright objects that move quickly across the sky, and then disappear, and
would be dangerous if they crashed into the Earth. In fact, you cannot see them moving and
although they belong to the solar system, they are quite different from planets because they
are not solid and could only do local damage. Halley’s Comet, which appears every 76, is
unique, because other bright comets take a very long time to go round the Sun, so we cannot
predict when they will be visible while short -period comets cannot be seen with the naked
eye. (116 words)
2. Read the following article and do the exercises that follow.

HOW SERIOUS IS THE PROBLEM OF UNEMPLOYMENT?

In most European countries, unemployment was low for many years after the Second World War,
and the bitter memories of parents and grandparents who had been out of work for long periods
in the 1930s gradually faded from people’s mind. But in recent years it has once again become a
serious problem.

How serious the problem is depends on one’s perspective, in particular when it becomes a
question of blaming someone for it. Newspapers usually quote the number of people
‘unemployed’ as a percentage of the registered working population. On the basis of these figures
alone, they make comparisons with past experience and also between different countries. Such
simplified calculations do not take into account technological development that has made a large
number of unskilled jobs unnecessary. Apart from that they do not allow for the increase over the
past fifty years in the number of people who want to work or the effect of different social
attitudes.

When we compare our unemployment figures with those of the 1930s, we must remember that
far more women work nowadays, and consequently register as unemployed if they lose their
jobs, so governments have a greater task and responsibility. International companies are
complicated by the fact that the number of women who are registered varies from one country to
another. In Denmark almost as many women are registered as men, in other Common Market
countries only half as many. It is therefore more difficult for the Danish government to provide
jobs for everyone and its record in international terms is better than it appears.

Comparisons between countries are also unreliable because of the percentage of people who are
not registered. Are they housewives or students? In West Germany, most young people stay at
school until they are 18; more of those not registered are likely to be students than in other
countries in the Common Market, and they will not count in the unemployment figures.

For these reasons, comparisons with the past and with other countries are unfair. Yet in human
terms, although this places more responsibility on governments in countries where everyone
wants to work, the percentages quoted by the newspapers are the only reliable measure of a
government’s success in dealing with the problem of unemployment. The question a government
must always face is: “How many people in this country at this point in time want to work but
cannot find jobs.”
A. Decide which of the following best expresses the meaning of each of the five paragraphs in
the article
1 a Unemployment is as serious a problem today as it was in the 1930s.
b Unemployment is once again a serious problem.
2 a Newspapers simplify the problem of unemployment because they do not take all the
relevant factors into account.
b Newspapers deliberately distort the true facts about unemployment in order to blame
governments.
3 a The main reason for unemployment today is that so many women go out to work, and
this problem is much more serious in Denmark.
b Comparisons with the past do not take into account the number of women working
today and international comparisons are unreliable because this figure varies from
country to country.
4 a Nobody knows how many of the people not registered are students.
b The difference in school - leaving age also makes international comparisons
unreliable.
a Nevertheless, a government’s success in dealing with unemployment must be
5
measured in terms of the number of people who want to work but cannot.
b
Nevertheless, it is a government’s duty to find jobs for everyone

B. Which of the following summaries best expresses the meaning of the passage?
1) Unemployment is a big problem in Europe again, but it is a matter of perspective,
especially when it comes to blaming governments for it. Newspapers compare the figures
to the 1930s and compare different countries, but this is not fair because more women are
working now, and in Denmark as many women are registered as men. A lot of people do
not work. Some of them are housewives, and some of them are students, but there are
more students in Germany because young people stay at school until they are eighteen. I
think the only thing that matters is that everyone who wants to work should have a job
and it is the Government’s duty to provide jobs.

2) Unemployment is a serious problem in Europe, but newspapers simplify it because they

do not take all the relevant factors into account. It is difficult to measure the size of the
problem by comparing modern figures with the past or making international comparisons.
More women go out to work now but in different countries the number who work and
register as unemployed varies. In some countries, too, young people stay at school longer,
and so they are not registered. Nevertheless, although governments in countries where
 everyone wants to work have a more difficult task in controlling unemployment, the only
measure of their success is how many people who are looking for jobs are out of work.

3. In pairs, summarize the following passage in as few sentences as possible. Then

exchange the summarized version with the other pairs for peer editing.

PRINCESS SHOCKS NORWEGIANS

By Gareth Parry

Many Norwegians were shocked and wrote to the newspapers when Princess Anne - President of
the Save the Children Fund - was shown on television snubbing a five-year-old while visiting a
hospital nursery in Oslo at the weekend. But a Buckingham Palace spokesman said last night that
the impression gained was “totally untrue” and was the result of the film being edited and “taken
out of context.”

The Princess, in Norway for a fund raising day for a national children charity, appeared on
television on Sunday night. When five-year-old Oeyvind Stroem tried to shake hands with her,
he appeared to have been spurned. “No cuddle, not even a smile...” the Dagbladet newspaper
bannered on its front page.

The media said it received “thousands of phone calls objecting to the Princess’s manner and
suggesting that she should “go home.” Norway’s largest circulating newspaper, Verdans Gang,
said that most of its callers asked how a Princess, who was a mother herself, could show such
coolness towards a child.
A spokesman for Princess Anne said last night: “The television clip was taken out of context and
gave a totally untrue impression.”
 EDITING CHECKLIST

Comments
and suggestions
ORGANIZATION
o Does the first sentence completely tell the name of the
author and the source of the original?
o Does the first sentence state the controlling idea of the
original?
o Are the ideas and points of the summary well connected
with appropriate transition devices that ensure a smooth
presentation?
o Does the writer give equal attention to each main idea
and stress the ideas that the author stressed?
CONTENT
o Does the summary contain all the important ideas and
points of the original?
o Does the summary give the reader all the information
needed to understand the subject?
o Does the writer omit unimportant details?
o Does the summary exclude the writer’s opinion /
comment or any other material that is not in the
original?
o Does the summary display a high level of understanding
and do you understand the information and how it is
interrelated?
LANGUAGE
o Is there an appropriate change in the use of vocabulary
and sentence structures to avoid plagiarism?
o If the writer uses the exact words of the original, are
quotation marks used?
o Does the writer try not to paraphrase specialized
vocabulary or technical terms?
o Is the summary grammatically correct?
o Is the source appropriately written?
LENGTH
o Is the length of the summary appropriate to the
requirement?