Level: B.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF
PAKISTAN Course Code
9357

Department of Pakistan Studies

Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities
 ARCHAEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

(BS Pakistan Studies)

Course Code: 9357 Unit: 1-9

Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Course Development Coordinator

Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

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 (Copyright 2022 AIOU Islamabad)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored in

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted
under AIOU copyritht ACT.

1st Edition…………………………………….2022

Quantity………………………………………1000

Price……………………………………………Rs.1000

Publishing Supervisor…………………………

Printer…………………………………………AIOU, Islamabad

Publisher………………………………………. AIOU, Islamabad

Course Development Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Editor :…………………………………………Fazal Karim

Layout :………………………………………..Naeem Akhtar

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 COURSE TEAM

Deab: Dr. Syed Hassan Raza

Chairman: Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Course Development Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Witters: 1. Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

2. Dr. Tahir Saeed

Reviewers: 1. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan

2. Prof. Dr. Ghani-ur-Rehman
3. Prof. Dr. Saeed Arif
4. Prof. Dr. Wiqar Ali Shah
5. Prof. Dr. Riffat Dar
6. Prof. Dr. Zakir Ullah Jan
7. Prof. Dr. Shakir Ullah

Course Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Editor: Fazal Karim

Layout: Naeem Akhtar

External Members:

 Prof. Dr. Anwar Shaheen,

Director, Pakistan Study Centre, University of Karachi

 Prof. Dr. Abdul Rauf,

Chairman, Department of Political Science, University of Peshawer

 Prof. Dr. Tanveer Anjum,

Chairperson, Department of History, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad

 Prof. Dr. Yousaf Khushk,

Director, Academy of Letter, Islamabad

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 CONTENTS

Unit-1 Introduction to Archeology

1.1 Archaeology
1.2 Foundations,Origin, & Relationships
1.3. Techniques and Methods of Fields
1.4 Preparation and Publication of Field Reports
Self Assessment Questions
Unit-2 Physical and Cultural Anthropology

2.1 The Stone Age Culture of Different Continents

2.2 The Evolution of Man
2.3 Stone Tools and their Types
2.4 Geological Time Scale
Self Assessment Questions
Unit-3 World Civilizations

3.1 Origin and Developments

3.2 Egyptian Civilization
3.3 Mesopotamian Civilization
3.4 Chinese
Self Assessment Questions
Unit-4 Early Urbanization in Pakistan

4.1 Origin and Developments of Urbanization in Sub-continent

4.2 Bronze Age Culture
4.3 Indus Valley Civilization
4.4 Different phases of Indus Civilization
4.5 Early Indus, Mature Indus & Late Indus Periods
4.6 Decline of Indus Civilization
Self Assessment Questions
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Unit-5 Ancient Art and Architecture in South Asia

5.1 Ancient Art and Architecture

5.2 Vedic Art and Architecture
5.3 Jain Art and Architecture
5.4 Hindu Art and Architecture
5.5 Gandhara Civilization
5.6 Buddhist Art of Gandhara
Self Assessment Questions
Unit-6 Numismatics

6.1 Origin of Coinage in the South Asia

6.2 Punch Marked Coins
6.3 Indo-Greeks Coins
6.4 Scytho-Parthian Coins
6.5 Kushana Coins
6.6 Huna Coins
6.7 Hindu-Shahi Coins
Self Assessment Questions

Unit-7 Muslim Art and Architecture in the Sub-Continent

7.1 Early Medieval History

7.2 Mughal Period
7.3 Regional Style of Muslim Architecture
7.4 Muslim Calligraphy
7.5 Muslim Paintings
7.6 Muslim Minor Arts and Crafts
7.7 Muslim Period’s Coins
Self Assessment Questions

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Unit-8 Cultural Heritage & Museums in Pakistan

8.1 Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif

8.2 Chakdara Dir Museum
8.3 Peshawar Museum
8.4 Taxila Museum
8.5 Lahore Museum
8.6 Haprappa Museum
8.7 Mohanjodaro Museum
8.8 National Museum Karachi
Self Assessment Questions

Unit-9 Tourism in Pakistan

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Cultural Tourism
9.3 Prehistoric Sites
9.4 Pre-Muslim Sites and Monuments
9.5 Muslim Period Sites and Monuments
9.6 Folk Heritage Festivals
9.7 Natural Tourism
Self Assessment Questions

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 Perface
Pakistan is one of the few fortunate countries of world which has a rich cultural
heritage. However, despite the best efforts of the scholars to document the rich
ancient heritage of the country surviving in the form of archeological sites and
historical monuments are still awaiting our proper attention of the Archaeologists.
This country which despite being very rich in pre-historic, proto-historic and
historic period sites. It has a lot of Hindu, Buddhist, Muslims and British period
monuments, shrines and memorials which have not received the desired attention
in the past.
Cultural relics of a contry are the virtual foundations for advancement in
corporate life. As achievements acquired after prolonged struggle with nature and
environment, they manifest the store of creative intelligence, initiative,
perseverance and integrity that have gone into the making of a particular national
character. Pakistan has been very fortunate in this respect. Admittedly, this land
has been an important primeval stage for the grand and grim drama of man’s first
endeavour, his integral rise, his phenomenal fall and the great resilience which
kept the stream of human life in action in spite of all obstructions and intermittent
lapses.
A rich cultural heritage sites; like ancient rock shelter, rock carvings, Hindu
temples, Buddhist stupas, Mughal’s period Boali, Sarais, Mosques and Forts are
particular interest and their scientific investigation is likely to shed new light on
some key questions of prehistory and historic periods of this region. This book
will also highlight the origin and spread of agriculture evolution of the society, the
nature and the origin of the early communities and their cultural relations with
Central Asia and Persian world in the ancient times.
I am honored that a new course book ‘’Archaeology of Pakistan’’(code 9357),
for the students of BS Pakistan Studies is now available. In this book ancient
history and especially cultural heritage of Pakistan has been highlighted. This
book will be beneficial for archaeologist, historians, anthropologists, students and
social scientists as well.

Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

Chairman/Course Coordinator

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 Acknowledgement

Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) has been offering quality education to the
students of all over the world in numerous disciplines and programs. These
programs are ranging from Matric to Ph. D. AIOU provides education facility at
doorstep of the students through out the country. The Faculty of Social Sciences
& Humanities has started several new academic programmes, while BS Pakistan
Studies is one of them.

Its my great pleasure to put on record the cooperation and academic support of the
Committee of Courses (CoC) Department of Pakistan Studies, and members of all
the Statutory Bodies of AIOU. It is my pleasant duty to record my gratitude to all
the unit writers/authors, whose expertise and insight in subject has encouraged
and enable me to undertake this publication. I am also thankful to all
reviewers/resource persons of the units for their valuable suggestions and input.

I am also indebted to my friend Mr. Fazal Karim (Editor) AIOU, who took it upon
himself to proof and edit the manuscript on time.

My thanks are also due to the Academic Faculty and Staff of the Department of
Pakistan Studies who one way or the other encouraged me to develop this course.
My sincere thanks are due to Prof. Dr. Hassan Raza, Dean, Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, for his constant support, cooperation and
encouragement.

Prof. Dr Badshah Sardar

Chairman/Course Coordinator

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Introduction
During the last four decayeds, there has been a progressive increase of
archaeological field researches in Pakistan. These researches have been
undertaken by many agencies; Federal Department of Archeology and Museums,
Pakistani Universities and Forign Archaeological Missions working in close
collaboration with Pakistani archaeologists. Scholars of various disciplines have
joined hands with archaeologists to unravel and interpret new information on
early cultural and civilization of the world.

The book entitled ‘Archaeology of Pakistan’ (code 9357), covers diverse

subjects, ranging from Stone Age to historic period of the Sub-continent. As we
all know that Pakistan has been a cradle of several ancient civilizations; it was
here that one of the greatest riverine civilization the ancient world—the ‘Indus
Valley Civilization’ flourished from 2500 BC to 1900 BC. To trace the origin
and development of human culture and civilization of the Pakistan from earliest
agricultural communities in Baluchistan to a complex urban culture of the Indus
Valley Civilization. Since then, various peoples with their varied cultural traits
came to this land and left a rich cultural wealth in the form of art and
architecture which ultimately became the proud heritage of Pakistan.

The antiquity of the cultural heritage of Pakistan is as old as humanity itslf. It is in

this primeval stage of civilization that the grand and grim drama of man’s struggle
for existence was enacted in the hunting stage of human history. Since then,
various peoples with their varied cultural traits came to this land of ours and have
left the legacy of a rich cultural wealth in the form of art and architecture which
ultimately became the proud heritage of Pakistan. Cultural relics of a country are
the best manifestations of a nation’s corporate life and Pakistan is exceptionally
fortunate in this respect.

Before the advent of Islam, in the beginning of the 8th century CE., Pakistan had been the
meeting place of the Aryans, Achaemenians, Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and the Kushans each
with their distinctive cultural outlook. Thus, it became a centre of varied cultural diffusions. It is,
indeed, in Pakistan that the West met the East. Striking its roots deep into pre-Islamic traditions,
the rich cultural possessions of Pakistan can easily be compared with those of the ancient
Middle East. The stream of cultural life, which started flowing on the river banks of Soan in the
hoary past of about two and half million years back, has been kept in motion even down to the
present age in spite of occasional obstructions and intermittent lapses.
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In the beginning of the 8th century Muhammad bin Qasim arrival at Debul in
Sindh and in the 11th century, the Turkish rulers of Afghanistan began the
Islamic conquest of the Sub-continent from the northwest. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan became integral parts of the Ghaznavid Empire. In
12th century Muhammad of Ghor defeated the Rajput confederacy and captured
Delhi in the following years. This marked the beginning of the Sultanat Period,
which lasted for over 300 years, with five dynasties of Muslim Sultans succeeding
one another in Delhi.

Mughal’s domination on the Sub-continent marks the beginning of a new era of

great intellectual and artistic traditions. They brought perfection in every aspect of
arts and crafts. The main factor behind it was the imperial patronage and the
aesthetic nature of the emperors. The Mughals built varieties of buildings such as;
Royal Forts, Palaces, Grand Mosques, Tombs, Mausoleums, Gardens and
Caravan Sarais in the Sub-continent.

Social, religious, political and economic effects of Islam on Hundu culture and
society of the Sub-continent can be detected from the presence of Islamic art and
architecture scattered in length and breadth of the Sub-continent. Similarly, the
Islamic architecture reflects the Iranian influence prominently, the architectural
features like Minars, Mosques, Gardens, Tombs and Mausoleums reflects the
Muslims influence on Indian architecture.
This volume contains the following units.
1. Introduction to Archaeology
2. Physical and Cultural Anthropology
3. World Civilizations
4. Early Urbanization in Pakistan
5. Ancient Art and Architecture in South Asia
6. Numismatics
7. Muslim Art and Architecture in Sub-Continent
8. Cultural Heritage & Museums in Pakistan
9. Tourism in Pakistan
All the above-mentioned units have designed and written on Open Distance
Learning (ODL) mode and according to the level of the students. The offering of
this book will hopefully facilitate all the academic faculty of the AIOU.

Course Development Coordinator

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UNIT. 1

INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY

Written by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Badshah Sardar

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 13
Objectives 14
1. Introduction 15
1.1 Archaeology 15
1.1.1 Archaeology and Anthropology 21
1.1.2 Archaeology and History 22
1.1.3 Archaeology andScience 22
1.1.4 The Sub-disciplines of Archaeology 23
1.1.5 Stratigraphy in Archaeology 27
1.1.6 Dating Methods and Chronology in Archaeology 28

1.2 Foundations origin and Relationships 33

1.2.1 The Earlier Archaeological Expeditions 33
1.2.2 The Start of Modern Archeology 37

1.3. Techniques and Methods of Fields 43

1.3.1 Types of Archaeological Survey 45
1.3.2 Tools Required in Survey 46
1.3.3 Methods in Field Surveys 54
1.3.4 Archaeological Excavations 59
1.3.5 Renowned Persons in Field Archaeology 59
1.3.6 Organization of Excavation Plan at an Archaeological Site 61
1.3.7 The Base of Field Archaeology 61
1.3.8 Methods of Excavations 63
1.3.9 Composition of Excavation Team 66
1.3.10 TheArchaeological Excavations 68
1.3.11 Recording of Archaeological Finds 75
1.3. 12 Treatment of Excavated Material in Field Camp 92

1.4 Preparation and Publication of Field Reports 93

Self Assestment Questions 98
Bibliography 99

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Introduction

Archaeology has come of age, while it began as a method of identifying places

and objects already known from the historical record, it has become a powerful
means of discovering new facts not only about the historical period but also about
ages beyond the reach of written evidence. It is at last beginning to provide
answers to some of the most fundamental questions about human origins and the
development of human society. Dealing with the whole story of man’s existence
on Earth, it brings a fresh perspective to the study of past and present conditions.

Its evidence is the material imprint of man’s activities on the landscape: the
remains of his shelters, his tools and the facilities that he has created in order to
exploit the natural environment. The methods of the archaeologist range from the
microscopic examination of traces of wear on ancient tools to the reconstruction
of whole landscapes through the use of aerial photography and field survey. Such
methods are as valuable in investigationg the recent past as they are in
reconstructing the more remote periods of prehistory.

One effect of archaeological research has been to direct attention to the basic
material conditions of life in early societies—the means of production and
livelihood and the distribution of durable goods. Archaeology is both a set of
methods for the reconstruction of past states of society and a realm of inquiry
dealing with the long-term development of human culture and its explanation.

The state of archaeological research in different parts of the world is still very
uneven. Nevertheless, the progress of the last decades has produced striking
advances in our understanding of global developments over the archaeological
time-scale. This unit is an attempt to summarize the present state of knowledge
over the whole field of archaeological inquiry. It reflects a growing awareness of
the contribution that archaeology can make in revealing the common history of
mankind.

This book archaeology of Pakistan and its unit-1, endeavored to trace the origin
and development of human cultures and civilizations of the world in general and

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the Sub-continent in particular from its earliest roots in Stone Age to urbanism,
but the students still need to study this phenomenon in its continuity.

Objectives: After studying this unit, the student will be able.

 to arouse student’s interest in the ancient history, antiquities and
monuments thistegion.
 to create a public consciousness that they may respect and seek to preserve
these remains of our cultural heritage.
 to trace the growth and development of ancient culture and civilization in
Sub-continent
 to examine analytically the sources of ancient history of Pakistan
 to understand human past and evolutionary process that mankind
underwent through ages
 to give insight to the student an in-depth understanding of the
development of different cultures within the areas constituted Pakistan.

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1. Introduction

1.1 Archaeology
The word Archaeology comes from two Greek words; archaia which means
ancient things and logos as theory, or science, study. Literarily it means “the study
of ancient history through the material culture”. The material culture is the aspect
of social reality grounded in the objects and architecture that surround people. It
includes the usage, consumption, creation, and trade of objects as well as the
behaviors, norms, and rituals that the objects create or take part in. The material culture
can also be described as any object that humans use to survive, define social
relationships, represent facets of identity, or benefit peoples' state of mind, social, or
economic standing. The scholarly analysis of material culture, which can include both
human made and natural or altered objects, is called material culture studies.

Archaeology is scientific study of the material remains of the past human life and
activities. The material remain includes the human made artifacts from the earliest
stone tool implements to the man-made objects of interest that are buried with the
passage of time and un-earthed by the archaeologists. It is particularly important
for learning abut prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records
to study. The prehistoric period includes the human past from Paleolithic period
or Old Stone Age to the advent of writing (literacy) in societies across the world.
The subject of Archaeology is concerned with the full range of past human
experience- as how people organized themselves into social groups and exploited
their surroundings; what they ate, made, and believed; how they communicated
and why their societies changed. The terms "Paleolithic" and "Neolithic" were
introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865. The
additional "Mesolithic" category was added as an intermediate category by
Hodder Westropp in 1866.
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The discipline of archaeology involves; archaeological surveying, explorations,
excavations and ultimatelyanalysis of data collected to learn more about the past.
Archaeology is study of humanity through the analysis of material culture to
ultimately gain an understanding of the daily lives of past cultures and the
overarching trend of human history. However, in wider scope archaeology relies
on cross-disciplinary research work.In its broadest sense, the archaeological
record can be conceived as the total body of objects made by, used by, or
associated with, humanity. This definition encompasses both artifacts (objects
made or modified by humans) and ‘ecofacts’ (natural objects associated with
human activity). In this sense, it is equivalent to material culture, and includes not
just 'ancient' remains but the physical things associated with contemporary
societies. Archaeology, which studies human activity through investigation of
physical evidence, is considered a branch of anthropology in the United States
and Canada, while in Europe it is viewed as a discipline in its own right or
grouped under other related disciplines, such as history.

The main objectives of archaeology includes; to document and analyze the origins
and development of human culture, comprehend the cultural history, find out
chronicle cultural evolution as well as study the human behavior and ecology for
both prehistoric and historic societies. The archaeological investigations are a
principal source of scientific knowledge about the prehistoric period including the
ancient and extinct cultures. The archaeological records consist of mainly
artifacts, architectural elements and cultural landscapes. A professional and
trained archaeologist is supposed to describe, classify and analyze the artifacts he
studies to understand the past history of mankind. The foremost aim of an
archaeologist is however, to place the material remains in historical contexts to
supplement what may be known from written sources and thus to increase
understanding of the past. He writes the blank chapters of a nation’s history with the

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help and interpretation of cultural material discovered through the course of
archaeological excavations.

Archaeology is an approach to understand the human culture of the past through

the material remains which discovered with the help of the spade of an
archaeologist. The traditional archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical
human cultures. It provides the only means to learn of the existence and about the
behaviors of people in the past.In this context, the word ‘Culture’ is a wide term
which encompasses the social behavior andnorms found in human societies, as
well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the
individuals in these groups.

Human beings acquire culture through the learning processes of socialization,

which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.‘Culture’ is also
defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material
expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of
social meaning of a life held in common. In the words of E. B Tylor, it is "that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." The
Cambridge English Dictionary mentions that culture is "the way of life, especially
the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular
time." However, a broad definition of ‘Culture’ was adopted in a meeting of
MONDIACULT held in Mexico during 1982 which describes it as “Culture…is
… the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only arts and
letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value
systems, traditions and beliefs.” The word ‘culture’ constitutestwo forms; tangible
and intangible. The tangible culture means built cultural heritage (such as
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monuments, group of historical buildings, architectural elements); archaeological
heritage (such as archaeological sites/ remains, rock art); cultural landscapes
(natural environments); and cultural objects or artifacts; (such as movable cultural
heritage in the different collections). The intangible cultural heritage means
traditional crafts and occupations (such as techniques and skills in the creation of objects);
traditional knowledge (such as skills transmitted from generation to generation); cultural
expressions (such as dance, music, language, visual arts); domestic, religious and social
practices (such as cultural activities that take place within a community). The ‘heritage’
means any attribute or immaterial possession that is inherited from ancestors or the
practices that are handed down from the past by traditions.

In fact the study of Archaeology is partially the discovery of the treasures of the
past, partially the meticulous work of the scientific analyst, partially the exercise
of the creative imagination. But it is also the painstaking task of interpretation so
that we come to underhand what these things mean for the human story.
Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to
reconstructing past life ways to documenting and explaining changes in human
societies through time period.

Archaeology is both physical activity in the field or at an archaeological sites and

an intellectual pursuit in the study of laboratory work. The traditional approaches
tended to regard the objective of archaeology mainly as reconstruction by piecing
together the missing parts, but today it is not enough simply to re-create the
material culture of remote past to complete the picture. A further objective has
been now termed as “the reconstruction of the life ways of the people responsible
for the archaeological remains of the past.” Therefore in order to fill the gaps in the
story of the evolution of human society and to provide meaning and substance to the

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bones of history, an archaeologist carry out scientific excavations and explorations as
it constitute an essential source of knowledge about the past history.

The people of today more are interested in having a clear picture of understanding
as how people lived and how they exploited their environment. There are many
big questions that preoccupy us today. For instance we want to understand the
circumstances in which our human ancestors first emerged. Was this in Africa and
only in Africa, as currently seems the case? Were these early humans’ proper
hunters or merely scavengers? What were the circumstances in which our own
subspecies Homo sapiens evolved? How do we explain the emergence of
Paleolithic art? How do we explain the rise of cities, apparently quite
independently in different parts of the world? After these general questions there
are more specific one; we wish to know why a particular culture took the form it
did?How its particularities emerged and how they influenced developments?This
interest in the processes of cultural change has come to define what is known as
“Processual Archaeology”.The “Processual Archaeology”moves forward by
asking a series of questions, just as any scientific study proceeds by defining aims
of study, formulating questions and then proceeding to answer with them. The
main aims and goals of subject of Archaeology are; to document and explain the
origins and development of human cultures, understand cultural history, cultural
evolution and study of human behavior and ecology for pre and historic societies.
As such the subject of Archaeology provides the only means to learn the existence
and behavior of people in the past. Archaeology is an exciting pursuit for
knowledge about us and our human past. The archaeological investigation usually
involves several distinct phases; by employing it own variety of methods and
techniques. However, before the commencement of any field work, a clear
objective as to what the archaeologists intends to achieve should be recognized.
Then a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the
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surrounding area. The archaeological excavations may take place to uncover any
archaeological features buried under the ground by applying scientific methods.

When the artifacts and structures have been excavated or collected from surface
surveys it is necessary to properly study them which is called as post-excavation
analysis. At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and
compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves
classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact
assemblages. For instance, bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all
be analyzed, using themethods of zoo-archaeology, paleoethnobotany. These
techniques provide important information that would not otherwise be known.
After identification, collection and proper documentation of different kinds of
cultural heritage, it is important to record all the relevant information about these
resources for translating into GIS (Geographical Information Systems) and maps.
The computer assisted programme like computer graphics are now used to build
virtual 3D models of sites, and excavated objects. The 3D modeling integrates
spatial knowledge with elevation data in order to produce three dimensional
stands-alone relief models. The map is built up out to represent the elevations on a
topographic map and creates the physical landscape in three dimensions.
Photogrammetry is also used as an analytical tool and digital topographical
models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or
not certain structure like pillars were aligned with astronomical events such the
sun’s position at a solstice. The 3D photogrammetry is the technique for creating
images, measurements and 3D models by obtaining the three-dimensional
information about physical objects through digital photographs. By requiring only
simple devices, this technique has been used as a documentation method in the
fields of archaeology and architecture and has many possibilities for sharing
knowledge among professionals and public as well.

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The use of drones has proven useful in archaeology. The archaeologists use
drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from destructions. The
information in this process, collected is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve
the original research objects of the work. After when these methods are applied, it is
considered good practice for the information to be published so that the results of the
work are available to other archaeologists, researchers, scholars and students.

Archaeology is thus a field of scientific research, which strives to reconstruct the

human past cultures and civilization. It begins with the dawn of humanity on earth
crust and will end up only with the final extinction of man in this world. Today
archaeology is a serious discipline elucidating what is quite contrary to the
speculative treasure hunting archaeology of past. Archaeology is a sensitive
discipline which requires special attention and careful observation, scientific and
systematic methods, and a logical interpretation. There encompasses the whole
world, time as well space is no obstacle to it. It is an ever-developing subject,
which assimilates, analyzes, and at the same time critically evaluates the existing
methods and theories, which were in vogue in recent past. It is a living discipline
related with people and their cultures, and not only an assemblage of accumulated
data recovered from the archaeological sites.

1.1.1 Archaeology and Anthropology: Anthropology is the study of humanity;

our physical characteristics as animals, and our unique non-biological
characteristics that we call culture. Culture in this general sense includes what the
early anthropologist Edward Tylor summarized in 1871 as “knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society”.

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Anthropology is a broad discipline divided into three smaller disciplines: physical
anthropology, cultural or social anthropology, and archaeology. Physical
anthropology, also called biological anthropology, concerns the study of human
biological or physical characteristics and how they evolved.Cultural anthropology
– or social anthropology as it is called in Europe and elsewhere – analyzes human
culture and society. Two important branches of cultural anthropology are
ethnography (the study at first hand of individual living cultures), and ethnology
which attempts to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence with a view to
deriving general principles about human society.Archaeology is the “past tense of
cultural anthropology”. Whereas cultural anthropologists will often base their
conclusions on the experience of actually living within contemporary
communities, Archaeologists study past societies primarily through their material
remains; the buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute what is known as
the material culture left over from former societies.

Nevertheless, one of the most challenging tasks for the archaeologist today is to
know how to interpret material culture in human terms. How were those pots
used? Whey is some dwellings round and others square? Here the methods of
archaeology and ethnography overlap. Archaeologists in recent decades have
developed ethno archaeology, whereas like ethnographers they live among
contemporary communities, but with the specific purpose of understanding how
such societies use material culture; how they make their tools and weapons, why
they build their settlements where they do, and so on.

1.1.2 Archaeology and History: The conventional historical sources begin only
with the introduction of written records around 3000 BC in western Asia, and
considerably later in other parts of the world. A commonly dawn
distinction,therefore, is that between prehistory –the period before written records

22
–and history in the narrow sense, meaning the study of the past using written
evidence. Archaeology can contribute a great deal to the understanding even of
those periods and places where documents, inscriptions, and other literary
evidence exist.

1.1.3 Archaeology and Science: The aim of archaeology is the understanding

of humankind. It deals with the human past as it differs from the study of written
history- although it uses written history – in a fundamental way. The material the
archaeologist finds does not tell us directly what to think. Historical records make
statements, offer opinions, and pass judgments. The objects that archaeologists
discover, on the other hand, tell us nothing directly in themselves. In this respect
the practice of archaeology is rather like that of the scientist. The scientist collects
data (evidence), conducts experiments, formulates a hypothesis against more data,
and then in conclusion devises a model. The archaeologist has to develop a
picture of the past, just as the scientist has to develop a coherent view of the
natural world.

Archaeologythus is a science as well as humanity. That is one of its fascinations

as a discipline. The technical methods of archaeological science are the most
obvious, from radiocarbon dating to studies of food residues in pots. Equally
important are scientific methods of analysis, of inference. Some writers have
spoken of the need to define a separate “Middle Range Theory,” referring to
distinct ideas to bridge the gap between raw archaeological evidence and the
general observations and conclusions to be derived from it. But we see no need to
make a sharp distinction between theory and method. Its aim is to describe clearly
methods and techniques used by Archaeologists in investigating the past. The
analytical concepts of the archaeologist are as much a part of that battery of
approaches as are the instruments in the laboratory. One of the major
developments of the last two or three decades has been the realization that
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archaeology has much to contribute not just to an understanding of prehistory and
ancient history, but the more recent historic periods as well.

1.1.4 The Sub-disciplines of Archaeology: There are a number of

archaeological sub-disciplines which are characterized by a specific method or
type of material analysis, the most common mentioned are:

i. Ethno Archaeology: Itsstudy living people, designed to aid in our

interpretation of the archaeological record, the early ethno archaeological research
focused on hunter-gatherer or foraging societies, today ethno archaeological
research encompasses a much wider range of human behaviour. It is study of
living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record.
Presently, the ethno-archaeological research includes a much wider range of
human behavior.
ii. Historical Archaeology: Historical archaeology is the study of cultures
with some form of writing. The excavations carried out for instance at
Moenjodaro revealed the history of ancient culture prevailed in the area during
third millennium BCE.
iii. Environmental Archaeology: The environment archaeology is an
important field where archaeologists and specialist from other sciences study the
human use of plants and animals and as how past societies adapted to the ever-
changing environment. It views the human animal as part of the natural world
interacting with other species in the ecological system or ecosystem. The
environment governs human life, latitude and altitude, landforms and climate
determine the vegetation, which in turn determines animal life. All these things
taken together determine how and where humans have lived or at least they did
until very recently. The environment is seen now as variable not as something
which is constant or homogenous through space and time. The artifacts

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discovered from excavations can provide following information about the
environmental archaeology:
a. Information relating to paleo-environment: This can inform us about the
general climate, environment and ecology of sites and is surrounding area.
b. Information relating to economic activities: This can help us to understand the
economy of the site and its period. It involves identifying and listing animal
and plant remains in order to determine what was used for good at the site.
This information can be used to reconstruct the agricultural economy of that
period and to compare society, religion etc.
c. Information relating to human behavior: Through recent research it has
become clear that biological artifacts contained in cultural layers, in pitsand
other features ordistributed right across the site are related in various ways to
the activities of the people of the time.
iv. Experimental Archaeology: represents the application of the
experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes
that create and impact the archaeological record. The archaeometry deals
tosystematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of
analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of
research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of
archaeological remains for source analysis.

v. Zoo-archaeology also known as faunal analysis, is a branch of

archaeology that studies remains of animals from archaeological sites. Faunal
remains are the items left behind when an animal dies. These include bones,
shells, hair, scales, etc. of these items, bones and shells are the ones that occur
most frequently at archaeological sites where faunal remains can be found.

vi. Palaeoethnobotany or Archaeobotany: Archaeobotany is the

actuallyasub-field of environmental archaeology that studies plant remains from
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archaeological sites. Basing on the recovery and identification of plant remains
and the ecological and cultural information available for modern plants, the major
research themes are the use of wild plants, the origins of agriculture and
domestication, and the co-evolution of human-plant interactions. Archaeobotany
is arguably now a mature discipline, but one that is facing challenges relating to
data and communication.
vii. Archaeometry: The aim of Archaeometry is to systematize
archaeological measurement. It provides aid with the application of analytical
techniques from physics, chemistry and engineering. This is a field of research
that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of
archaeological remains for source analysis. It investigates different spatial
characteristics of features, employing methods such as computer based tools like
geographic information system technology.

viii. Geoarchaeology: It is a multi-disciplinary approach which uses the

techniques and subject matter of geography, geology, geophysics and other earth
sciences to examine topics which inform archaeological knowledge and thought.
Geoarchaeologists study the natural physical processes that affect archaeological
sites such as geomorphology, the formation of sites through geological processes
and the effects on buried sites and artifacts post-deposition. Geoarchaeologists
work frequently involves studying soil and sediments as well as other
geographical concepts to contribute an archaeological study. Geoarchaeology is
considered a sub-field of environmental archaeology because soil can be altered
by human behavior, which archaeologists are then able to study and reconstruct
past landscapes and conditions.

ix. Marine or Under-Water Archaeology: Underwater archaeology is

another important field demanding great courage as well as skill. During the last
three decades it has become a highly scientific exercise yielding time capsule
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from the past in the form of shipwrecks that shed new light on ancient life on land
as well as at sea. Geophysical methods are as useful for finding sites underwater
as they are for locating land sites. The excavation underwater is complex and
expensive work. Once underway the excavation may involve shifting of vast
quantities of sediment and recording and removing bulky objects as diverse as
storage jars, metal ingots and cannons etc. It involves same techniques of
observation, discovery and recording that are the basis of field archaeology on
land but adapted to the special conditions of working underwater. There are three
methods used in geophysical underwater survey;

i) The proton magnetometer is towed well behind the survey boat, detecting iron
and steel objects that distort the earth’s magnetic field.

ii) The side scan sonar transmits sound waves in a fan-shaped beam to produce a
graphic image of surface feature on the seafloor.

iii) The sub-bottom profiler emits sound pulses that bounce back from features
and objects buried beneath the seafloor.

x. Public Archaeology: Public archaeology is motivated by a desire to

control on looting, illegal work or curb on pseudo archaeology and to help in
preservation of archaeological sites through education and public awareness
campaigns. The pseudo archaeology is a term for falsely claimed to be as
archaeological but in fact it violate commonly accepted and scientific
archaeological practices.
1.1.5 Stratigraphy in Archaeology: The first, and in some ways the most
important, step in much archaeological research involves ordering things into
sequence, the things to be put into sequence can be archaeological deposits in a
stratigraphic excavation, or they can be artifacts as in a typological sequence.
Stratigraphy is the study of stratification the laying down or depositing of strata or
layers (also called deposits) one above the other. From the point of view of

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relative dating, the important principle is that the under laying layer was deposited
first and therefore earlier than the overlaying layer.

Thus a succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence,

from earliest (bottom) to latest (top). Good stratigraphic excavation at an
archaeological site is designed to obtain such a sequence. Part of this work
involves detecting whether there has been any human or natural disturbance of the
layers since they were originally deposited. But of course what we mostly want to
date are not so much the layers or deposited themselves as the humanly generated
materials within them- artifacts, structures, organic remains- which ultimately
reveal past human activities at the site.

Therefore, in association within the same archaeological deposit itmeans that they
became buried at the same time. Hence provided that deposit is a sealed one,
without stratigraphic intrusions from another deposit, the associated objects can
be said to be no later than the deposit itself. A sequence of sealed deposits thus
give a sequence and relative chronology for the time of burial of the objects found
associated in those deposits.

Because of one of those objects can later be given and absolute date, say a piece
of charcoal that can be dated by radiocarbon in the laboratory, then it is possible
to assign that absolute date not only to the charcoal but to the sealed deposit and
the other objects associated with it as well. A series of such dated from different
deposits will give an absolute chronology for the whole sequence. It is this
interconnecting of stratigraphic sequence with absolute dating methods that
provides the most reliable bases for dating archaeological sites and their contents.
But there is another important point to consider, if one of those deposits is a
rubbish pit with pottery in it, the deposit itself is of interest as an example of
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human activity, and the date for it will be the date of human use of the pit. This
will also be the date of final burial of the pottery- but it will not be the date of
human use of that pottery, which could have been in circulation tens or hundreds
of years earlier, before being discarded, perhaps buried in another deposit and
then dug up inadvertently with other rubbish to be thrown into the pit. In this
context, the archaeological relationship is the position in space and by implication, in
time, of an object or context with respect to another. This is determined, not by linear
measurement but by determining the sequence of their depositions which arrived before
the other, and the key to this is “Stratigraphy”.

1.1.6 Dating Methods and Chronology in Archaeology: In order to study the

past it is essential to know precisely how long ago in years a particular period or
event occurred. Archaeologist could use the sequence to study for instance
changes in tool technology from one stage of the sequence to the next. This idea
that something is older or younger relative to something else is the basis of
relative dating. The initial steps in most archaeological research today still depend
crucially on relative dating, on the ordering of artifacts, deposits, societies, and
events into sequences, earlier before later.
However, we want to know the full or absolute age in years before the present of
the different parts of the sequence we need methods of absolute dating sometimes
called chronometric dating. Absolute dates help us to find how quickly changes
such as the introduction of agriculture occurred, and whether they occurred
simultaneously or at different times in different regions of the world. Before
World War II for much of archeology virtually the only reliable absolute dates
were historical one, but only in the last 40 years have independent means of
absolute dating become available, transforming archeology in the process. The
relative methods allow us to determine that something is relatively older of

29
younger than something else. The absolute methods make it possible to give a
date in years.
Whatever the dating method, we need and agreed measure of time in order to
construct a chronology most human measuring systems reckon on the basis of
years. Thus even age measurements such as radioactive clocks that are
independent of annual cycle need for our purpose to be converted into years.
Often when there are dating errors to is the conversion into years rather than the
dating method itself that is at fault. In fact, our timescale in years must date from
or to fixed point in time. In the Christian world, this is by convention taken as the
birth of Christ, supposedly in the year AD 1, with years counted back before
Christ (BCE) and forwards after Christ (AD or Anno Domini, Latin for “in the
year of our Lord”. In the Greek world, the national starting point was the holding
of the first Olympic Games (reckoned at 776 BCE in the Christian calendar),
whereas for Muslims the basis fixed point is the date of the Holy Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH)’s departure from Mecca, the Hegira (reckoned at CE 622 in
the Christian calendar). The starting point in the Mara calendar is equivalent to
3114 BCE in the Christian calendar.

The scientists, who derive dates from radioactive methods, wanting a neutral
international system without allegiance to any of the above calendars, have
chosen to count years back from the present (BP). But since scientists too require
a firm fixed point, they take BP to mean “before 1950” (the approximate year of
Libby’s establishment of the first radioactive method, radiocarbon). This may be
convenient for scientists but can be confusing for everyone else (a date of 400 BP
is not 400 years ago but CE 1550, currently about 440 years ago). It is therefore
clearest to convert any BP date for the last few thousand years into the BCE/CE
system. For the Paleolithic period, however (stretching back two or three million
years before 10,000 BCE), archeologists use the terms “BP” and “years ago”.

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i. Pollen Dating: All flowering plants produce the almost indestructible
grains called pollen and their preservation in bogs and lake sediments has allowed
pollen experts to construct detailed sequence of past vegetation and climate. The
pollen grains can yield environmental evidence even as far back as three million
years ago for sites in East Africa. The pollen evidence at an individual site in the
area can sometimes be matched to a particular interglacial, which is a useful
dating mechanism given that radiocarbon does not operate at these early time
periods.
ii. Faunal Dating: It relies on the fact that many mammal species have
evolved considerably over the last few million years. The changes in each species
have been charted to create a rough sequence. Faunal dating has proved partially
important in the correlation of the early human sties that have been discovered in
East and South Africa.
iii. Tree-Ring Dating: The modern technique of tree-ring dating was
developed by an American astronomer A.E. Douglass in 1930s. Douglass was
able to assign absolute dates to many of the major sites. But it was not until the
end of the 1930s that the technique was introduced to Europe and only in the
1960s that the use of statistical procedures and computer laid the foundations for
the establishment of the long tree ring chronologies.
iv. Radio-carbon Dating: The radio carbon is the single most useful method
of dating for the archaeologists. The American chemist Willard Libby in 1949
worked on radio-carbon and described that when a plant or animal dies does the
uptake of C14 cease and the steady concentration of C14 begin to decline through
radioactive decay. Thus knowing the decay rate or half-life of C14 the age of dead
plant or animal tissue could be calculated by measuring the amount of
radiocarbon left in a sample. The radio-carbon laboratories provide an estimate of
age based on their measurement of the amount of radiocarbon activity in a

31
sample. The level of activity is converted to an age expressed in number of years
between the death of an organism and the present. The year 1950 is adopted as the
“present” by the laboratories.
v. Thermoluminescence Dating: Thermoluminescence can date pottery.
Material with crystalline structure such ceramics contain small amounts of
radioactive elements, notablyuranium, thorium and radioactive potassium. These
decay at a known and steady rate, emitting alpha beta and gamma radiation that
bombard the crystalline structure and displaceselectrons whichthen become
trapped at point so imperfection in the crystal lattice. More and more electrons are
trapped as time elapses. Only when the material is heated rapidly to 500 c or
above can the trapped electrons escape, resetting clock to zero and as they do
sothey emit light knows as “Thermoluminescence”.
vi. Electron Spin Resonance: This method enables the trapped electrons
within bone or shell to be measured without the heating that the
Thermoluminescence technique requires. In this method, the object to be dated is
placed within a strong magnetic field. The energy absorbed by the object as the
strength of the field is varied provides a spectrum from which the trapped electron
population be measured.
vii. Potassium-Argon Dating: It is based on the principle of radioactive
decay the steady but very slow decay of the radioactive isotope potassium to the
inert gas argon in volcanic rock. Knowing the decay rate of K40 its half life is
around 1.3 billion years. This method is used by geologists to date rocks hundreds
or even thousands of millions of years old. It is also one of the most appropriate
techniques for dating early human sites in Africa which can be up to 5 million
years old.
viii. Uranium-series Dating: This is another dating method based on the
radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium. It has proved particularly useful for the

32
period 500, 000-50, 000 years ago, which lies outside the time range of
radiocarbon dating.
ix. Fission-Track Dating: It is based on the operation of a radioactive clock.
This is useful for early Paleolithic sites, especially where the potassium argon
method cannot be applied, even where it can be fission track provides
independent confirmation of dating results.
x. Amino-Acid Racemization: This method which was first applied in the
early 1970s and still at an experimental stage is used to date bone, whether human
or animal. Its special significance is that it can be applied to material up to about
100, 000years old beyond the time range of radio carbon dating.
xi. Cation-Ratio Dating: In recent years a new technique has been developed
which for the first time allows the direct dating of rock carvings and engravings.
It is also potentially applicable to Paleolithic artifactsthat have a strong patina
which will have been caused by exposure to desert dust.
xii. X-ray Fluorescence (XRF): X-ray fluorescence is widely used for the
identification of chemical elements for analysis, such as; Fe, Cu, Pb, Sn,
particularly in the investigation of metal, glass, ceramics and building materials,
and for research in geochemistry, forensic science, and archaeology as well as art
objects such as paintings.
xiii. X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD): X-ray diffraction spectroscopy
technique is applied to the identification of different types of minerals or
crystalline material including rust, pigments, etc found as chemical compound.
xiv. X-ray analysis: X-ray was discovered by W.K Roentgen in 1895. The
rays have the characteristic of passing though solid objects but leave traces on
photographic film in the same way as visible light rays. The rays with short wave
length can pass through the solid objects. After the discovery of x-ray
experimental radiographic photos of paintings were taken. In Japan radiographic

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x-ray photos were first used in the field of cultural assets in 1935. A lacquered
coffinexcavated fromAbuyama Mound, Takatsuki, Osaka was investigated by
using x-ray technique. This was the first example of application of x-ray to
cultural assets in Japan. However, the use of his technique became more common
in the field of cultural assets only after 1970’s. X-ray analysis technique is useful
for the examination of inorganic materials such as; gold, silver, copper alloys,
lead, iron, stone, ceramic, glass etc.

1.2 Foundations, origin & Relationships

1.2.1 The earlier Archaeological Expeditions: In the history of mankind, human

beings have always remained specific about their past. The majority of cultures
have their own foundation myths to explain why society is, how it is. For
instance, the Greek writer Hesiod who lived around 800 BCE in his epic poem
“Works and Days” mention the human past as falling into five stages: the Age
of Gold and Immortals, who “dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many
good things”; the Age of Silver, when humans were less noble; the Age of
Bronze; the Age of Epic Heroes; and lastly his own time, the Age of Iron and
Dread Sorrow, when “men never rest from labor and sorrow by day and from
perishing by night”. A rather more detached curiosity about the relics of past ages
developed in several early civilizations, where scholars and even rulers collected
and studied objects from the past. The last native king of Babylon, Nabonidus
(555-539 BCE) tool a keen interest in antiquities. He dug one of important temple
and discovered the foundation stone which had been laid some 2200 years ago.
He housed many of his finds in a kind of a museum at Babylon.

During the revival of learning in Europe known as “Renaissance” during 14th to

17th century CE, the royals began to form “cabinets of curiosities” in which curios
and ancient artifacts were displayed. During this period, scholars began to study
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and collect the relicsof Classical antiquity. At that time sites made of stone
immediate attracted attention, such as the great stone tombs of northwestern
Europe, and some impressive sites as Stonehenge. During this early period of
origin or foundations of archaeology, William Stukeley (1687-1765) made
systematic studies of some of these monuments with accurate plans which are still
useful today.

Archaeology as a discipline has its earliest origins in 15th-16th century CE, when
in Europe during the Renaissance period Humanists looked back upon the glories
of Greece and Rome. The religious Popes, cardinals and noblemen in Italy in the
16th century CE began to collect antiquities and to sponsor excavations to find
more works of ancient art. It was not archaeology in strict sense rather it was like
what we call today as art collection. However, Archaeology proper began with an
interest in the Greeks and Romans and first developed in 18th century CE, with the
excavations of the Roman cites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy.

Later on classical archaeology was established on a more scientific basis by the

work of Heinrich Schliemann, who investigated the origins of Greek Civilization
at Troy and Mycenae in the 1870’s; the work of M.A Biliotti at Rhodes in the
same period; work of German Archaeological Institute under Ernst Curtius at
Olympia from 1875 to 1881; and of Alexander Conze at Samothrace in 1873 and
1875. Earlier, the Egyptian archaeology began with Napolean’s invasion of Egypt
in 1798. He brought with him scholars who set to work recording the
archaeological remains of the country. As a result of discoveries made by this
expedition, Jean-Francois Champollion was able to decipher ancient Egyptian
writing for the first time in 1822. The British archaeologist Flinders Petrie, who
began work in Egypt in 1880 made great discoveries in Egypt and in Palestine.
Flinders Petrie developed a systematic method of excavation, the principles of
which he summarized in “Methods and Aims in Archaeology,(1904). The
35
Mesopotamian archaeology also began with digging into mounds to find treasures
and works of art but gradually gave way in the 1840’s to planned digs. In 1846
Henry Creswicke Rawlinson became the first man to decipher the Mesopotamian
cuneiform writing. Towards the end of 19th century, systematic excavation
revealed a previously un-known people, the Sumerians, who had lived in
Mesopotamian before the Babylonians and Assyrians. The most impressive
Sumerian excavation was however, that of the Royal Tombs at Ur by Leonard
Woolley in 1926.

Chares Darwin’s work entitled as “On the Origin of Species” (1859) implied a
long past for man and the acceptance of the idea of human evolution in the last
four decades of the 19th century created a climate of thought in which archaeology
flourished and that led to great advances in the unfolding of the full story of
man’s development. Similarly, in his “Pre-historic Times” Lubbock expanded the
three-age system of C. J Thomsen and Worsaae, to a four-age system, dividing the
Stone Age into Old and New periods (Paleolithic and Neolithic). In the last
quarter of the 19th century remarkablePaleolithicdiscoveries were made in France
and Spain which included the discovery and authentication of actual works of
sculpture and cave paintings from the Upper (Later) Paleolithic Period (Ca.
30,000- 10,000 BC). Later on similar finds were continued in the 20th century of
the most famous of these was at Lascaux, France in 1940.

However,the credit for conducting what has been called “the first scientific
excavation in the history of archaeology” goes to Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)
who in 1784 dug a trench or section across a burial mound on his property in
Virginia. His work marks the beginning of the end of the speculative phase. In
Jefferson’s time people were speculating the hundreds of un-explained mounds
known east of the Mississippi river had been built not by the indigenous
American Indians, but by a mythical and vanished race of mound builders.
36
Jefferson adopted what today we call a scientific approach. His methods were
careful enough to allow him to recognize different layers in his trench and to see
that the many human bones present were less well preserved in the lower layers.
From this deduced that the mounds had been reused as a place of burial on many
separate occasions. Although Jefferson admitted, rightly, that more evidence was
needed to resolve the Moundbuilders question, he saw no reason why ancestor of
the Indian themselves could not have raised the mounds. His sound approach
logical deduction from carefully excavated evidence, in many ways the basis of
modern archaeology was not taken up by any of his immediate successors in
North America. In Europe, meanwhile extensive excavations were being
conducted, For instance by the Englishman Richard Colt Hoare (1758-1838), who
dug into hundreds of burial mounds in southern Britain during the first decade of
the 19th century. None of these excavations, however, did much to advance the
cause of knowledge about the distant past, since their interpretation was still
within the Biblical framework of ideas, which insisted on a short time span for
human existence.

1.2.2 The start of Modern Archeology: It was not until the middle of the 19th
century that the discipline of archaeology became truly established. Already in the
background there were the significant achievement of the newly developed
science go Geology. The Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726-1797) in his
theory of Earth (1785), had studied the Stratification of rocks (their arrangements
in super- imposed layers or strata), establishing principles which were to be the
basis of Archaeological Excavation, as foreshadowed by Jefferson. Hutton
showed that the stratification of rocks was due to processes which were still going
on in seas, rivers, and lakes. This was the principle of “uniformitarians”. It was
argued again by Charles Lyell (1797-1875) in his Principles of Geology (1833):
those geologicallyancient conditions were in essence similar to, or “uniform

37
with”, those of our own time. This idea could be applied to the human past also,
and it marks one of the fundamental notions of modern Archaeology: that in many
ways the past was much like the present. These ideas did much to lay the
groundwork for what was one of the significant events on the intellectual history
of the 19th century. A French customs inspector, Jacques Boucher de Perthes
(1788-1868),working in the gravel quarries of the Somme river, who in 1841
published convincing evidence for the association there of human artifacts (of
chipped stone, what we would today call “hand-axes”)and the bones of extinct
animals. The possibility of a prehistory of humankind, indeed to need for one, was
established (the term “prehistory” itself came into general use after the
publication of John Lubbock’s book prehistoric times in 1865.

In 1836 the Danish scholar C.J. Thomsen (1788-1865) published his guidebook to
the National Museum of Copenhagen which appeared in English in 1848 with the
title, A Guide to Northern Antiquities. In it he proposed that the collections could
be divided into those coming from a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age,
and this classification was soon found useful by scholars throughout Europe.
Later a division in the Some Age was established between the Paleolithic or Old
Stone Age and the Neolithic or new StoneAge. These terms were less applicable
to Africa, where bronze was not used south of the Sahara, or to the Americas. It
established the principle that by studding and classifying prehistoric artifacts one
could produce a chronological ordering, and say something of the periods in
question. Archaeology was moving beyond mere speculation about the past, and
becoming instead a discipline involving careful excavation and the systematic
study of the artifacts unearthed.

These great conceptual advances, the antiquity of humankind, Darwin’s principle

of evolution and the three age system, at last offered a framework for studying the
past. Darwin’s ideas were influential also in another way. They suggested that
38
human cultures might have evolved in a manner analogous to plant and animal
species. Soon after 1859, British scholars such as General Pitt-Riversand John
Evans were devising schemes for the evolution of artifact forms which gave rise
to the whole method of “typology” – the arrangement of artifacts in chronological
or developmental sequence – later greatly elaborated by Swedish scholar Oscar
Montelius (1843-1921).

However, it was only during the 19th century that the systematic study of the past
through its physical remains began to start. An early development in the study of
archaeology was mainly due to the establishment of “Institute for Archaeological
Correspondence” in Rome in 1829 by Eduard Gerhard. The rapid progress in the
development of archaeology continued in the 20th century. Great Britain was one
of the earliest countries of the world which developed a systematic approach to
archaeology and to recognize it as a discipline. An important contribution towards
the development of archaeological studies was made by Augustus P. Rivers. He
developed a “typology” for dating purpose. Another major figure in the
development of archaeology in the UK was Sir Mortimer Wheeler whose highly
disciplined approach to systematic archaeological excavations of his time brought
archaeology as a science. Another important strand in the thought of the time was
the realization that the study by ethnographers of living communities in different
parts of the world could be useful starting points for archaeology seeking to
understand something of the lifestyles of their own early native inhabitants who
clearly had comparably simple tools and crafts. The scholars such as Daniel
Wilson and John Lubbock made systematic use of such an ethnographic approach.

At the same time ethnographers and anthropologists were themselves producing

schemes of human progress. Strongly influenced by Darwin’s ideas about
evolution, the British anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832-1917), and his
American counterpart Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881), both published
39
important works in the 1870s arguing that human societies had evolved from a
state of savagery (primitive hunting) through barbarism (simple farming) to
civilization (the highest form of society).Morgan’s book, Ancient society (1877)
was partly based on his great knowledge of living North American Indians. His
ideas particularly the notion that people had once lived in a state of primitive
communism, sharing resources equally – strongly influenced Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, who drew on them in their writings about precapitalist
societies, thus influencing many later Marxist archaeologists. By the 1880s, then,
many of the ideas underlying modern Archaeology and been developed. But these
ideas themselves took shape against a background of major 19th –century
discoveries of ancient civilizations in the old world and the new.

The splendors of ancient Egyptian civilization had already been brought to the
attention of an avid public after Napoleon’s military expedition there of 1798-
1800.It was the discovery by one of his soldiers of the Rosetta Stone that
eventually provided the key to understanding Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.
Inscribed on the stone were identical texts written in both Egyptian and Greek
scripts. The Frenchman Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1832) used these
billing-ual inscriptions finally to decipher the hieroglyphs in 1822, after 14 years
‘work. A Similar piece of brilliant scholarly detection helped unlock the secrets of
cuneiform writing, the script used for many languages in ancient Mesopotamia. In
the 1840s the French and British, under Paul Emile Botta (1802-1870) and
hieroglyphic inscriptions at the different sites, which led him to argue for Maya
cultural unity but no Champollion or Rawlinson was to emerge to decipher the
glyphs until the 1960s.

Thus, well before the end of the 19th century, many of the principal features of
modern archaeology had been established and many of the early civilizations had
been discovered. There now ensued a period, which lasted until about 1960,
40
which Gordon Willey and Jeremy Sabloff in their A History of American
Archaeology have described as the “classificatory ’historical period”. Its central
concern, as they rightly characterize it, was chronology. Much effort went into the
establishment of regional chronological systems, and the description of the
development of culture in each area.

In regions where the early civilizations had flourished new research and
discoveries filled out the chronological sequences. Alfred Maudslay (1850-1931)
laid the real scientific foundations of Maya archaeology, while the German
scholar Max Uhle (1856-1944) began to establish a sound chronology for
Peruvian civilization with his excavation in the 1890s at the coastal site of
Pachacamac, Peru. The meticulous work of Flinders Petrie (1853-1942) in Egypt
was followed up by the spectacular discovery in the 1920s of Tutankhamen’s
tomb by Howard Carter (1873-1939). In the Aegean area, Arthur Evans (1880-
1960) revealed a previously unknown civilization that he called Minoan on the
island of Crete; the Minoans proved to be even earlier than Schliemann’s
Mycenaean’s. In Mesopotamia Leonard Woolley (1880-1960) excavated at Ur,
the biblical city of Abraham’s birth, and put the Sumerians on the map of the
ancient world.

The greatest breakthrough in Archaeology however, came in the field of dating. In

1949 the American chemist Willard Libby (1908-1980) announced his invention
of radiocarbon (C14) dating. It was not until well over a decade later that the full
impact of this momentous technical achievement began to be felt, but the
implications were clear here at last archaeologists might have a means of directly
determining the age of undated sites and finds anywhere in the world without
recourse to complicated cross-cultural comparisons with areas already dated by
historical methods. Thus, traditionally, prehistoric Europe had been dated by
virtue of supposed contacts early Greece and hence with ancient Egypt, which
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could itself be dated historically. The radiocarbon method held the prospect of
providing a completely independent chronology for ancient Europe.

The growth in Archaeological applications for scientific techniques was such that
by 1963 a volume entitled science in archaeology, edited by Don Broth-well and
Eric Higgs, was published, not merely on dating techniques and plant and animal
studies, but methods for analyzing human remains and artifacts. As with many of
the new methods, research stretched back to the 1930s when the Austrian
archeologist Ricard Pittioni had begun to apply trace-element analysis to early
copper and bronze artifacts. In 1958, Godon Willey and Philip in their Method
and Theory in American Archeology had argued for a great emphasis on the
social aspect, for a broader “processual interpretation” or study of the general
processes at work in culture history. They also spoke of “an eventual synthesis in
a common search for socio-cultural causality and law.”

When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to
archaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural-history archaeology,
which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than
just highlighting the fact that they did. In the early 20th century, many
archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing
ones followed the direct historical approach, compared the continuity between the
past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological
movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent
Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history
archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more
"scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific
method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.

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In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British
archaeologists Michael Shank, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller and Ian
Hodder which has become known as post –processual archaeology. It emphasized
the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this
approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the
validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate.
Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged
seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's
emphasis of reflexivity and history.

1.3. Techniques and Methods of Fields:

An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of
which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin,
however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve
must be decided and determined. A site is surveyed to find out as much as
possible about it and the surrounding area. Further, an excavation may take place
to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. Then the
information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an
attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. The
archaeological Surveys usually involve walking with the instrument along
closely spaced parallel traverses, taking readings at regular intervals. In most
cases, the area to be surveyed is staked into a series of square or rectangular
survey "grids" (terminology can vary). With the corners of the grids as known
reference points, the instrument operator uses tapes or marked ropes as a guide
when collecting data. In this way, positioning error can be kept to within a few
centimeters for high-resolution mapping. Early surveys recorded readings by
hand, but computer controlled data logging and storage is now commonly used.

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The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field
survey. A regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously
unknown sites in a region. The site survey is the attempt to systematically locate
features of interest, such as houses, within a site. Each of these two goals may be
accomplished with largely the same methods. The archaeological survey was not
widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. However, Gordon
Willey introduced first the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949
and later on the survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual
archaeology.

The archaeological survey work has many benefits, if performed as a preliminary

exercise to, or even in place of archaeological excavation. It requires relatively
little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of
soil to search out artifacts. As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology,
survey avoids ethical issues associated with destroying a site through excavation.
It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement
patters and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps,
which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. The simplest survey
technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but
sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts
visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are
completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation.

The serial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, or

even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex
sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological
dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface.
Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground.
Magnetometers detect minute deviations in theEarth’s magnetic field caused by
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iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures. Archaeological features whose
electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and
mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick)
have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or
unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. The regional survey in underwater
archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine
magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.

In archaeology the survey produces a set of data that is more un-differentiated in

chronological and evaluative terms. For instance, it is possible to overestimate
one site owning to its better state of conservation and on the contrary
underestimate the size of another owing to the poor surface conditions. In
chronological terms there is a risk of constructing data associations that will not
be confirmed later. One the other hand, the excavation is able to produce a more
reliable chronological sequence which however, owing to the smaller area
involved can give rise to other errors of assessment. Of course the diagnostic
reliability is greater when the two approaches (horizontal and vertical) are carried
out together or in sequence; the greater reliability (100%) will be achieved in the
physical point in which the two processes intersect and will gradually decline the
further apart they move. In any case, the two processes, if carried out together,
grant a tree dimensional reconstruction of the historical reality of the area. The
survey can be carried out in many ways depending on the objectives pursued and
the forces available in the field.

1.3.1 Types of Archaeological Survey: The archaeologists conduct surveys to

search for particular archaeological sites or kinds of sites, to detect patterns in the
distribution of material culture over regions, to make generalizations or test hypotheses
about past cultures, and to assess the risks that development projects will have adverse
impacts on archaeological heritage. The surveys may be:

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(a) Intrusive or non-intrusive, depending on the needs of the survey team (and the
risk of destroying archaeological evidence if intrusive methods are used).In a non-
intrusive survey, nothing is touched, just recorded. An accurate survey of the
earthworks and other features can enable them to be interpreted without the need
for excavation. An intrusive survey can mean different things. In some cases, all
artifacts of archaeological value are collected. This is often the case if it is a
rescue survey, but less common in a regular survey.

(b) Extensive or intensive, depending on the types of research questions being

asked of the landscape in question. Surveys can be a practical way to decide
whether or not to carry out an excavation (as a way of recording the basic details
of a possible site), but may also be ends in themselves, as they produce important
information about past human activities in a regional context.The intensive survey
is characterized by the complete or near-complete coverage of the survey area at a
high resolution, most often by having teams of survey archaeologists walk in a
systematic way over parcels of the landscape in question, documenting
archaeological data such as lithics, ceramics and/or building remains. An
extensive survey, on the other hand, is characterized by a low-resolution approach
over targets within a study area. Extensive surveys may be designed to target the
identification of archaeological sites across a large area, whereas intensive
surveys are designed to provide a more comprehensive picture of the location of
sites and the nature of off-site data e.g. field systems, isolated finds, etc.

1.3.2 Tools Required in Survey: The archaeologists use a variety of tools

when carrying out surveys, exploration or excavations such as; GIS, GPS, remote
sensing, geophysical survey and aerial photography.

i. GIS (Geographic Information Systems) :GIS deal with the storage of

information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate
manner appropriate to the information's purpose. GIS has revolutionized the field
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of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some
form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and
GIS techniques to represent, analyze, and predict the spatial relationships. It is a
method to visualize, manipulate, analyze and display spatial data. It is a system of
computer software, hardware and data and the personnel to help manipulate,
analyze and present information that is tied to a spatial location. The data required
for preparing the GIS applications consists on:
i) Digitized and scanned maps.
ii) Data Bases (tables of data)
iii) GPS (Global Positioning system)
iv) Field sampling of attributes.
v) Remote sensing and aerial photography.

There are many ways to use the GIS such as; emergency services (fire and
police), environmental (monitoring and modeling), Business (site location,
delivery systems), Industry (transportation, communication, mining, pipelines,
health care), Government (local, state, federal, military), Education (Research,
teaching tool, administration and wherever the spatial data analysis is needed.

ii. GPS ( Global Positioning System): GPS (originally NAVSTAR) is

a satellite-based radio navigation system. It is one of the global navigation
satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geological location and time
information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.The GPS does not require
the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any telephonic or
internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the
GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to
military, civil, and commercial users around the world. It is a network of satellites
that continuously transmit coded information which makes it possible to precisely
identify locations on earth by measuring distance from the satellites. With the
help of GPS current location can be viewed in the form of coordinates. Since
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different maps and charts use different position formats, GPS units gives
coordinates system for the particular use. The most common format is latitude and
longitude. The maps and charts are essentially grids created from a starting
reference point called a datum. Many maps still being used today were originally
created decades ago. However with the new technology of GPS the surveying
skills have improved considerably.

iii. Remote sensing technique: It is used in numerous fields including

archaeology, geography, and most earth science disciplines like hydrology,
ecology, oceanography, glaciology and geology. Italsohas military intelligence
commercial, economic, planning and humanitarianapplications. It is the science of
obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a
distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms, such as satellite imagery,
aerial photography, and data obtained from hand-held sensors. The photographs
taken from satellites have a limited application to archaeology since their scale is
often huge but images from the LANDSAT (Earth Resources Technology)
Satellites have proved useful.

The scanners record the intensity of reflected light and the infrared radiation from
the earth’s surface and convert these electronically into photographic images.
LANDSAT images are used to trace large scale archaeological features. Another
remote sensing technique is known as sideways looking airborne radar (SLAR).
The technique involves recording in radar images the return of pulses of
electromagnetic radiation sent out from flying aircraft. Basically remote sensing is
the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making
physical contact with the object and thus in contract to on site observation.

Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing technique can be used
to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information
about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—
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passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or
emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted
by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the
instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite
imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote
sensing instruments: Lidar and Laser Altimeter. A Lidar (Light Detection and
Ranging) uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to
transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the
backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording
the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of
light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidar can determine atmospheric profiles
of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere. Laser altimeter uses
a Lidar to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By
independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's
surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.

iv. Proton Magnetometer: The main instruments for tracing buried features
using magnetic methods are magnetometers and metal detectors. A proton
Magnetometer consists of a sensor encircled by an electrical coil, mounted on a
staff and connected by a cable to a small portable box of electronics. The device
can detect small but sharp differences in magnetic field intensity caused by buried
objects and features. A proton Magnetometer uses the principle of Earth’s field nuclear
magnetic resonance to measure very small variations in the Earth’s magnetic field,
allowing ferrous objects on land and at sea to be detected. It is used in land-based
archaeology to map the positions of demolished walls and buildings.

v. Aerial photography: This technique was used first in 1913 by Sir Henry
Wellcome when he took vertical pictures of his excavations in Sudan by means of
a box kite. The World War-I, gave the technique a great impetus when
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archaeologists such as O.G.S Crawford in England realized that air photographs
taken from aircraft and balloons could provide a plan view of prehistoric
monuments. Aerial photographs are of two types; the oblique and the vertical. The
oblique photographs taken at an angle reveal contours are best for discovering
sites while vertical photographs are useful for mapping. The accurate plans and
maps of the layout of sites can be made quite easily from vertical photographs.
The oblique photographs are harder to transform into maps because of the way
they distort perspective. However, features in these pictures can now be mapped quite
accurately and rapidly using relatively simple computer program, provide at least four
points in a given picture have known positions on the ground. The individual plans can
be made from oblique photographs at selected scales, which can be compared used as a
source of measurements, and combined into maps of an area.

vi. Recording with pictures and AUTOCAD application: In many

excavations, archaeologists and surveyors nowadays take a set of top or graphical
points by the means of a total station. Then they take vertical digital pictures from
cameras held above the trench, join the pictures with commercial PC applications,
and draw their maps on scale on the photo planes so obtained in AUTOCAD or
Adobe graphic environments. Although this procedure is doubtless inexpensive,
fast and relatively precise, nothing can substitute the detailed observation that
comes together the long observation required by traditional hand-mapping. The
problems are 1) to decide which layers and features must appear together in a
phase map, 2) to accumulate photo planes that are not interpreted, thus loosing the
memory and evidence of important details; 3) In the photo planes, the colors of
the layers are not so evident, and many small finds and inclusions are not always
visible; 4) color and limits with the other excavators. The same problems are
encountered when vertical sections are recorded with the same technology. The
best solution is to construct the recording base with these new techniques, but

50
keep the partial maps on the field and constantly update them by adding manually
limits and details.

vii) Plane Table: A plane table is a device used in surveying and related
disciplines to provide a solid and level surface on which to make field drawings,
charts and maps/plans. The plane table became a popular instrument for
surveying. It is a instrument compared to other devices such as the theodolite,
since it was relatively easy to use. By allowing the use of graphical methods
rather than mathematical calculations, it could be used by those with less
education than other instruments. A plane table consists of a smooth table surface
mounted on a sturdy base. The connection between the table top and the base
permits one to level the table precisely, using bubble levels, in a horizontal plane.
The base, a tripod, is designed to support the table over a specific point on land.
By adjusting the length of the legs, one can bring the table level regardless of the
roughness of the terrain.

It is a set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A drawing sheet is
attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest. The
alidade, in modern examples of the instrument a rule with a telescopic sight, can
then be used to construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of the object
of interest. By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the
topography of the site can be directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. The
distances to the objects can be measured directly or by the use of stadia marks in
the telescope of the alidade.

viii) Total Station: Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil
engineers, either to record features as in topographic surveying or to set out
features (such as roads, houses or boundaries). They are also used by
archaeologists to record archaeological excavations. The total station measure

51
angles by means of electro-optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes
etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality
total stations are capable of measuring angles to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive
"construction grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-
seconds. The measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated infrared
carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's
optical path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the computer
in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple
frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for
each frequency. The total stations use purpose-built glass prism (surveying)
reflectors for the EDM signal. A typical total station can measure distances up to
1,500 meters (4,900 ft) with an accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.059 in) ± 2
parts per million. The Reflectorless total stations can measure distances to any
object that is reasonably light in color, up to a few hundred meters.

The coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate can be

determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be
established between the two points. The Angles and distances are measured from
the total station to points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z; and
elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station position are calculated
using trigonometry and triangulation. In order to determine an absolute location, a
total station requires line of sight observations and can be set up over a known
point or with line of sight to 2 or more points with known location, called free
stationing.

However, some total stations also have a Global Navigation Satellite System
receiver and do not require a direct line of sight to determine coordinates. Some
models include internal electronic data storage to record distance, horizontal
52
angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are equipped to write
these measurements to an external data collector, such as a computer. When data
is downloaded from a total station onto a computer, application software can be
used to compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area. The newest
generation of total stations can also show the map on the touch-screen of the
instrument immediately after measuring the points.

The Robotic or motorized total stations allow the operator to control the
instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member as the operator holds the retroreflector and controls the
total station from the observed point. These motorized total stations can also be
used in automated setups known as Automated Motorized Total Station (AMTS).

ix) 3D Scanningtechnique: 3D scanning is the process of analyzing a real-world

object or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly its appearance. The
collected data can then be used to construct digital 3D models. A 3D scanner can
be based on many different technologies, each with its own limitations,
advantages and costs. Many limitations in the kind of objects that can be digitised
are still present. For example, optical technology may encounter many difficulties
with shiny, reflective or transparent objects. For example, industrial computed
tomography scanning and structured-light 3D scanners can be used to construct
digital 3D models, without destructive testing.

The collected 3D data is useful for a wide variety of applications. These devices
are used extensively by the entertainment industry in the production of movies
and video games, including virtual reality. The other common applications of this
technology include augmented reality, motion capture, gesture recognition,
robotic mapping, industrial design, orthotics and prosthetics, reverse engineering

53
and prototyping, quality control/inspection and the digitization of cultural
artifacts.

The purpose of a 3D scanner is usually to create a 3D model. This 3D model

consists of a point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the subject. These
points can then be used to extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process called
reconstruction). If colour information is collected at each point, then the colours
on the surface of the subject can also be determined.

The 3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Like most cameras, they have
a cone-like field of view, and like cameras, they can only collect information
about surfaces that are not obscured. While a camera collects colour information
about surfaces within its field of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information
about surfaces within its field of view. The "picture" produced by a 3D scanner
describes the distance to a surface at each point in the picture. This allows the
three-dimensional position of each point in the picture to be identified. For most
situations, a single scan will not produce a complete model of the subject. The
multiple scans, even hundreds, from many different directions are usually
required to obtain information about all sides of the subject. These scans have to
be brought into a common reference system, a process that is usually called
alignment or registration, and then merged to create a complete 3D model. This
whole process, going from the single range map to the whole model, is usually
known as the 3D scanning.

1.3.3 Methods in Field Surveys:-

i. Intensive transect survey

This method intensifies the conventional surveying technique in which one or

more persons move over a part of the ground counting and defining the presence
54
of archaeological material on surface. The space in divided up into parallel strips
about two meters wide and of the same length as the surface to be surveyed. This
is certainly the most systematic method and the one providing the greatest
quantity of information as a function also of the intensity and repetitively of the
operation. The drawback is that it demands a heavy investment in time and labor
as well as an accurate assessment of the areas surveyed. Visibility is decisive for a
correct sampling as vegetation or crops cause a progressive reduction and thus
also a reduction in the possibility of detecting archaeological remains, until a
threshold is reached beyond which it is impossible to identify even monumental
remains. This technique is used on all land free of vegetation or crops and with
natural flat surfaces, either slightly sloping or with artificial terracing. This is
because of the difficulty involved in performing transect survey on steeper slopes
and also because in such circumstances the archaeological record tends to be
concentrated downhill under the effect of rainfall and earth are explored
thoroughly using the transect survey so as to gather as much information as
possible on the discovery of monumental remains.

ii. Contour technique survey: To solve the problem of taking sample along
steeper hillsidesa contour exploratory technique is preferred: the method consists
of in travelling over hillsides maintaining a constant level and continuing
horizontally at the prescribed level. Of course, the presence of natural obstacles
sometimes means that the same level cannot be maintained. A zig-zag trajectory
is followed inside a strip laying between two relatively closely space levels which
could vary be up to a few dozen meters. Also in this case two or more team
member make possible to subdivide the space into survey bands on several
different levels and to simultaneously explore several parallel areas. This
technique is effective only in the case of archaeological evidence of the

55
monumental nature but is combined with the transect technique on any section of
land that allows it, such as stepped or terraced areas.

On very steep slopes the remains of fragmentary material usually tends to roll
downhill until stopped by less inclined areas or against irremovable obstacles
encountered on the way. A substantial cluster of artifacts on surface point to a
site, but the location of the cluster could be entirely secondary. In this case it is
important to define the actual line of fall of the material.

The advantages of the contour technique consist of its systematic nature and
reliability vis-a-vis the monumental remains present over the whole surface. Its
limits consist of excessive steepness of the hillsides or heavy vegetation making
some of the areas impossible and also monumental archaeological remains
invisible.

iii. Pathway technique survey: By following the traditional lines of

communication - crossing the hillside along the valleys it is possible to identify
archaeological sites, roads, paths passes and dry stream beds or river banks
represent lines of communication that may have remained unchanged for
centuries. Nowadays they allow the local inhabitants to reach their homes, small
villages, mountain tops and clean water sources just as they were used for similar
purposes in the past. This survey technique allows the work to be speeded up. In
the space of a single day it is possible to cross the whole valleys, encountering
without too much effort (except perhaps physical) a succession of archaeological
remains. Also in this case, however, the technique is effective only in indication
monumental evidence. It is possible to combine it with the transect technique in
relatively flat areas free of heavy vegetation so as to detect the presence of
ascertain the absence of non-monumental sites.

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iv. Local guided survey: A fundamental help is given by the local
inhabitants who, after lengthy conversations, often accompanied by tea and food
prepared on the spot, may take us to explore completely unknown sites or areas
not lacking historical evidence, but which until only a few years before bore
obvious traces of archaeological remains in such cases, it endeavored to exploit
the information by carefully inspection the areas searching for diagnostic
elements of use in confirming the datum. In some cases the inhabitants may lead
us to areas in which important terracing work left only a few traces of former
archaeological sites. The draw backs of this technique are they lack a systematic
approach and control. Also the information or the informers may turn out to be
unreliable. However, this technique is quite effective in identifying rock-art and
rock – artifact sites.

v. Probabilistic technique survey: This is a type of nonsystematic survey

aimed at exploring points on the landscape considered to be promising. This
technique can be used only rarely and specifically in areas considered as marginal
or inaccessible to the survey techniques and inaccessible to normal human traffic
which may conserve sacred symbols such as rock reliefs or paintings along
rugged and difficult terrains. Though this technique lacks planning and systematic
implementation, it allows some light to be shed on areas that would otherwise
remain concealed.

vi. Electrical resistance surveys: Electrical resistance survey (also called

earth resistance or resistivity survey) are one of a number of methods used in
archaeological geophysics, as well as in engineering geological investigations. In
this type of survey electrical resistance meters are used to detect and map
subsurface archaeological features and patterns.

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vii. Geophysical survey: There are many methods and types of instruments
used in geophysical surveys, for instance seismic methodssuch; as reflection
seismology, seismic refraction, and seismic tomography. This type of survey is
carried out to discover the detailed structure of the rock formations beneath the
surface of the Earth in archaeology, geophysical survey is ground-based physical
sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping. Remote
sensing and marine surveys are also used in archaeology, but are generally
considered separate disciplines. Geophysical survey is used to create maps of
subsurface archaeological features. Features are the non-portable part of the
archaeological record, whether standing structures or traces of human activities
left in the soil. Geophysical instruments can detect buried features when their
physical properties contrast measurably with their surroundings. In some cases
individual artifacts, especially metal, may be detected as well. Readings taken in a
systematic pattern become a data sheet that can be rendered as image maps.
Survey results can be used to guide excavations and to give archaeologists insight
into the patterning of non-excavated parts of the site. Unlike other archaeological
methods, geophysical survey is neither invasive nor destructive. For this reason, it
is often used where preservation (rather than excavation) is the goal. The most
commonly applied equipment in the field of archaeology includes;
magnetometers, electrical resistance meters, ground penetratingradar (GPR) and
electromagnetic (EM) conductivity meters. These methods can resolve many
types of archaeological features, are capable of high sample density surveys of
very large areas, and of operating under a wide range of conditions. While
common metal detectors are geophysical sensors, they are not capable of
generating high-resolution imagery. Other established and emerging technologies
are also finding use in archaeological applications.

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1.3.4 Archaeological Excavations: In order to fill the gaps in the story of the
evolution of human society and to provide meaning and substance to the dry
bones of history, the field archaeological explorations and excavations constitute
an essential source. By piecing together the evidence from the scientific
excavations, the archaeologists write the blank chapters of nations’ history.
However, the archaeological survey and explorations of all ancient sites and
monuments takes precedence over all the measures. In fact, the archaeological
excavation is a process of digging the buried landscape which is carried out with
all the skilled craftsmanship that has been built up in the last hundred years. The
first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of
Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank
Calvert and Wilhelm Dorpfeld in 1870’s.

1.3.5 Renowned Persons in Field Archaeology: During the late 19th century a
sound methodology of scientific archaeological excavation was started to develop.
From that time till the recent past, major figures stand out who in their various ways
have helped to develop and create the modern field methods which we use today in
archaeology. The most prominent and pioneer figures who contributed remarkably in
the field techniques of archaeology are mentioned below:-

i. William Cunnington (1754-1819): William Cunnington is considered father

of archaeological excavations who undertook excavations in Wiltshire from
around 1798 funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. William Cunnington made
particular recording of Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows and the terms he used
to categorize and describe them are still used by the archaeologists even today.

ii. General Augustus Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers (1827-1900) : He brought long

experience of military methods, survey and precision to impeccably organized
excavations on his estates in southern England. He prepared plans, sections and

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 even models and exact position of every object was recorded by him. He was
pioneer in his insistence on total recording and his four volumes publication
describes excavations on Cranborne Chase from 1887to 1898.

ii. Sir William Flinders Petrie (1853-1942): His work is noted for meticulous
excavations and insistence on the collection and description of everything found
not just the fine objects. He devised his own techniques of seriation or “sequence
dating” which he used to bring chronological order during excavations in Egypt
and alter in Palestine.

iv. Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976): He brought military precision to his

excavations, through the techniques such as the grid-square method. He
excavated sites of Harappa and Taxila in Pakistan. He introduced the stratification
technique of excavation which was in vogue during that time and improved the
system of reporting and publishing.

v. Max Uhle (1856-1944): The scientific archaeology in South America owes

much to the work of Uhle, a German scholar. His excavations in 1890’s became
the first important step in establishing an area-wide chronology for Peru. His
concentration on graves and the careful recording of grave-good associations
recall Petrie early work in Egypt.

vi. Alfred Kidder (1885-1963): He was one of the first archaeologists to use a
team of specialist to help analyze artifacts and human remains. He is famous for
important works such as; reconnaissance, selection of criteria for ranking the remains
of sites chronologically, seriation into a probable sequence stratigraphic excavation to
elucidate specific problems and more detailed regional survey and dating.

vii. Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814– 1893) : Major General Sir Alexander
Cunningham was appointed as the first Archaeological Surveyor in 1861 after
establishment of Archaeological Survey of India in 1860 by the British in the

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Sub-Continent. He was basically a civil engineer and instead of unmaking
conservation of monuments he excelled in recording and documenting
archaeological, historical and archaeological data including survey of
archaeological sites and monuments. He focused on the ancient geography due to
the published records of Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang, two famous Chinese pilgrims.
He carried out excavations at many places including Taxila and prepared a map of
the territory which was surveyed by him. He produced his researches of almost a
quarter of a century in the form of 23 volumes of the Archaeological Survey of
India Reports. The methodology introduced by him in editing the Inscriptions is
still followed by the Epigraphists of the South Asian countries.

viii. Sir John Marshall (1876-1958):Sir John Marshall was the real architect of
Archaeology in the sub-continent whose discoveries added now and most
important chapters of history. He put the archaeological survey of India on a most
sound footing. His two books “Conservation Manual”, 1923 and “Archaeological
Works Code”, 1938, covers all important aspects of the conservation work other
solutions to practical problems. He opposed hypothetical reconstructions and
restoration and insisted on preservation of original components of monuments and
decorative designs. The rules framed by Sir John Marshall have been followed
during the British colonial period and even later times in south Asia.

1.3.6 Organization of Excavation Plan at an Archaeological Site; Following

important steps are required to complete before the commencement of
archeological excavation:-

i) Proposed Project / Field Programe of the Excavations (aims and

objectives, selection of area/site, schedule of all work activities at the site
area and established camp)
ii) Composition of Team (name of team members)
iii) Work context and Legal aspects (license, permissions)

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iv) Establishment of Field Camp at site/field (arrangements for physical
work plan)
v) Provision of equipments/tools/scientific methods applied by concerned
technical staff at the site
vi) Provision of facilities for storage of excavated material (Pottery yard) at camp
vii) Registration/documentation/cataloguing/inventories and recording
viii) Collection of data and analysis / laboratory tests
ix) Interpretation of data and results achieved
x) Preliminary reports/notes/daily diaries and publication of technical final
reports
1.3.7 The Base of Field Archaeology: In Archaeology, any excavation activity
that does not comply with existing legislation and according to prevailing
Laws/Rules or fails to follow the rules of application is deemed as illegal. An
illegal dig is a hole in the ground or a series of holes and tunnels. The aim of this
work is to find an object for which there is a demand on the antiquarian market or
from a collector at the same time by destroying the contextual details of an object
as well the site. Therefore, legal framework is an essential and important part of
all kind of surveys, archaeological explorations and excavations. The concept of
excavation license for legal excavation was introduced in British India in the early
1930s and it evolved through several amendments to the Ancient Monuments
Preservation Act 1904 which remained in force after independence of Pakistan for
many years until it was replaced by a new legislation in 1968. It was amended and
ultimately replaced by the present prevailing Act called as “Antiquities Act,
1975”. A number of Rules have also been framed and notified by the Government
of Pakistan relating to the management, protection, preservation and maintenance
of movable and immovable antiquities including the “Archaeological Excavation
and Exploration Rules, 1978” which regulate the activities of the archaeological
excavations in our country. The State has the ownership of all the archaeological
items whether excavated or not.
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The development of archaeological excavation techniques have moved over the
last many decades from treasure hunting process (curios) to one which seek to
fully understand the sequence of human activity on a particular site. However, all
forms of archaeological excavations require great skills and careful preparation. A
number of years are required for training in the field work. There are many
different types of archeological sites and there is no one set of precepts and rules
that will apply to excavations as a whole. For instance some sites such as
monuments, temples, forts, ancient cities, palaces and remains are easily visible
on the surface of the ground. However, among the most obvious archaeological
sites that have yielded spectacular results by archaeological excavations are the
huge human made mounds. These mounds are result from the accumulation of
remains caused by centuries of human habitation on one site. The archeological
site of Taxila, for instance is one of this example. In some cases there are no
surface traces and outline of suspected structures is revealed only by aerial or
geophysical techniques. Then there are some other sites located in cliffs and
gravel beds as well. Therefore, a wide range of techniques are employed by the
archaeologists in their applications according to different kinds of sites.

The excavation however, produces three things; descriptive data, photographic

data and the material unearthed during the excavation. The results are summarized
in the preliminary report of the excavation. The excavated finds are
progressivelydocumentedas they are found together with the stratigraphic meta-
data (sector, number of stratigraphic unit and date of find). After careful cleaning
of all the objects, the objects to be inventories are selected. The selection is made
keeping in view their exceptionality, state of conservation and importance. For
instance all coins found are inventoried, but among the potsherds only those with
inscriptions or which are painted are however, necessary to be inventoried. The
preparation of an Inventory List is the most delicate segment of all excavation

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procedure. It is a list containing the important information such as; serial number,
stratigraphic information, short description, principal measurement and the
material of an object/find.

1.3.8 Methods of Excavations: Basically there are two types of archaeological

excavations; first a research excavations when time and resources are available to
excavate the site fully, second the development-led excavations when the site is
being threatened by urban development. However, sometimes, if there is a need to
determine the extent and characteristics of archaeological potential in an area or at
a site before extensive excavation is undertaken, then trial excavation is carried
out. The salvage excavation is also carried out at a time when it is necessary to
obtain quick results. Whatever excavations is planned, the purpose of excavations
is to obtain answer the two questions; first that what were the human activities at
a particular period in the past and second that what changes in those activities
from period to period were taken place. Generally, we can say that contemporary
activities take place horizontally in space whereas changes in those activities
occur vertically through time. This is called as horizontal excavations and vertical
excavations respectively. In the horizontal dimension archaeologists demonstrate
contemporary activities occurred at the same time, but in the vertical dimension
archaeologists analyze changes through time by the study of “Stratigraphy”. In
archaeology, stratigraphymean study and validating of stratification - the analysis
in the vertical, time dimensions of a series of layers in the horizontal. It is the
process when the layers or strata are laid down, one on top of the other as law of
superposition.

i. The Wheeler box-grid: Most excavations employ a combination of both

strategies (horizontal and vertical) but there are different ways of achieving the
targets and results. Once the general extend and layout of the site has been
ascertained, some of the baulks can be removed and the squares joined unto an
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open excavation to expose any features that are of specific interest. However, on
contrary the open-area excavation method argues that the baulks are invariably in
the wrong place or wrongly oriented to illustrate the relationships required from
sections and that they prevent the distinguishing of spatial patterning over large
areas. The open area method is particularly effective where single period deposits
lie near the surface. However, no single method is ever going to be universally
applicable. The box-grid has rarely been employed to excavate very deep sites.
The solutions is commonly adopted as step trenching, with a large area opened at
the top which gradually narrows as the dig descends in a series of large steps.
ii. The Harris Matrix: The Matrix method was developed in 1973 in
England, by Dr. Edward C. Harris. It is a tool used to depict the temporal
succession of archaeological contexts and thus the sequence of depositions and
surfaces on an archaeological site. The matrix reflects the relative position and
stratigraphic contacts of observable stratigraphic units, or contexts. In
his Principles of archaeological stratigraphy Harris first proposed the need for
each unit of stratification to have its own graphic representation, usually in the
form of a measured plan. The Harris matrix is a tool that aids the accurate and
consistent excavation of a site and articulates complex sequences in a clear and
understandable way.

When there are hundreds of relationships, a formal method of keeping track of

them is required. An effective method is to prepare a Harris Matrix. Their position
in the matrix places the contexts in their sequence in time, provided that the
archaeologist has maintained a record of the context in which each artifact was
found, the tracing of the contexts by the matrix does equally well for the artefacts.

iii. Harris Laws of Archeological Stratigraphy:

a) Law of superposition

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In a series of layers and interfacial features, as originally created, the upper units
of stratification are younger and the lower are older, for each must have been
deposited on, or created by the removal of, a pre-existing mass of archaeological
stratification.
b) Law of original horizontal
Any archaeological layer deposited in an unconsolidated form will tend towards a
horizontal disposition.
c) Law of original continuity
Any archaeological deposit, as originally laid down, will be bounded by the edge
of the basin of deposition, or will thin down to a feather edge.
d) Law of stratigraphic succession
Any given unit of archaeological stratification takes its place in the stratigraphic
sequence of a site from its position between the undermost of all units which lie
above it and the uppermost of all those units which lie below it and with which it has
a physical contact, all other superposition relationships being regarded as redundant.

1.3.9 Composition of Excavation Team

i) Team Leader / Director

ii) Co-Leader/Co-Director
iii) Team Members; at least two from amongst archaeologists,
anthropologists, geologists, zoologists, palaeo-botanists, paleontologists
and geomorphologist, architect , conservationists, archaeologicalchemists
iv) Field / Camp Supervisor
v) Draftsman
vi) Photographer
vii) Skilled Workers
viii) Trained Labors

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 ix) Pottery Recorder
x) Technical staff (pottery restorer)
xi) Store keeper

List of equipments/toolsrequired for excavation

a. General type:

i) Picks
ii) Long handled shovels
iii) Wheel-barrows
iv) Small picks
v) Large trowels
vi) Small travels
vii) Baskets
viii) Brushes of different sizes
ix) Ladders
x) Plastic bags
xi) Labels

b. Scientific type:

i) Optical level and stadia

ii) Site ranging rods
iii) Measurement taps
iv) Folding rulers
v) Plumb line
vi) Black board
vii) Metric scale and north pointer
viii) Compass
ix) Bubble levels
x) Drawing material
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1.3.10 The Archaeological Excavations: The term “archaeological section” is
used to refer to two different things. The physical section is the inner wall of the
excavation which runs around the trench or along unexcavated baulks. On the
other hand, the main cross section of a trench is the graphic representation of its
stratigraphical sequence crossing crucial parts of the site, usually those that link
the architecture to separate stratigraphic contexts. This graphic section and its
geometry are selected by the archaeologist at a certain point of the dig to interpret,
summarize and explain the history of the whole site.

When Mortimer wheeler introduced the concept and the practice of stratigraphic
recording first in India and then in Pakistan the use of reading the stratigraphy on
the vertical (baulk or wall) sections was strongly recommended and emphasized.
The steps of this procedure were: laying down the grid, excavating by squares
within baulks, then, once reached the virgin soil, carving one the baulks the limits
among the layers, thus dividing the sites sequence in “Periods”. The modern
archaeology, wherever possible, tends to excavate extensively and produces
sections reconstructed from the planes of the layers surveyed using the optical
level vis-à-vis a datum point. These sections, often called “cumulative”, can be
reconstructed in any part of the excavation, wherever they can enhance the
illustration of the general stratigraphy.

As a rule, difference in colors, texture and inclusions among layers are more
precisely appreciated when these latter are superimposed and cut vertically, rather
than when they are exposed side by side on horizontal surface. Vertical sections
may reveal details of stratigraphical formation processes and biological
transformation not visible in other ways. Sometimes for example within graves it
will be useful to leave small, partial sections limited to one or two layers, then
document and remove them as soon as the exploration of a given surface or filling
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will be completed in short, there is not a single method of excavation to be
recommended in every case. If the excavated area is on a steep slope, after
removing the topsoil we can find some parallel strips of soil distinguished by
different colors or lines of stones. In this case, it is important to start the
excavation from the uppermost layer, exposing its inclusions and possible
architectural features on its inclined surfaces. In these cases, to excavate by the
means of geometric horizontal cuts will mix materials of different periods beyond
hope of recovery.

During excavations, sometimes on the dig we find the remnants of complex and
delicate objects in perishable materials, or fragile parts of burials that deserve a
greater attention and a particularly careful documentation. Often similar finds
cannot be left on the field, where they can be damaged by exposure to air and
rains. Depending on the type of surrounding sediments and their compactness,
these finds can be isolated within blocks of earth, fixed with bandages, gypsum,
wax or wooden frames tied up with iron wire, and under excavated, while
gradually supporting their bottom. Then, such blocks can be lifted and removed,
to be brought to a lab to be micro-excavated with the due security and care. The
collection of samples like soil, pollen, charcoal, bones etc. is very important
which need much care by observing operational and practical guidelines or
instructions. As these samples are used for different types and kinds of laboratory
tests therefore utmost care should be carried out while collecting the samples for
scientific laboratory test purposes.

In fact excavation is a basic method of archaeology with its own body of data and
set of techniques. The objects unearthed during an archaeological excavation
provide the illustration, which imitate the environmental, physical and culture
subsistence of man in antiquity. The excavation procedures may seem perplexing
to a novice, but it is an intelligible means of unearthing facts. The archaeological
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sites are spread all over the world; in different environs, geological and culture
contexts, and at different altitudes. For instance the Egyptian and Mesopotamian
civilizations, the Harappan and Iranian glories, the Central Asian cultures, and
Mayan Epic, are a few examples. Every archaeological site has its environmental
and presents its own set of questions. No standard principles could be postulated
which are applied everywhere. It is only through careful observation and keen
insight of the excavator to discern the true nature of the situation, which helps
him/her to formulate the specific principles in accord with the particular case.
Excavation is destruction is a common saying, which refers to the fact that
archaeological sites are records of wealth of information, buried underneath for
thousand to years. They provide a quantity of details and accuracy, which is a
basic requirement of the scientific research and modern quest. Once excavated,
and the objects are removed from their physical and archaeological contexts, they
will never attain their natural position again. Excavation is thus a very sensitive
responsibility, which the excavators undertake on themselves. It involves very
high cost in terms of labour, time and money. It is the main duty of an excavator
to try to understand the meaning of an archaeological context as minutely as
possible bringing forth even minor aspects of the critical analysis, so that the past
life is reconstructed accurately to the maximum extent, for the benefit of
humanity in consonance with present day scientific pursuit. The following are
some procedures and principles, which are considered as the backbone of a
scientific excavation:-
Non-destructive sampling techniques: The Soil Auger (Drill) and the Proton
Magnetometer are non-destructive techniques, which could be applied on an
archaeological site before conducting research excavation. These are reliable
method, which are also very cheap.
The Soil Auger (Drill) Method: The Soil Auger consists of a drill bit,
intervening lengths of a rod and a handle. The bit is placed in a damped area and
70
the handle is twisted. When the head of the bit is completely conversed by the
soil, it is removed. A plug of soil held in the head is removed and placed on a
plastic sheet. The sheet is marked in graduations of 20 cm. the plug is cut open
and the soil Munsell color is noticed. This method is employed to reconstruct the
stratigraphic sequence of part of a site by hanging out a grid and testing cores at
intervals (up to a depth of 10 m). The site can also be dated from fragments of
pottery within the soil plug or from carbon samples recovered.
The Proton Magnetometer Method: The Magnetometer contains a proton rich
liquid in a canister surrounded by a metal coil. A current is passed through the
coil, causing protons to align parallel to the axis. The current is switched off and
the coil becomes a detector attached to a sensor so that the protons align to the
new magnetic field (of the earth’s magnetic field and anomalies), while re-
aligning they generate a small voltage in the coil and the frequency of this voltage
is proportioned to the strength of the field measured. The Proton Magnetometer
measures the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field in a single area. The
archaeologists to identify anomalies or differences caused by man’s activities in
antiquity use it.
The Proton Magnetometer is often used to locate kilns or metal working areas.
These areas often involve the heating of clay. If clay is fired it is first
demagnetized and then re-magnetized in a single coherent pattern presenting an
anomaly. The Proton Magnetometer can also be used to identify ditches on an
archaeological site (within a range of 2 m of the surface). Topsoil is normally
more magnetic than subsoil, thus ditches give a positive signal. However, some
ditches which are filled with slit only highly magnetic subsoil will produce a
negative signal.
Field excavation techniques: A scientific excavation is completely different
from just digging. It is the responsibility of an excavator to instruct the labour the
proficiency in observing and feeling differences in the soil colour, architectural
71
features and artifact. The local labour employed on a site is generally very sharp
and quick in detecting such differences, if trained properly. However, even when
trained and experienced labour is concerned, only employ them to assist you in
your work; do not rely completely on them for the excavation of an
archaeological site. What an archaeologist can observe and feel, a labour can’t.
There is a high possibility of losing important evidence, if labour is mainly
responsible for the excavation of a site. Archaeology is just like a puzzle where an
archaeologist has to put together countless tiny pieces of evidence to present a
nearest accurate glimpse of the life in antiquity. Even if a minor piece of evidence
is lost it may deform the picture and destroy its authenticity, while the same piece
of evidence, if observed and interpreted correctly, may prove to be of prim
importance in long run.
 Never hurry while excavating. Try to observe the artifacts in – situ to a
maximum possible extent. Once an important object is noticed, the excavator
should unearth the object/architectural feature etc, personally, delicate
excavation tools such as soft brushes, small trowels, wooden sticks etc, may
be used whenever required. Horizontal excavation should be carried out is
order to observe and unearth the archaeological remains with relation to their
archaeological context. An important artifact should not be removed until the
nature of its contextual information is fully comprehended. Moreover, a
delicate artifact may not be removed by a labourer, it is an excavator’s job.
 Always keep a daily note book while in the field. Never rely on your memory.
Daily dairy should contain every decision the excavator makes in the field and
its reasoning i.e. why did that particular decision was taken; the hypothesis
made and tested in the field; the findings (minor and major), with their three-
dimensional measurements, and description of their contextual information. If
such daily diary is prepared during an excavation it will be a useful reference

72
 not only for the excavator, but it will also provide important details to other
archaeologist. A published report cannot contain that much detailed
description and drawings, which a daily diary may contain.
 Sometime excavator has to defend or support the decisions undertaken in the
field. If not noted down, minor details may slip off the mind, but a written
document will always be a useful reference.
 Don’t be rigid; be flexible while excavating an archaeological site.
Archaeological like any other scientific discipline seeks through the process of
continuous experimentation and experiences. Do not hesitate to change your
opinion, if not supported by the evidence. It is the only way to correct the
faults and improve the quality of research work.
 It is not always possible to take a full team of surveyors, draftsmen,
photographers and conservators in the field. An archaeologist has to master
several qualities and talents which are not generally found together in a
person. An excavator should have the preliminary knowledge and practice of
surveying, mapping and plotting, studying the ground, directing the
excavation, examining the objects, classifying and describing them, drawing
horizontal plan and vertical sections, archaeological photography, taking
measurements, and basic laboratory treatment of the objects.
 Every excavator should have a good hand for simple drawing and plotting. It
is only a matter of practice and interest. A topographic plan of the site is
plotted separately. A rough plan of the trench is drawn on the notebook on
daily basis. The archaeological remains and architectural features are drawn
on the top plan with the help of triangulation method. Drawing through
triangulation is a simple method, and a precise technique of documenting the
original archaeological and physical context.

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 The important artifacts should not be removed from their original
archaeological context before putting their position on the top plan according
to three-dimensions (i.e. depth, and horizontal measurements from two given
points), and photography.
 Vertical sections of a trench are also drawn whenever necessary. A draftsman
may not be present on a site every day; neither can he draw every section of
all trenches of the site. An excavator has to undertake this responsibility of
drawing the top plan and filling them with important details, in order to secure
promising results in comparatively shorter time period. It should be kept in
mind that there are many details which the eye of a camera cannot catch. Such
details are emphasized with the help of handmade sketches and illustrations.
 The archaeological objects decay, deteriorate and crumble with different
degrees of sensitivity, once excavated and exposed to air. The organic
materials decay much faster than the well-fired pottery and stone.
 Be sensitive to the importance of archaeological evidence. No piece of
evidence is negligible in an archaeological excavation. It is through such
minor pieces of evidence that a wider range of information is collected, about
the life of the ancients left behind in the form of architectural features and
material objects.
 An archaeological team cannot always afford several experts in field. Though
for instance a palaeo-botanist can appreciate the importance of charcoal or
seeds recovered from a site, while every excavator may not have an ability to
do so. However, every excavator should acknowledge the importance of all
the objects and remains collected from the site. Nothing should be discarded
as “unimportant”, no matter how trivial it seems to the excavator. The
excavator should preserve such objects carefully after cleaning them properly,
for future study by the experts of relevant fields.

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1.3.11.1 Recording of Archaeological Finds

i) Archaeological Photography: Technically, photography is a process of

making pictures by the action of recording light patterns, reflected or emitted
from objects, on a photosensitive medium or an image sensor through a timed
exposure. The process is done through mechanical, chemical, or electronic
devices known as cameras. A lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted
from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera
during a timed exposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an
electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a
digital image file for subsequent display or processing. The result with
photographic emulsion is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically
"developed" into a visible image, either negative or positive depending on the
purpose of the photographic material and the method of processing. A negative
image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on
a paper base, known as a print, either by using an enlarger or by contact printing.

The archaeological photography is essential in the disciplines of archaeology. It is

the practice of photographing the many aspects of archeological investigations to
create a lasting record of the field work. The job of an archeological photography
involves taking pictures of a site before, during, and after a dig including the
artifacts. Now-a-days, much archaeological photography is done digitally, a
technological development that has improved the field. Along with text, mapping,
and drawing, photography is an important task of archaeological method and
practice. From analog origins in the second half of the nineteenth century,
archaeological photography has now evolved into a digital process since the
beginning of this century.

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The archaeological photography is intended to create a permanent photographic
record of archaeological works or projects. By capturing the diverse elements of
these projects on film, the photography provides visual data that can later be
studied by the archaeologists working on that particular project, scholarly
researchers, museum curators etc. One of the main reasons that archaeological
photography is so important to the field of archaeology is that once a site has been
excavated, it cannot be restored to its original state. Thus, photographs can
provide a lasting record of a site before and while a dig is in progress and after
completion of the excavation work.

The digital cameras, scanning technology, storage media and computational

photography have afforded the greatest transformations in the process of
recording archaeology. While three‐dimensional (3D) approaches of visualizing
cultural landscapes, excavations, built heritage and artifacts are rapidly changing
the face of archaeology, traditional archaeological photography is still the
baseline of the discipline.

A large part of an archaeological photography is performed on-site. The camera

photographs are taken when the excavation work is continued in the process,
showing where and how a particular artifact was situated when it was unearthed.
The photographs are taken about the area surrounding a site to record how it
looked at the time of an excavation. Further, the pictures of each artifact
recovered during the process of an excavation are taken in such a way that its
details and size are clear to understand.

The digital technology has many benefits for archaeological photography. For
instance, to check the quality and composition of each picture before leaving an
excavation site, and also to share photographs quickly and economically. In many
respects, the advancement of technology has left traditional photography behind.

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Photogrammetry, 3D imaging, computer reconstruction, editable digital
photography, and ground-penetrating radar, help us to simulate full
reconstructions of a site. However, the use of many of the techniques is not an
accepted alternative for publication purposes. As such these technological
advances have been an inadequate replacement for good archaeological
photography. The best record of an archaeological site results from the
combination of high quality digital photography with classical field archaeology.
This can serve as a baseline for more advanced Photogrammetry and site
documentation.

In the past years all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even

after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to
dominate for decades, due to its lower cost, chemical stability, and its "classic"
photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define
black-and-white photography. The monochrome printing or electronic display can
be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in
their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-
toned images they are found to be more effective. In order to properly document
the excavation and the nature of the archaeological site, archaeologists take
numerous photographs and make a multitude of drawings. These demonstrate the
relationship between different structures on the site, explain the stratigraphy and
illustrate the occupation sequence, give the layout of a building as well as show
what kind of artefacts and pottery were found on the site.

In fact, photographs of the archaeological site are taken before the excavations
begin. These pictures give an overview of the area prior to excavation, usually
seen from a distance. During the excavation, additional photographs are taken as
new things are unearthed; these will be overview shots of the excavation units as
well as in-situ object photographs, which show objects still in their original spot.
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At conclusion of the excavation, final photographs are taken because, in most
cases, what was just excavated needs to be re-buried for protection. The additional
photos may be taken to document various other things that may or may not be
archaeological like landscapes, living area, and even the people. The good quality
of photographs will provide much archaeological details and it will be an
authentic record.

Trenches: The recording of stratified layers in section can demonstrate difficulty,

as trenches are often narrow. It is desirable to gain as square a shot as possible,
that is with the camera vertical and square on to the section face with the lens axis
as near as possible to the mid-point of the section rather than looking down at an
angle. This prevents spherical distortion to the edges of the frame, which is
caused by lens foreshortening or perspective shift, if lines are not parallel to the
camera view finder. From a high viewpoint, the sections nearer to the camera
would appear bigger and deeper than the sections further away from the camera.
The digital cameras are convenient to check instantly to see the desired effect first
time. To gain a correct position, it will require to place the camera within the
trench on a tripod, as to measure the lens to section distance and accordingly
adjust the lenses’ focusing ring to line up the correct measurement, if cannot seen
through the viewfinder, which is often the case in narrow trenches.

When photographing a whole trench, it may be necessary to use a stepladder to

gain a slightly higher viewpoint. The extra height gained from using a ladder will
enable the photographer to achieve a wider view of both the trench and other
trenches or features alongside it. This gives valuable information about the
context and relationship of other features on site, as well as considering the
important 3-D depth of a single feature. The pictures of isolated trenches with no
reference to other surrounding anomalies will have a limited use. It may be better
to shoot a few pictures using a ladder as well as a few without, using the four
cardinal points as starting points to view the trench from different directions to
see which best position to shoot it from. Further, to place the scales in large areas
as one will not be sufficient. These should be placed in important areas with a
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sense of depth as well as width/ length in deep trenches. It is important to use both
vertically placed and horizontally placed scales in strategic points. An ideal
viewpoint for trench shots is the vertical position, however this can be difficult to
achieve without expensive equipment such as extending poles. The use of
quadripods gives excellent results and the final images are of an extremely high
quality, far surpassing the detail in a single shot, due to the amount of high
resolution images used in one final composite shot.

Lighting: It is always a problem achieving correct lighting when photographing

features or vertical sections, during the excavations unless they are deeper ones
cut to a batter. It can be difficult to differentiate between layers of different soils,
if they are similar in the colours but different textures. A common problem is
shadow, with a trench half in the light and half out of direct light. It is good to
wait for the clouds to diffuse the sunlight if it is a sunny day or to photograph the
feature or section on an overcast day. However bright sunlight is not always a bad
thing and slight side lighting is good for sections that have clear relief and surface
texture, such as wall foundations, which are best shot from slightly above and to
one side, showing the junction with the floor. If one side is in shadow, use
reflectors made of foil or white cardboard to fill-in the darker side. Flat soil
sections or features maybe better with more oblique side-lighting in early morning
or late afternoon sunlight. The best form of practice is to observe the trench in
varying lighting conditions to determine the best results. Alternatively, the use of
electronic flash to one side of the camera will enhance texture, if used to light the
surface at an oblique angle.

Scales: The presence of scales at the site is indispensable in order to give accurate
measurements and an idea of size and depth. The scales are generally in lengths of
2m, marked in 50cm bands ranging in size from 2m, 1m with 50cm and 25cm for
smaller features. The smaller ones are available for artefact recording. The scales
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need to be parallel to the edge of the cameras’ viewfinder and square on to the
edge of the section or trench and as close to features/artefacts where possible. If
the camera is at a slight angle, place the scales at a parallel angle to the camera so
that they are square on to the camera. This way, the scales are on the same plane
as the lens axis, to minimize perspective distortion. If the scales are not on the
same axis as the lens, distortion will occur between the nearest point of the
camera and the furthest point from the camera. However, care needs to be taken,
if trenches are deep, as scales placed at an acute angle will not give a true
indication of depth or angle.

However, with large areas, three or more scales may be used, placed in the
foreground, mid-ground and background for definitive reference points in equal
proportions. These may be 2m survey poles or even people used as scales. It is
important to note that scales should have the measurements recorded clearly on
their surface, so it is instantly recognizable if the coloured sections are measured
in 1cm or 10cms bands. In addition to the use of vertical and horizontal scales,
there is requiring of indicating a ‘north arrow’ in position alongside a trench
information board. The board may be a small blackboard or a magnetic board
which states the trench number and any context information. Therefore the photo
can be easily recognized for salient features when writing up site reports.

Lenses: The performing qualities of specific lenses may be researched and

understood before selecting and using. A basic, standard lens would be suitable
for most situations, giving a view similar to that which we see with our own eyes.
Distortion is minimal and they usually have a minimum aperture for maximum
depth of field. Sometimes wide-angle lenses are useful in tight spots. They will
‘squeeze’ in information giving a wider viewpoint and are therefore good for
placing sites in context with their surrounding environment. Sometimes a slight
telephoto lens is used. This gives the effect of flattening perspective and is usually
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employed to photograph objects far away, making them appear bigger and closer.
This may be useful when photographing different areas on site and investigating
how they relate to each other.

Cleaning up the Site: If images are being used for publication, the edges of the
trenches should be cleaned carefully, also making sure that the baulk edges and
profiles of the sections have been thoroughly cleaned back with a good trowel and
sprayed with water. The floor of the trench should be cleaned up and brushed and
any bags, buckets or mattocks left lying around should be moved out of shot.
When the preliminaries of positioning scales, boards and arrows have been done,
viewpoint and lighting can be considered.

Photography of Objects: Depending on the complexity of the artefacts’ shape,

lighting can be experimented with by finding the best position and angle of the
lights used for the job. It is far better to spend some time experimenting and
observing, to find the best solution in any difficult situation. The simple lighting
or copy stands can help. If in doubt about any exposure difficulties, it is always
suitable to bracket any shots and this is good practice for all situations, even if
using digital as well as traditional film cameras.

Coins: The lighting needs to strike the flat surface of the coin at a fairly oblique
angle, approximately 45º. The camera is the best mounted on a copy-stand, which
places the camera on an adjustable column, vertically facing a baseboard below
where the artefacts are placed. Such copy stands have small lights, attached to a
frame above the baseboard. These lights can be easily re-positioned to achieve the
best angles for the job. Further consideration is needed when dealing with coins
that have shallow relief marks. Recorded on a copy stand with the light at right
angles (90º), such a coin would be rendered flat and lifeless. It would be advisable

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to bring the lighting to a more oblique angle, 30° may be better, so that the light
creates longer shadows, giving greater contrast and relief.

It is usual to place both sides of the coin in publications, with the obverse on the
left and the reverse on the right. This can be achieved by using a multiple
exposure function with a black background. With the camera on multiple
exposure modes, the first shot records the obverse, which is then removed after
exposure. The coin is then flipped around and, using a ruler to place it in the
correct alignment, photographed a second time.

Flint: By deciding upon which colour background to use is important and it is

dependent upon the colour and dullness of the flint. Lighter coloured, less dense
flints would lose definition in the edges against a white background or light-box
as the light would transmit through the flint. However, on the other hand, darker,
more opaque flints would be lost against a black setting with the edges
disappearing into the backdrop. It may be suitable to use a grey background or
contrasting colour to the flint. Because flints are multifaceted, it is best to view
the artefact under differing lighting conditions before shooting, varying the angle
at which the light strikes the surface by moving either the flint or the lights and
constantly observing the shadows created for best effect. The darker flints respond
well to being placed on a light-box, with two lights at 45° to the lens axis on
either side of a copy stand set up. The lights should be far away enough from the
flint to minimize reflections on the glossy surface.

Pottery: It is best to take care when setting up shots of complete pots as the angle
at which the pot is placed in relation to the camera can make a big difference. If
the camera is positioned below the pot, the rim will not be recorded and the base
will look enlarged and distorted. If the camera is looking down on the pot, the

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base will not be seen and the form is distorted. It is suitable to set the camera on a
tripod with the lens axis slightly above the middle of the pot. This way, some of
the rim will be viewed which will give the pot some depth rather than a flat
profile. At the same time, most of the base will be recorded as well.
The Bowls are generally shot with the camera placed slightly lower than the mid-
point to enable definition of the base to be clearly shown. The soft, diffused side
lighting will give good definition with surfaces that are incised or those that have
relief or raised patterns on the surface. One diffused light at 35° to the side of the
pot should suffice but if there is too much shadow on the other side a second,
weaker light can be used to fill in the shadow details. The highly glazed surfaces
are difficult to record due to the reflective quality of the lights being used.
However, it may be necessary to show that the surface is, indeed, shiny. In such a
situation, a diffused, single light to one side with a reflector on the other side may
prove sufficient.
There is a great need of care when combined pots are to be photographed. The
Pots placed nearer the camera will appear bigger and those further away will
appear smaller. They should not overlap and attention should be paid to shadows,
which can obscure details on adjacent vessels. For recording pot sherds,
differences in size and thickness can prove problem. A great care should be taken
to arrange them with the rims at the top of the frame and the bases at the bottom.
If there are to be several sherds in one frame, line them up so the top of the rims
form a straight line.

Glass: A great careful consideration needs to be applied when photographing a

glass. There are numerous difficulties, due to the transparent and reflective
qualities of the glass. The black or white backgrounds are best, as any coloured
backing will give the glass a false colour appearance. The light-boxes are useful,
as they will clearly show the outline as well as any cracks or details in the glass
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itself. The clear glass shows up well against a light-box and no front lighting is
usually necessary. A glass shelf with a white background is easily assembled with
a light shining below and behind the shelf so that the light shines up through the
object. Glass which is highly reflective, especially forms with complicated shapes
i.e. perfume bottles, are best shot in diffused lighting. That is lighting which is
shielded by tracing paper or umbrellas.
Exposing with a Light-Box: The best form of lighting is a light box, with two
lights above, which should be diffused to avoid shadows forming underneath the
artefacts is possible. To give a pure white background, the light box illumination
will need to be at least one stop brighter than the lights from above but the
exposure reading should be taken from the light sources above. The two different
light sources have the same bulbs, i.e. tungsten or fluorescent and not a mixture of
the two, otherwise colour casts will occur.

ii) Archaeological Drawings

Plans/ Maps: The first drawing needed in archaeological field work is a map of
the archaeological site, which illustrates topographic elements i.e elevations and
depressions on the archaeological site. After each season, of excavations the
architectural features will be added to a copy of this map. The Architectural
features may also be drawn separately upon the completion of the excavation. The
archaeologists draw top plans of the features found within an archaeological locus
as seen from above. Technically this should be done each time a new context is
discovered; however, many archaeologists do it only when they find new
architectural features or deposits within a context, making quick sketches in their
diary in the meantime. Basically, these are cross-sections of the layers of earth on
the dig site that show the vertical sequence of events/activities performed on site

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called as ‘stratigraphy’. The Baulks might be removed during excavations to
create a bigger unit, so it’s necessary to draw them before the evidence is
disappeared. Once removed from the archaeological site, objects will be drawn
by archaeologists who also serve as illustrators.

Pottery Drawing: The Pottery drawing is very important as types of pottery very
often help date an archaeological site based on the manufacture, materials and
decoration. On an archaeological site, anything that can be drawn may includes
carved or painted decoration on building walls, inscriptions on objects and stelae,
and even ancient graffiti. The archaeological pottery drawings are extremely
significant; as vessels are shown in cutaway side view so that both the exterior
form and the section of a three dimensional vessel are presented on the same two-
dimensional drawing. The section/profile is shown on the left hand side of a
centre line, together with any interior detail, and the exterior is shown on the
right. The archaeological Pottery is generally drawn initially at full size (1:1) and
reproduced at 1:4 or sometimes 1:3, although there may be exceptions for very
large or very small vessels, or where very complex decoration is present.

Tools and Equipment:

i) Drawing board – A3 or larger, depending on the size of the vessel(s)

ii) Tracing paper for initial pencil drawing. (90 gsm is a good weight –
anything less is flimsy, anything more is too expensive.) Scrap pieces
of tracing paper or drafting film can be used for transferring profiles.
iii) Calipers or dividers for measuring the thickness of a vessel wall.
iv) Profile gauge or solder wire for measuring profile. A good-quality
profile gauge with fine metal teeth is preferable.

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v) Engineer’s square, set squares, blocks. In the absence of an engineer’s
square, a free-standing set square can be made by fixing a block of
wood or suitable weighted box flush with the base of a normal set
square.
vi) Radius chart – This can be made by simply drawing concentric arcs of
radii from 10mm to 300mm in 10mm increments with a compass.
Alternatively, you can buy specialist polar graph paper sheets. It may
be useful to mark off percentages around the circumference so that, for
example, the percentage of rim present can easily be recorded.
vii) Pencils – a range of different pencils is useful, a hard lead (3-4H) for
outlines, softer pencils for shading, details, transferring profiles etc.
viii) Technical pens- in several sizes, depending on the reduction required
on final drawing. However, the sizes 0.35mm, 0.25mm and 0.5mm are
the most useful sizes for general purposes.
ix) Drafting tape – for taping paper onto a drawing board, and also
temporarily holding sherds together while gluing.
x) Cigarette paper/fine tissue paper/clear acetate film – for rubbings or
tracings of decoration or stamps.
xi) Graphite stick, graphite flakes or graphite powder for making
rubbings.
xii) Scalpel and scalpel blades for sharpening pencils and erasing pencil
and/or ink. Swann-Morton of Sheffield produces the finest range;
number 15 is particularly useful for drawing purposes.
xiii) Sand tray – a large tray such as cat litter tray filled with sand is useful
for propping up incomplete vessels during refitting.

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 xiv) Cellulose nitrate adhesive (e.g HMG – available from most
conservation suppliers) for refitting sherds. Do not use an adhesive
which is non-reversible, or very difficult to undo, such as epoxys or
superglues.
xv) Acetone – for undoing poor joins and mistakes in repaired pottery.
xvi) Compasses – occasionally useful for finding the radius of very large
vessels, or for drawing radius charts.
xvii) Flatbed scanner – for importing draft drawings into computer drawing
packages, or scanning inked drawings for incorporation into final
publication files.

Method: As with all archaeological illustration, the golden rule is to measure

twice, draw once, and then check. Always check measurements at every stage,
and check again when it is finished. Prepare a drawing board, and attach the
tracing paper lightly with drafting tape. Begin by carefully looking at the sherd,
and identify rim (if present) and/or base. Make sure to know which is the inner
and which the outer surface, and check for any decoration.

Rims: Place the rim top-down against a flat surface and rock it back and forth
until the rim ‘sits’ on the surface with minimum movement; in regular wheel-
thrown vessels, no light should be seen between the rim line and the surface. This
will indicate the angle at which the rim sits. It is important to judge this correctly;
if the angle is misjudged the whole form of the pot can be misinterpreted.

Rim Diameter: With the rim in the correct attitude, and viewing directly above
the rim, slide the sherd across a radius chart until the outer edge coincides exactly
with one of the concentric lines. With irregular or handmade pots this can

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sometimes be a matter of ‘best fit’ rather than an exact match. Rule a faint
horizontal pencil line near the top of the drawing paper, the length of the rim
diameter. Mark a point halfway along the rim line. A tip for finding the radius of
vessels larger than the average radius chart, particularly if only a small proportion
of the circumference survives is that: holding the rim upside down, lightly trace
round the outer edge with a pencil onto a largesheet of paper. Place the point of a
pair of compasses on one end of the pencil line and draw a small circle (about 3cm
diameter). Draw an identical circle centred on the point where the first circle intersects
with the pencil line of the rim. Draw a straight line across the intersection of the circles.
Repeat the procedure at the other end of/further along the rim line. The two lines will
intersect, giving the centre point and the radius of the pot.

Height: Holding the rim in its correct attitude, measure the height of the sherd
using a set square. Draw the centre line of the pot, vertically from the rim line, the
length being the sherd height you have just measured. If the base of the pot is
present, another horizontal line can be drawn for this; measure the base radius in
the same way as the rim radius.

Profile : The outer profile of the sherd can be measured in various ways, such as
by positioning the pot on its side with its rim against a block of wood and tracing
the outline with an engineer’s square. Always look at the sherd carefully whilst
drawing the profile, and be sure to re-check anything that doesn’t look right.

Reconstruction: Where the profile of a pot is reconstructed from several sherds,

these may be shown in outline on the drawing– a technique more frequently used
for handmade vessels. Alternatively, use dashed lines to show reconstructed
portions of the vessel. A pie diagram is sometimes used to show the proportion of
the original pot present. Where a profile has been built up from two overlapping
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but non-joining sherds of the same vessel, brackets can be used to show the area
of overlap. The continuation lines, two short parallel lines projecting beyond the
end of the existing section of the pot are used when it is not possible to
reconstruct the vessel, and to indicate when a vessel is incomplete; they are
normally only shown on the left-hand, section side of the drawing.

Finishing Off : Next to the drawing, write any information about the sherd (site
code, context number, type code, drawing number, etc.). This can be vitally
important as pencil drawings may be stored for years before publication and a
drawing with no information can be very difficult to track down later. Initials of
the illustrator and the date drawn can be useful too. If you are drawing a number
of sheets of pots for the same site or project, number the sheets and keep them in a
folder together, and also keep a record of which sherds are drawn.

Preparing Pottery Drawings for Publication: There are several ways that
pottery drawings can be prepared for incorporation into the final publication,
which might fall into three broad categories – inked pages, digitally drawn pottery
or a combination of the two in which hand-inked drawings are scanned and paged-up
in a computer drawing package. It is rare nowadays for pottery to be paged-up as it
once was as sheets of inked drawings, and the latter two methods are far more likely to
be practiced in professional archaeology. However, if access to computer graphics
packages is not available, drawings can be prepared by hand.

Pottery Illustration by Using Computer Software

The basic drawing of the pot is produced in pencil, large drawings can be reduced
to 50% using a photocopier (usually adding two 50mm bar scales to the drawing
in order to check scale) and then the reduced copy is scanned. This does not need
to be a very high-resolution scan; a 200dpi greyscale jpeg will be adequate, as the
scan is discarded after tracing.

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First, open a new drawing and place the scanned pencil drawing on a layer – make
sure centre and rim lines are vertical and horizontal respectively. Turn the scan
layer into a template layer. Begin drawing on a new layer; using the Pen tool,
draw the horizontal rim line and centre line, and trace the left-hand profile. When
complete, transfer to the righthand side using the Reflect horizontal and Copy
utilities to create a mirror image; align the two profiles.

The decoration can be drawn using a selection of brushes, although this may be
more time-consuming than drawing by hand in ink, and the results can be rather
mechanical and artificial looking. However, a more flexible approach to pottery
illustration is possible, and a number of alternative approaches may be explored,
such as: inserting scans of hand-drawn detail (either pencil or ink) into the
Illustrator drawing; exporting the Illustrator drawing into Photoshop and adding
shading or colour detail; inserting photographic or photomicrographic details of
fabric and texture into the drawing. Once each individual pot drawing is
completed, the elements of the drawing may be grouped together as one object,
making page layout much more straightforward. The completed page of pottery
drawings can be saved as a pdf file.

Scanning PotsFor Page-Up

Inked pot drawings may be scanned individually and imported into a computer
graphics package such as Illustrator for layout and final publication; they should
be scanned at quite high resolution (at least 300dpi) and the scanned images may
need some cleaning-up before paging up. Numbers, scales and other details can
then be added. This form of layout is of course much more flexible than the old
method of paging up, but as the drawings themselves are raster images they are
less easy to edit and usually take up much more file space than they would if
drawn as vector files.

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Converting Scanned Images To Vector Images

It is also possible to scan inked pot drawings and convert them directly into vector
drawings. In order to prepare them for incorporation in a digital publication, the
drawings are scanned and converted to vector graphics using Adobe Streamline, and
page layouts then made up in Adobe Illustrator. More recent releases of Adobe
Illustrator incorporate a Live Trace utility which replaces the function of Streamline.

Fabric and Textures

Shading conventions for pottery are the same as for other artefacts. The light is
shown coming from the top left. Shading is not generally shown on wheel-thrown
pottery or anything which is to be reduced by more than a half although
occasionally ‘rilling’ or throwing lines may be shown by parallel horizontal lines,
and such surface treatment as slip or glaze may be indicated by stipple or some
other convention.

Stipple is generally used for showing courseware texture but line or line and stipple can
also be effective. Burnishing can be shown by fine horizontal lines. The other details
such as inclusions, cracks and scratches may also be shown but too much detail may
clutter up a drawing unnecessarily, or be lost or black in on reduction.

Handmade / Porter’s Wheel Pottery

Horizontal lines on wheel-thrown pots are generally drawn with a ruler, whereas
handmade pottery is always drawn freehand. Sections can be filled in with black,
stipple or hatching and combined to show details of manufacture such as applied
handles and decorative cordons. Thumbing and surface treatment can be indicated
on handmade or hand-finished pots.

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Handles, Spoutsand Lugs: Handles or lugs are usually shown to the right, spouts
to the left. When one handle is present, it is shown on the right with a cross-
section and elevation if necessary. If there are two or more handles they can be
shown in elevation on the right and in section with details of the construction on
the left. Spouts and lips are shown either on the left in section for jugs or in
elevation on the centre line.

Decoration: The decoration around the body of the pot may be shown ‘unrolled’
to the right or, if the decoration is quite simple and repetitive, drawn out on the
curve of the pot. The colour paint or glazes can be shown either as a colour plate
or by use of a monochrome convention

1.3. 12 Treatment of Excavated Material in Field Camp

The archaeological finds that survive in the archaeological record are retrieved
during the excavations. Recognizing the various types of finds and sub types
within artefact group is important to allow the appropriate retrieval of an artefact
be undertaken from lifting the item for the purpose of storage and preparation for
removal from the site. From fragile material such as woods or other organics or
bulk finds like ceramics or perhaps animal bones, it is important to carry out the
course of action that best suits the situation.The sampling may be carried out by
members of the excavation team or by specialists as appropriate but when samples
are to be collected by site staff the exact sampling strategy must be decided with
the appropriate specialists in advance especially charcoal or other materials for
dating purposes etc.The following steps are required to be taken for treatment of
such kind of objects:-

i) Pottery

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 Pottery should be washed in running water and brushed with a light
brush without removing the coating or slop, or the traces of
burning/flanking and incrustations of organic material.
ii) Coins
Coins should be washed rapidly in distilled water and brushed with a
soft brush to remove any soil.
iii) Iron or metal objects
A solution of distilled water and tannic and or sulphuric acid about 5 %
can be used to remove a tangle of rusted material.
iv) Stone objects
After washing the objects with water and synthetic vinegar (2:1) packs
will help to remove the more superficial incrustations.
v) Bones/ Charcoal/ wood/ivory objects
The fragile material should be collected for laboratory chemical
analysis in-situ with utmost care without disturbing the cultural
environment of the object from the dig.

1.4 Preparation and Publication of Field Reports

In order to meet the requirement of the researchers, students and scholars

interested in the culture and art history, it is essential to prepare and publish the
reports of excavations. The exploration / excavation reports depend upon the
requirement such as; preliminary reports, final reports, technical reports, etc. The
archaeologists use data compiled from research, field work and scientific or
specialist analysis to document and report on archaeological sites, surveys or
research work.

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The standards and guidance for archaeological documentation can be dependent
on both the target audience and the body who required the report or publication.
The essential outline of a report however, will remain the same. The basic
elements of technical report writing are as follows:-

 Title Cover Page

• Site name including location and county.
• Excavation licence number, consent number or direction number, as
appropriate.
• Planning reference number(s) if appropriate.
• Name of the site director.
• Date of submission of the report.

 Abstract or Summary
• Concise summary of the results of the report

 Introduction
 Planning background/description of proposed development.
 Details of Consent or Direction.
 Indication of archaeological significance before excavation.
 Dates of commencement and termination of the excavation.
 Location, data including the Town name; map, including sheet number
with proper scale.

 Objectives
Aims with questions which are required to answer

 Methodology
The procedure and techniques applied during the excavation work

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 Report and Results
 Description of area excavated with overall plan showing all cuttings.
 Description of the excavation methodology including finds retrieval
and sampling strategies.
 Summary of excavation phases and stratigraphic character of the
excavation.
 Reference to key archaeological features and significant finds.
 Photographs of significant details (where relevant).
 Post-excavation proposals including publication recommendations.
 Preliminary reports for development-led test excavations must contain
an archaeological impact statement describing the possible direct or
indirect effects of the proposed development on archaeological
deposits, features or objects.
 Outline of timeframe for completion and submission of report.

 Specialist Reports
It may contains any special reports of tests or analysis reports

 Conclusion
 Preliminary interpretation and discussion of excavation results.
 Where relevant, include discussion of the impact of any proposed
development on the archaeology of the site and suggest any additional
measures necessary.

 Appendixes
Attach data of different types /categories collected during the work

 Bibliography/References / Illustrations

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  Steps for Publication Of Archaeological Reports

1. The summary of the report provides the results of the excavation by covering
all important points for the reader.

2. The introduction gives brief details of all activities and background of the
excavation. It is important to describe the geographic boundaries of the site
including a description of the area’s physical environment and a historical
background – either of the site and/or other archaeological works that have taken
place. If previous excavations have occurred at the site, it must be included and
describe what they found. The aims and objectives of the project must be narrated
briefly.

3. The objectives should cover the project goals including the reason for the
project, the research questions to be addressed, and the final desired outcome.

4. The description of Methodology is very important to mention and the steps

undertaken to achieve the results should be clearly defined for the readers.
5. The results of the excavation report should be mentioned with details along
with maps, plans, drawings, photographs and other methods applied during the
execution of the excavation work at the site. The result of the report must describe
as how you carried out each element of the project? Were they hand dug or with
the help of machine, how deep did you decide to go? Did you do the work
stratigraphically, how did you decide where to excavate or if you were surveying
a large area, how did you record the features and sites? How did you decide what
features or sites to record? What photographic method did you use? Include
methods of documentation for features and artefacts uncovered through the use of
remote sensing, walkover surveys, and excavations etc.

6. It is essential to mention the problems faced during the excavation work such
as; with bad weather, site access and visibility.

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7. The report must summarize the site data collected with interpretation results.
Use figures, charts, photographs and tables to present the information in a way
that is understandable. It may be ensured that every context, site or element is
presented and the relevance and significance is proposed. It is also necessary to
provide details of the analysis of the artefacts and samples taken.

8. The report must list the artefacts from the site and any scientific or
specialist analysis which may include: studying the artefact types and distribution
across the site; dating artefacts using dating methods, faunal analysis;
environmental samples; and ceramic reports.

9. The report must then evaluate the project in terms of the achieving the
objectives of the project and create a synthetic discussion of the whole report,
that results in a conclusion based on the data collected and collated to date, as
well as how this fits into a wider picture.

10. It is important to provide recommendations for ongoing research work for

future work.

11. In conclusion a brief picture of the excavation results with some suggestions
will enhance the credibility of the report.

12. Appendixes for the report must list all photographs, contexts, sites, features,
samples or artefact recovered to provide a cross reference of data.

13. It is important to mention the names of persons or institutions, as

acknowledgment for the support and cooperation extended during the excavation
work.

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14. The report can be concluded with a list of all sources (including maps,
journals and books) consulted during the project in the form of a bibliography or
references.

15. It is also important to note that the process of publication of the report is
completed well timely for the benefit of the readers and to ensure its availability
far and wide.

Self Assesment Questions

Q. No. 1: Define the term Archaeology, What does it deal?

Q. No. 2: Discuss the background history about the origin of Archaeology.

Q. No. 3: How did the subject ‘Arcaeology’ came in to being? Discuss.

Q. No. 4: What do you know about Archaeological survey and exploration? Explain.

Q. No. 5: Highlight field techniques and field tools for carring out archeological research.

Q. No. 6: What do you know about ancient data colloectin and preparation of field reports?

Q. No. 7: What do you know about ancient pottery drawing and photography?

Q. No. 8: How does Archaeology interct with other subjects of Social Sciences

98
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adkins, L. and R., (1989) Archaeological Illustration: Cambridge Manuals in

Archaeology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, UK.

Alexander, J. (1917) The Directing of Archaeological Excavations, London

Atkinson, R.J.C (1953) Field Archaeology, 2nded, London

Barker, P. (1983) The Technique of Archaeological Excavation, London

Bowman, S. (1990) Radiocarbon Dating, British Museum, London

Brodribb, A.C.C., (1971) Drawing Archaeological Finds for Publication. London:

John Baker/New York: Association Press.

Butzer, K.W. (1971) Environment and Archaeology: An Introduction to Pleistocene

Geography, 2nded; Chicago:

Clarke, D.L. (1978) Analytical Archaeology, 2nded, London

Conlon, V.M. (1973) Camera Techniques in Archaeology., John Baker, London.

Cookson, M.B. (1954) Photography for Archaeologists, Max Parrish and Co.,
London.
Dorin, J.E and Hodson, F.R. (1975) Mathematics and Computers in Archaeology,
Edinburgh University press, UK.

Dorrell, Peter G. (1994) Photography in Archaeology and Conservation,

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Gibson, A., (1986) Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Pottery, Shire Archaeology,
London

Grinsell, L., Rahtz, P. and Price Williams, D., (1974) The Preparation of
Archaeological Reports. John Baker, London.

Hamilton, S., (1996) ‘Reassessing Archaeological illustrations: Breaking the

Mould.’ Graphic Archaeology 1996, 20–26.

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Harris, E.C. (1989) Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy, 2nd ed. London.

Haslam, J., (1978) Medieval Pottery, Shire Archaeology, London

Hodder, I. and Orton, C. Sptial (1976) Analysis in Archaeology, Cambridge, UK

Joukowsky, M.A. (1981) Complete Manual of Field Archaeology, Englewood Cliffs,

USA

Langford, Michael (2000) Basic Photography, 7th edition. Focal Press, Oxford.
McCormick, A.G., (1977) ‘A Guide to Archaeological Drawing’, Notes for
Students, Department of Archaeology, University of Leicester, UK.

N., Jenner, A. and Wilson, C., (1990) Drawing Archaeological Finds: A

Handbook. Archetype Publications, London:

Parkes, P.A. (1986) Current Scientific Techniques in Archaeology, London

Piggott, S., (1965) Archaeological Draughtsmanship: Principles and practice. Part

1: Principles and Retrospective’ Antiquity 39, 165–176, London

Renfrew, C. Bahn, P. (1991) Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practices, London:

Schlitz, M. (2005) 'Archaeological Photography' in The Focal Encyclopaedia of

Photography, Fourth Edition, Elsevier Inc. Massachusetts

Swan, V.G., (1988) Pottery in Roman Britain, Shire Archaeology, London.

Williams, D., (1993) ‘A Dilemma in Brackets’, (on Conventions in Pottery

Illustration). Graphic Archaeology 1993, 16–18.

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UNIT. 2

PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Written by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

Reviewed by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

101
 CONTENTS

Introduction 103
Objectives 104

2. Physical and Cultural Anthropology 105

2.1 The Stone Age Culture of Different Continents 105
2.1.2 The Stone Age in the Light of Socio-Cultural Context 111
2.2 The Evolution of Man 115
2.3 Stone Tools and their Types 124
2.3.1 The Origin of Making the Stone Tools by Man 124
2 .3.2 Typology, Formation and Techniques of Stone Tools 130
2.3.3 Paleolithic Stone Tool Techniques: 136
2.4 Geological Time Scale 138
2.4.1 EarlyBrief History: 138
2.4 2 Primary Principles 138
2.4.3 Dating of Time Scales 146

Self Assestment Questions 155

Bibliography 156

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Introduction
Mankind is now the dominant species. This achievement was completed before
history began, before even the growth of the first civilizations. Pre-history has no
written records, only the surviving remains of past human activity. It is the task of
the archaeologist to interpret ths into a coherent account and explanation of the
formative years of mankind: the first three million years.

The remains include not only artefacts (man-made objects or structures), but also
the effects of man’s increasing control over the environment. To create as
complete a picture as possible archaeologists must collaborate with experts from
many other disciplines, especially those of anthropology and the physical and
natural sciences.

This book accompanies different units provides a mainly technological account of

prehistory. Technology, economy and society are ineter linked, each reliant upon
the other. Together, as the products of man they create change through time. The
key to human dominance lies in the ability of man to learn from experience and
pass on the learning directly to the next generation: in a sense, then, man created
the circumstances for his own evolutaton. Thus, in the broad scheme, human
history has been a process of cumulative acceleration, each new development
creating the circumstances for the next.

The extremes of the period considered here-the ‘Stone Age-the contrast of human
circumstances well demonstrate this process. The first men (hominids) competed
on less than equal terms with other hunters’ and scavengers in the basic food-
quest, because they lacked, for example, the speed and strength of animal
predators. At the beginning of the Bronze Age, three million years later but only
five thousands years ago, large settled communities were on the threshold of
urban civilization.

What, then brought about these changes? The transmission of accumulated

experience has already been isolated as man’s critical advantage. The practical
application was the making of tools and weapons. Initially these were
compensation for man’s lack of physical specialization so allowing him to
compete with other animals. Gradually, though, man became aware of the wide
range of tools he could make for a variety of specialized uses and a steady
improvement of technology with ever wider applications can be documented.
Rough and rugged implements unearthed by the eroding current of River Soan
near Rawalpindi carry the saga of human toil and labour to the inter-glacial ages
roughly estimated at two million years from now. These stone choppes, and hand-
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axes which are hardly different from river rounded pebbles to the lay-man’s eye,
have revealed a written chapter to the archaeologist proviing that even in so
remote a period, man had proved his intellectual superiority over all other beings
of the jungle. Indomitable and free, he reved through the thick forests and hunted
and slashed other animals for food or play.

Unfortunatly we have no other records to link those interglacial anthropos to their

monkey fathers or more civilized progeny. The Palaeolithic begins with first
appearance of stone tools over two million years ago, and ends around 10,000
years ago. People sometimes find it difficult to appreciate the length of time
occupied by the Palaeolithic, compared with more recent archaeological periods.
After all a two thousand year old city lke Taxila near Islamabad may seem ancient
to a historian, but for those studying human origins, 2,000 years is little more than
yesterday. The famous palaeolithic cave-art of western Europe is over ten times
older, and some is even 30,000 years old. Yet even this is recent to archaeologists
interested in the earliest human origins. The earliest objects that we have fond that
can be regarded as made by human beings are over two million years old—a
thousand times older than Taxila.

One way of imagining the enormous time-scale of human evolution is to think of

time in terms of distance. Imagine that each step you take represents a hundred
years. Twenty steps-or roughly twenty yards-will take you back to the ancient city
Taxils, two thousand years ago. At this rate, you will cover everything that has
happened since the Palaeolithic that is to say the invention of farming, the
development of towns and cites, the invention of writing, and the whole of written
history-in only 100 yards. If you walk another 100 paces, you will have gone back
20,000 years to the height of the last ice age when the desrts of Pakistan and India
were less arid than they are today, and were the home of stone age hunters. A
thousand steps-or just over half a mile-takes you back 100,000 years-back to the
time when our ancestors were beginning to look much the same as us.

Objectives: After studying this unit, the student will be able;

 to identified the Stone Age culture of different continent
 to understand the Stone Age in the light of socio-cultural context
 to recognize the evolution of man and their fossals
 to identify the evolution of man in Pakistan
 to be familiar with stone tools and their types
 to classify typology, formation and techniques of stone tools
 to know the begninng of making the stone tools by man
 to realize geological time scale
 to recognize different types of dating
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2. Physical and Cultural Anthrology

2.1 The Stone Age Culture of Different Continents

The three-age system is the division of period of history into three-time scales
namely; the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The three-age system
in fact is a methodological concept adopted during the 19th century by which
artifacts and events of late prehistory and early history could be ordered into a
recognizable chronology. It was developed by C.J. Thomsen, Director of the
Royal Museum of Nordic Antiquities Copenhagen. The organization reflects the
cultural and historical background of Mediterranean Europe and the Middle East
and soon underwent further subdivisions, in 1865 by partitioning of the Stone Age
into Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods by John Lubbock.

The prehistory is a term used to describe the period before written history. Stone
Age is a period of history that encompasses the first widespread use of technology
in human evolution from East Africa to the rest of the world which ends with the
development of agriculture, domestication of certain animals and the smelting of
copper ore to produce metal.

An important step in the development of the Three-age System came when the
Danish antiquarian Christian Jurgensen Thomsen was able to use the Danish
national collection of antiquities and the records of their finds as well as reports
from contemporaneous excavations to present a solid empirical basis for the
system. He showed that artifacts could be classified into types and that these types
varied over time in ways that correlated with the predominance of stone, bronze
or iron implements and weapons. In this way he turned the Three-age System
from being an evolutionary scheme based on intuition and general knowledge into

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a system of relative chronology supported by archaeological evidence. In 1819 he
opened the first Museum of Northern Antiquities, in Copenhagen, in a former
monastery, to house the collections; it later became the National Museum.

By the year 1831 Thomsen circulated a pamphlet, "Scandinavian Artifacts and

Their Preservation, advising archaeologists to "observe the greatest care" to note
the context of each artifact. The results reported to him confirmed the universality
of the Three-age System. However, the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age was further
divided into three periods as; Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper
Paleolithic Period.

The early part of the Paleolithic period is called the Lower Paleolithic, which
predates Homo sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis and the earliest stone tools,
dated to around 2.5 million years ago. The evidence of control fire by early
humans during the Lower Paleolithic Era is uncertain. The most widely accepted
claim is that Homo erectus made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP (before
the present period) in Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food,
provide warmth, and have a light source at night. The early Homo sapiens
originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Paleolithic. Anatomic
changes indicating modern language capacity also arise during the Middle
Paleolithic.

During the Middle Paleolithic Era, there is the first definitive evidence of human
use of fire. The sites in Zambia have charred bone and wood that have been dated
to 61,000 BP. The systematic burial of the dead, music, early art and the use of
increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are highlights of the Middle Paleolithic
period. Throughout the Paleolithic period, humans generally lived as nomadic
hunter-gatherer societies having a tendency to be very small and unrestricted.

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The Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age) is characterized in most areas by small
composite flint tools: microliths and microburins. The fishing tackle, stone adzes,
and wooden objects have been found at some sites. These technologies first occur
in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe
through the Ibero-Maurusian culture of Northern Africa and the Kebaran culture
of the Levant. Although there were several species of human beings during the
Paleolithic period but by the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) only Homo
sapiens remained. This was a period of primitive technological and
social development. It began about 10,200 BCE in some parts of the Middle East,
South East Asia, and later in other parts of the world and ended between 4,500
and 2,000 BCE.

The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and

changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated
animals. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both
wild and domesticated, which included wheat, millet, and the keeping of dogs,
sheep, and goats. The Neolithic period saw the development of early villages,
agriculture, animal domestication, tools. The Neolithic era commenced with the
beginning of farming and ended when metal tools became widespread.

The story of human evolution begins in East Africa with the emergence of the
earliest hominids of the genus Australopithecus around 4-5 million years ago.
Around 2 million years ago, there is clear fossil evidence for the first known
representative of our own genus, Homo habilis, from the sites located in Kenya
and Tanzania.

The earliest stone tools date from 2.5 million years ago which came from Hadar,
Ethiopia and Soan River, Pakistan. It is presumed that australopithecines also had
a tool culture before or during Homo habili’s time. The early toolkits which
comprise on flakes and pebble tools are collectively called as the Oldowan
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industry. The next stage in human evolution is called as Homo erectus around 1.6
million years ago, which emerged in East Africa. These hominids had larger
brains than Homo habilis, their probable ancestor, and were makers of the
characteristic teardrop-shaped stone tools flaked on both sides called Acheulean
hand-axes. These artifacts are the dominant tool form of the Lower Paleolithic
Period.

By the time Homo erectus became extinct (400,000-200,000 years ago) the
species had colonized the rest of Africa, southern eastern and western Asia, and
central and Western Europe. The Middle Paleolithic Periodstarts from about
200,000 to 40,000 years ago by emergence of Homo sapiens. Neanderthals, who
are generally classed as a subspecies of Homo sapiens, lived in Europe and
western and central Asia from about 130,000 to 30,000 years ago. Some experts
believe that Neanderthals evolved into fully modern humans, others that they
were an evolutionary dead end.

However, the revised idea of experts which is gaining importance is that we have
increasing evidence for fully modern people – our own subspecies, Homo sapiens
in Africa by at least 100,000 years ago. They seem to have reached the eastern
Mediterranean about 100,000-90,000 years ago and Europe and Asia by at least
40, 000 or 50,000 years ago.

The Paleolithic period lasted through most of the Pleistocene Ice Age. The Lower
Paleolithic period is attributed with the earliest forms of man and the
predominance of core tools of Pebble Tools, hand axe and chopper type. During
the Lower Paleolithic period in South Asia, the Soanian is discovered as an
archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic period in the Sivalik Hills, in
Punjab province of Pakistan which is contemporary to the Acheulean. It is named
after the Soan valley. The Soanian sites are found along the Sivalik region in
present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan. The Middle Paleolithic is an era of
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Neanderthal man and the predominance of Flake tool industries over most of
Eurasia. The Upper Paleolithic period is characterized by Blade-and-Burin
industries and the cave art of Western Europe. In Asia, for instance, the
Zhoukoudian Peking Man site is a cave system in Beijing, China which has
yielded a number of archaeological discoveries during one of the first specimens
of Homo erectus and other remains.

He proposed dates for Peking Man are: 700,000-200,000 years ago, 670,000-
470,000 years ago and no earlier than 530,000 years ago. The oldest animal
remains date from as early as 690,000 years ago and tools from 670,000 years
ago. During the Upper Paleolithic period, the site was re-occupied and remains of
Homo sapiens and its stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the
Upper Cave. The ten Neanderthals at the site were found within a
Mousterian layer which also contained hundreds of stone tools including points,
side-scrapers, and flakes and bones from animals including wild goats.

It is uncertain when humans first crossed from northeastern Asia into North
America across the Bering Strait, and south to Central and South America.
However, the earliest dates for early Americans are around 14,000 years ago.
However, recently discovery of Brazilian rock shelter site of Pedra Furada has
produce disputed evidence for human occupation some 30,000 years ago. Around
10,000 BCE most of the land areas of different continents in the world were
populated with the exception of deserts and Antarctica.

However, the most conconspicuous exception is the Pacific where Western

Polynesia does not seen to have been colonized until the first millennium BCE
and Eastern Polynesia progressively from 300 CE. By 1000 CE, the colonization
of Polynesia was however, completed. Almost these societies regarded as hunter-
gatherer societies made up of relatively small groups of people often termed as

109
hunter-gathererbands. The bands are small-scale societies of hunters and
gatherers generally of less than 100 people.

However, in this context the most significant occurrences are the development of
food production based on domesticated plant species and also of domesticated
animal species as well. One of the important factors in the prehistory of
continents of the world is that the transition from hunting and gathering to food
production seems to have occurred independently in several areas, in each case
after the end of the Ice Age about 10, 000 years ago. For instance, in the Near
East, we can recognize the origins of this transition even before this time, for the
process may have gradual, the consequence of restructuring of the social
organization of human societies.

It is presumed that during the Paleolithic period (before 12,000 years ago) most of
the archaeological sites appear to be conventional to one or other of these
categories such as; camp sites, kill sites and work sites. As the bands are
composed of mobile groups of hunter-gatherers, their sites consist mainly of
seasonally occupied camps and other smaller and more specialized sites. Among
the latter are kill or butchery sites, locations where large mammals were killed
and sometimes butchered, and the work sites where tool were made or other
specific activities were carried out.

It is apparent that the shift from one age to another did not happed rapidly. For
instance the Flint tools remained in use in a limited scale into the Iron Age in
Europe and early metal items often appear which should technically be called as
the Neolithic Period. Further the Three-age System has been difficult to apply
fully outside Europe. For instance some Amazonian tribes in South America
remain to date in the Neolithic while there was no Bronze Age south of the Sahara
as technological innovation progressed from stone to iron working. Therefore by
using the Three-age System to measure the advancement of societies is often
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inaccurate, as some development have appeared in different societies at massively
different stages of their development.

Similarly, Classic Period Maya society had mathematics and astronomy that
rivaled early renaissance Europe but were still technically a Stone Age culture.
The Japanese culture posses pottery as early as 10,000 BCE but they did not begin
bronze work or agriculture farming until 1000 to 500 BCE.

The archaeological discoveries carried out at a number of countries of the

continents have also proved the existence of different periods which are
overlapping in age. In the continent of Asia, Paleolithic period is comprised on
Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic. However, In Africa, the Paleolithic period
is divided into Pre-Paleolithic or before stone tools, as well as Lower Paleolithic,
Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic period. In the continent of Americas, the
prehistoric period is defined as Lithic / Paleoindian or the period before 8000
BCE, the Archaic period or 8000-1000 BCE, The Formative period or 1000 BCE-
500 CE, the Classic period or 500-1200 CE and the Post-Classic or 1200-1900
CE. In Oceania, the Paleolithic is followed by Classical period, while in the
continent of Europe; Paleolithic period is very much evidenced by Lower, Middle
and Upper Paleolithic period.

2.1.2 The Stone Age in the Light of Socio-Cultural Context

The Paleolithic period humans were grouped in clans that ranged from 25-50
members, and these clans were formed by several families. It is revealed that
about two million years before present, Homo habilis constructed the first man-
made structure in East Africa which consists on simple arrangements of stone to
hold branches of trees. A simple stone circular arrangement of Ca. 500, 000 years
ago was discovered at Terra Amata, near Nice in France. Another tent like
structure was also found inside a cave near Nice France. Besides, many huts made of

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mammoth bones were found in Eastern Europe and Siberia. Some of these examples
have been discovered in valley of Ukraine, in Czech Republic and in southern Poland
as well. The Megalithic tombs, multi-chambered and dolmens, single-chambered were
graves with a huge stone slab stacked over other similarly large stone slabs. These
types of graves have been discovered all across Europe and Asian.

The food sources of the hunter-gatherer humans of the Stone Age included both
animals and plant which were part of the natural environment in which these
humans lived. The people like animal organs meats and consumed little dairy
food or carbohydrate rich plant foods like legumes or cereal grains, a large part of
the energy was however, derived from animal foods. The fat content of the diet
was believed to be similar to that of the present day. By the end of the last ice age,
Ca. 15,000-9000 years ago, a large scale extinction of large mammals occurred in
Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. This was the first Holocene
extinction event which possibly forced modification in the dietary habits of the
humans of that age and with the emergence of agricultural practices plant-based
foods also became a regular part of the diet.

In Paleolithic period, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare.

However, mostly animals were painted, not only animas that were used as food
but also animals that represented strength like rhinoceros or large cats. Besides,
signs like dots were also drawn, rare human representations include hand-prints
and half-human / half-animal figures. The most important preserved cave
paintings of the Paleolithic period painted in Ca. 31,000 BCE are in the Cave of
Chauvet, France. Then the Altamira cave paintings in Spain were created in Ca.
14,000-12,000 BCE which presents among others bison. Besides, the hall of bulls
in Lascaux, in France is one of the best known cave paintings which were created
in about 15,000-10,000 BCE. The depiction of arrow-like symbols in Lascaux are
sometimes interpreted as calendar or almanac use. As these caves were not in an
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inhabited area therefore it may have been used for seasonal rituals. In Pakistan, the
Stone Age, rock art which belongs to about 30,000-12,000 years ago has been
discovered in area of northern Balochistan. This type of art associated chiefly with the
cave and rock-shelter dwellers, in Western Europe in Upper Paleolithic times.

The first kind of such cave paintings were however, found at Altamira in Spain.
These types of rock art paintings especially in Sulaiman range have also been
found in the Dordogne, Lascaus of France. The artists of Stone Age used both
techniques of paintings and engraving as in other parts of the world. The subject
matte of these rock art is predominantly animals, like horses, leopards, wild boar,
ibexes, and wild humped bulls with some vey domesticated looking ox which
were hunted during the late Pleistocene or Upper Paleolithic period. In the
majority of rock shelters, the paintings and engravings show progress and it seems
that the region was occupied by the people of Gravettian Culture (22,000-18,000
BCE) as the rock art underwent rapid progress and has reached a certain climax
here as it did in the same period in Europe by the people of he same culture.
However, the most important work during the Mesolithic era were the marching
Warriors, a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, in Spain dated Ca. 7000-4000
BCE. The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the
rock, the paintings are naturalistic, though stylized.

It is believed that in Stone Age certain ritual and beliefs of the people were also
existed as the activities of the humans went beyond the immediate requirements
of procuring food, body covering and home shelters. During this period specific
rites relating to death and burial were practiced, though certainly differing in style
and execution between cultures. The other ritual was birth; puberty and marriage
whereas several Stone Age dated sites in different parts of the world indicate
traces of dancing.

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The economy of the society in Paleolithic period was simple; with humans living
a hunter-gatherer life style. The people obtain food, firewood and material for the
purpose of their tools, clothes or shelters. As regard their tools, the methods of
fabrication for tools did not change a great deal during the Paleolithic period,
despite the number of cultures that existed through the era.

The Neolithic or New Stone Age is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. It
begins with the rise of farming which produced the “Neolithic Revolution” and
ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (Chalcolithic) or
Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geological
region. The Neolithic culture appeared in the Levant, Palestine about 8500 BCE.
It was developed directly from the Epi-paleolithic Natufian culture in the region
that was pioneered in wild cereal use. By 8500-8000 BCE farming communities
arose in the Levant and spread to Anatolia, North Africa and North Mesopotamia.

In about 7000 BCE it included domesticated cattle and pigs, inhabited

settlements and the use of pottery. In other parts of the world such as Africa,
South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own
regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures. These cultures characterized by separate
distinct cultures in Asia such as; Halafian culture, Hassuna culture, Mehrgarh
culture, Ubaid culture and Uruk culture. In Southeast Europe, agrarian societies
first appeared by Ca. 7000 and in Central Europe by Ca. 5500 BCE. Later on, the
Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by
around 4500 BCE.

However, in Mesoamerica a similar set of events like crop domestication and

sedentary lifestyles occurred for around 4500 BCE. The Neolithic people were
skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tendering,
harvesting and processing of crops and food production. They were also skilled
manufactures of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments including
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projectile point beads and statuettes. The people in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria,
northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders,
utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. In Europe long houses built
from wattle and daub were constructed. They built elaborated tombs for the dead.
A large number of such tombs are discovered in Ireland. In the British Isles built
long barrows and chamber tombs for the dead, flint mines and curses monuments.

The people of the Americas and the Pacific retained the Neolithic level of tool
technology up until the time of the European contact. However, there are
numerous examples of the development of complex socio-political organization,
building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions
that parallel post-Neolithic development in Africa and Eurasia. Mehrgarh is one
of the earliest sites with evidence of farming of wheat and barley and herding of
cattle, sheep and goats in South Asia.

The early Mehrgarh, Balochistan residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their
grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore and line their large basket
container with bitumen. At Mehrgarh site, numerous burials have been found
many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles,
pendants etc. The ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli,
sandstone and polished copper have also been discovered with simple figurines of
women and animals. The sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found far in
Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas.

2.2 The Evolution of Man

The word homo, the name of the biological genus to which humans belongs is
Latin word for "human". It was chosen originally by Carl Linnaeus in his
classification system. The word "human" is from the Latin humanus, the
adjectival form of homo. In the early part of the 19th century witnessed a

115
profound change in our approach to the history of evolution of mankind and the
fact that ancient civilizations were the creation of our ancestors. It was in this
century as a result of scientific investigations and awareness of prehistory that
evidence for the long decent of man came from the discovery of flint tools
mostly hand –axes associated with other material and remains of Extinct
mammals. Charles Darwin, placed man in his book entitled as “Decent of Man”
in the evolutionary process suggested that man had apelike ancestors and claimed
that Africa would prove to be the cradle of mankind. Since then stone tools made
in different periods were found at different parts and sites of the world which
were recognized as being the works of man before the use of metal. These
artifacts indeed belong to the period termed as “Paleolithic”.

Besides, these stone tools prehistoric remains of man particularly human skulls
and bones were found in the Neander valley, Germany and at Cro-Magnon near
Les Eyzies, Java, China and in Africa as well. The scientific investigations
describe to a small apelike creature known as “Ramapithecus” as the common
ancestor of all the fossil species of mankind and ourselves. The “Ramapithecus”
jaws and teeth have been found at various sites from China to Kenya with the
largest collection found in Pakistan as well.

The evolution of man is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of
anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of
primates—in particular genus Homo—and leading to the emergence of Homo
sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, which includes the great apes.
This process involved the gradual development of traits. The study of human
evolution involves several scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology,
archaeology, paleontology, ethnology, linguistic evolutionally psychology,
genetics. Genetic studies show that primates diverged from other
mammals about 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, and the
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earliest fossils appear in the Paleocene, , around 55 million years ago. Within the
super family Hominoidea, the family Hominidae diverged from the
family Hylobatidae some 15–20 million years ago; subfamily
Homininae (African apes) diverged from Ponginae (orangutans) about 14 million
years ago; the tribe Hominini (including humans, Australopithecus, and
chimpanzees) parted from the tribe Gorillini (gorillas) between 8–9 million years
ago; and, in turn, the sub-tribes Hominina (humans and extinct biped ancestors)
and Panina (chimpanzees) separated 4–7 million years ago.

The possibility of linking humans with earlier apes by descent became clear only
after 1859 with the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, in
which he argued for the idea of the evolution of new species from earlier ones.
Darwin's book did not address the question of human evolution, saying only that
"Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."The first debates
about the nature of human evolution arose between Thomas Henry
Huxley and Richard Owen. Huxley argued for human evolution from apes by
illustrating many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes,
and did so particularly in his 1863 book Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature.
Many of Darwin's early supporters did not initially agree that the origin of the
mental capacities and the moral sensibilities of humans could be explained by
natural selection, though this later changed. Darwin's theory of evolution is based
on key facts that:-
 Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to
reproduce, the population would grow.
 Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same
size.
 Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time
 Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another

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  Much of this variation is heritable
 Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and
less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment
are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their
heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of
natural selection
 This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt
to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over
time to form new species

In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as
Aristotle. The text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier
Greek philosopher Empedocles. Darwin continued to research and extensively
revises his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific
results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January
1842, and then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory.

First fossils
A major problem in the 19th century was the lack of fossil intermediaries.
Neanderthal remains were discovered in a limestone quarry in 1856, three years
before the publication of On the Origin of Species, and Neanderthal fossils had
been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these
were human remains of a creature suffering some kind of illness. Despite the 1891
discovery by Euqene Dubois of what is now called Homo erectus at Java, it was
only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate
species began to accumulate. In 1925, Raymond Dart described Australopthecus
africanus. The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant
which was discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-
preserved tiny skull and an endocast of the brain.

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The East African fossils
During the 1960s and 1970s, hundreds of fossils were found in East Africa in the
regions of the Olduvai Gorge and Lake Turkana. These searches were carried out
by the Leakey family, with Louis Leakey. From the fossil beds of Olduvai and
Lake Turkana they amassed specimens of the early hominins: the
australopithecines and Homo species, and even Homo erectus.

These finds cemented Africa as the cradle of humankind. In the late 1970s and the
1980s, Ethiopia emerged as the new hot spot of paleoanthropology after “Lucy”,
the most complete fossil member of the species Australopithecus afrarensis, was
found in 1974 by Donald Johanson near Hadar in the desertic Afar
Triangle region of northern Ethiopia. Although the specimen had a small brain,
the pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function to those of modern
humans, showing with certainty that these hominins had walked erect. Lucy was
classified as a new species, Australopithecusafarensis which is thought to be more
closely related to the genus Homo as a direct ancestor, or as a close relative of an
unknown ancestor, than any other known hominid or hominin from this early time
range. In 2013, fossil skeletons of Homo naledi, an extinct species of
hominin assigned to the genus Homo were found near Johannesburg. In 2015,
fossils of at least fifteen individuals, amounting to 1,550 specimens, have been
excavated from the cave. The species is characterized by a body mass and stature
similar to small-bodied human populations, a smaller endocranial volume similar
to Australopithecus, and a cranial morphology (skull shape) similar to
early Homo species. The individuals show signs of having been deliberately
disposed of within the cave near the time of death. The fossils were dated close to
250,000 years ago and thus are not a direct ancestor but a contemporary with the
first appearance of larger-brained anatomically modern humans.

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The genetic revolution
The genetic revolution in studies of human evolution started when Vincent
Sarich and Allan Wilson measured the strength of immunological cross-reactions
of blood serum albumin between pairs of creatures, including humans and African
apes (chimpanzees and gorillas).The strength of the reaction could be expressed
numerically as an immunological distance, which was in turn proportional to the
number of amino acid differences between homologous proteins in different
species. In 1967 both experts estimated the divergence time of humans and apes
as four to five million years ago, at a time when standard interpretations of the
fossil record gave this divergence as at least 10 to as much as 30 million years.
Subsequent fossil discoveries, notably "Lucy", and reinterpretation of older fossil
materials, notably Ramapithecus, showed the younger estimates to be correct and
validated the albumin method.

On the basis of a separation from the orangutan between 10 and 20 million years
ago, earlier studies of the molecular clock suggested that there were about 76
mutations per generation that were not inherited by human children from their
parents; this evidence supported the divergence time between hominins and
chimpanzees noted above. However, a 2012 study in Iceland of 78 children and
their parents suggests a mutation rate of only 36 mutations per generation; this
datum extends the separation between humans and chimpanzees to an earlier
period greater than 7 million years ago (Ma). Additional research with 226
offspring of wild chimpanzee populations in eight locations suggests that
chimpanzees reproduce at age 26.5 years on average; which suggests the human
divergence from chimpanzees occurred between 7 and 13 million years ago. And
these data suggest that Ardipithecus (4.5 Ma), Orrorin (6 Ma)
and Sahelanthropus (7 Ma) all may be on the hominid lineage, and even that the
separation may have occurred outside the East African Rift region.

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In the 1990s, several teams of paleoanthropologists were working throughout
Africa looking for evidence of the earliest divergence of the hominin lineage
from the great apes. In 1994, Meave Leakey discovered Australopithecus
anamensis. The find was overshadowed by Tim D. White's 1995 discovery
of Ardipithecus ramidus, which pushed back the fossil record to 4.2 million years
ago.In 2000, Martin Pickford and Brigitte Senut discovered, in the Tugen
Hills of Kenya, a 6-million-year-old bipedal hominin which they named Orrorin
tugenesis, and in 2001, a team led by Michel Brunet discovered the skull of
Sahelanthropus tchadensis which was dated as 7.2 million years ago, and which
Brunet argued was a bipedal, and therefore a hominid—that is, a hominin.

By anatomically modern human populations continue to evolve, as they are

affected by both natural selection and genetic drift. Although selection
pressure on some traits, such as resistance to smallpox, has decreased in the
modern age, humans are still undergoing natural selection for many other traits.
Some of these are due to specific environmental pressures, while others are
related to lifestyle changes since the development of agriculture (10,000 years
ago), urbanization (5,000), and industrialization (250 years ago).

It has been argued that human evolution has accelerated since the development
of agriculture 10,000 years ago and civilization some 5,000 years ago, resulting,
it is claimed, in substantial genetic differences between different current human
populations and more recent research indicates that for some traits, the
developments and innovations of human culture have driven a new form of
selection that coexists with, and in some cases has largely replaced, natural
selection. The recent human evolution however, is related to agriculture includes
genetic resistance to infectious disease that has appeared in human populations
by crossing the species barrier from domesticated animals, as well as changes in
metabolism due to changes in diet, such as lactase persistence.
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The evolution of man in Pakistan
Apart from the physical environment of Pakistan’s territory, the land comprising
on present Pakistan is heir to at least two million years old going back to the Old
Stone Age. The earliest stone tools found in the Potohar region of Pakistan belong
to an ancient primitive stage in human development and culture. The Stone Age
(Old Stone Age, Middle Stone Age and New Stone Age),as the name suggests, is
the period of prehistory in which the technology of implement were primarily
based on stone. Economically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods represents
the hunting and gathering stage in human history, while the Neolithic represents
the stage of food production i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry.
The oldest known tools, comprising of cores and flakes have been found from the
Siwalik hills of Potohar region at Rewat is of a distinctive local Chellean Culture
is of great interest, as it links Potohar region of Pakistan with a vast complex of
such early centers of human activity, stretching from France and Spain through
the Mediterranean, also south and east Africa, Palestine and Syria, across to
Pakistan and then on as far as north –eastern China.

The next stage in stone age technology is known as the Acheulean Culture,
broadly speaking, commenced around 400, 000 BCE. The Middle Paleolithic
Period began around 100,000 BCE. The Acheulian Culture represents an
evolution from the previous one (Chellean) towards more elegant and refined
technique in preparation of stone implements. In Pakistan the stone implements of
this culture were found by Dr. Noethling (1899) at Kout-Modahi, and Dr. Abdur
Rauf Khan (1980) at Bela in Balochistan. The human life at this stage was, of
course, highly primitive. Man hardly differed in outward appearance from the
brute creation. The people in the Old Stone Age lived in small groups, without
any fixed abode, subsisting on hunting and gathering wild fruits, nuts etc. The
edible roots were grubbed out with crude stone tools. As known from various

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localities of the world, that towards the end of the Acheulean Culture, fire came
into general use, and people of the Old Stone Age began to clothe themselves
with animal furs (pelts).

The next phase in human life in Pakistan is the upper Paleolithic period, extending
from approximately 40,000 to 12,000 BCE. Though hunting and gathering fruits
and other edibles remained the chief forms of upper Paleolithic man’s economic
activity, he also learnt how to fish and finally may even have begun to tame dogs
and other beasts. Where no natural caves or shelters were to be found, he made
tents out of skine and even elaborate semi-underground dwellings. Unfortunately,
no stone implements of this period has so far been discovered or found in
Pakistan. However, caves and rock shelter paintings and engravings made by
upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic period’s people are found in the SulemanRange
and Zhob Valley of Balochistan, which shows the dawn of human ingenuity. The
people of upper Paleolithic period were free to explore avenues of feeling and self
expression which foreshadowed unmistakably the achievements of civilized
man. It is indeed no coincidence that the original centers of food production and
urban civilization in the mature Bronze Age grew up precisely within the
territories of these upper Paleolithic people. However, much remains to be done
before the study of Stone Age man heritage in Pakistan can be regarded as complete.
But, we have enough evidence to establish Pakistan’s right to rank as one of the cradles
of human civilization and evolution of man in prehistoric period.

The great step forward, which enabled man to break through the barrier between
barbarism and civilization, occurred with the onset of the Neolithic or New Stone
Age. The mode of life and general outlook of the folk of the New Stone Age was
radically different from that of their Paleolithic and Mesolithic forebears. The
stone-using agricultural communities “Neolithic” were established in Balochistan
plateau, in Pakistan by 8th millennium at Mehrgarh, Balochistan and then spread
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to the fertile Indus valley. In this Neolithic period five new practices played a
vital part:

1. Settled Agriculture.
2. Domestication of Animal.
3. Manufacture of pottery.
4. Tool-making by grinding and polishing technique.
5. Sewing, weaving and textile manufacture.

Naturally the fully-fledged Neolithic cultures of Pakistan did not spring in to

existence in a few brief generations. They were the result of a process of
evolution from the Mesolithic stage, lasting in the region from about 8th
millennium which lastly culminated and appeared around 2500 BCE as Indus
Civilization in the greater Indus valley.

2.3 Stone Tools and their Types

2.3.1 The Origin of Making the Stone Tools by Man

It is generally believed that about two million years ago when our earth marched
into Ice Age, called by geologists “Pleistocene Period”-A biped animal standing
erect on his two legs, with a bigger brain and eyes looking straight in front
appeared. He is the Man, the tool maker, the weakest creature on the earth but
strongest with the help of his tools. He is; the thinker with the memory, the talker
with legible sounds, and the fire maker. Further, he is now the great hunter of
animals alone or in groups, the conqueror of the nature, ready to create his own
world out of this fantasy win facilities from nature to build his own environment
for a better living. His early tools; made of flint or quartzite by chipping the
edges either on one side and hence named as chopper tool or on both sides and
hence called chopping tool or turned into long tool, easy to hold with hand and hence
are called as hand-axe. Such rough tools maker belonged to the early Stone Age.

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With the passage of time, man braved the cold and warm climatic fluctuation of
the ice age by moving away from the open into rock shelters and caves and thus
became cave dweller. He shared his hunt with his follows, learnt to scrape the
skin from the flesh of the animal by using improving tools, the stone split in to
cutting cores and scraping flakes. The re-touched edges of the cores now of
medium of small size, sometimes, tied with handle, were good for digging,
throwing or cutting. The flakes with sharpened edges were good for scraping.
Man advanced to make varieties of cutting tools, or scraping or piercing flakes.
Man began to live in caves, sometime painted on the cave walls or engraved some
figures. Sometimes he left behind his fellow in eternal sleep but with food and
other objects belonging to him. Thus, he became aware of Death. This was the
middle Stone Age period.

Nearly ten thousand years ago, Ice Age came to an end and recent climatic
conditions ushered in. With this change, the old stout animals perished and fast
running animals such as; deer, appeared to feed on the tall grasses now growing
over the pastoral land. Man could hardly chase such animals. He now invented
bow, reduced his flake tools to small size, called mircolith, tied them to the end of
a long handle and made the first arrow. Man was reborn as a archer, saved himself
from cold by using animal skin. His tools were made of variety of fine-grained
stones, such as quartz, flint, and bones. He ate the hunted animals as well as the
grass of his own taste on which animals fed. Man thus began to like the taste of
corn and moved with animals as nomad in search of pasture land. This was the
Mesolithic Age.

Some ten thousand years ago, Man recognized the roots of corn around his caves,
which he brought from pasture lands. For cutting them, he fixed a series of flakes
or the inner side of a curved stick and invented the saw. By using it, he discovered
a fine polish on the flake-blade and thus learnt the technique of polishing and
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sharpening. Some corns and seed fell down on loss soil and he found more corns
in the next season. Thus, he discovered the art of producing more corns. He
became food producer, a farmer. For farming he had to live in one place for some
mouths and thus men developed farm-huts which grew into farm villages. Village
social life began. The leftovers, dustbins and rotten food attracted animals which
hovered around his fields and houses. Thus both man and animals lived together
in a new world. Such was the beginning of agriculture known as “Neolithic
Revolution”.

The New Stone Age was a time period roughly from 9000 BCE named because it
was the last period of the age before woodworking began. The tools available
were made from natural materials including bone, antler, hide, stone, wood,
grasses, animal fibers and the use of water. After food man needed shelter to rest
and to sleep. He collected tree branches, leaves and husk and made huts to live.
He tried to cover them with clay for heat in winter and cool in summer. He learnt
to put blocks of clay one upon another and succeeded in building a wall. The
blocks of clay when shaped regularly turned to be bricks. It is these bricks either
of raw clay or baked which he used for building. One house two houses or more
came into make up a cluster of houses and there stood the whole village of houses
of different shapes and for different purposes. From reed buts to houses of bricks,
Man became the master builder.

Making and the use of stone tools has been interpreted by the researchers as a sign
of intelligence, and it has further been estimated that tool use have stimulated
certain aspects of human evolution, especially the continued expansion of the
human brain. The brain of a modern human consumes about 13 watts (260
kilocalories per day), a fifth of the body's resting power consumption. The
increased tool use would allow hunting for energy-rich meat products, and would
enable processing more energy-rich plant products. Researchers have suggested
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that early hominines were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to
create and use tools. However, when early humans started to use tools is difficult to
determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged
stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human
artifacts. There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 Ma) may have used
broken bones as tools. Many species make and use tools, but it is the human genus that
dominates the areas of making and using more complex tools.

The oldest known tools are flakes from West Turkana, Kenya, which date to
3.3 million years ago. The next oldest stone tools are from Ethiopia and are
considered the beginning of the Oldowan technology. These tools date to about
2.6 million years ago. A Homo fossil was found near some Oldowan tools, and its
age was noted at 2.3 million years old, suggesting that maybe the Homo species
did indeed create and use these tools. The third metacarpal styloid process enables
the hand bone to lock into the wrist bones, allowing for greater amounts of
pressure to be applied to the wrist and hand from a grasping thumb and fingers. It
allows humans the dexterity and strength to make and use complex tools. This
unique anatomical feature separates humans from apes and other nonhuman
primates, and is not seen in human fossils older than 1.8 million years.

According to Bernard Wood Paranthropus co-existed with the

early Homo species in the area of the "Oldowan Industrial Complex" over roughly
the same span of time. Although there is no direct evidence which
identifies Paranthropus as the tool makers, their anatomy lends to indirect
evidence of their capabilities in this area. Most paleoanthropologists agree that the
early Homo species were indeed responsible for most of the Oldowan tools found.
They argue that when most of the Oldowan tools were found in association with
human fossils, Homo was always present, but Paranthropus was not.

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In 1994, Randall Susman used the anatomy of opposable thumbs as the basis for
his argument that both the Homo and Paranthropus species were toolmakers. He
compared bones and muscles of human and chimpanzee thumbs, finding that
humans have three muscles which are lacking in chimpanzees. Humans also have
thicker metacarpals with broader heads, allowing more precise grasping than the
chimpanzee hand can perform. Susman posited that modern anatomy of the
human opposable thumb is an evolutionary response to the requirements
associated with making and handling tools and that both species were indeed
toolmakers.

The stone tools are first attested when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called
core tools choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes.
This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to
be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is
subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–
300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–
30,000 years ago, and the upper Paleolithic (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000
years ago. The archaeologists working in the Great Rift Valley in Kenya have
discovered the oldest known stone tools in the world. Dated to around 3.3 million
years ago, the implements are some 700,000 years older than stone tools from
Ethiopia that previously held this distinction.

The period from 700,000–300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean,
when H. ergaster (or erectus) made large stone hand axes out of flint and
quartzite, at first rough (Early Acheulian), later “retouched” by additional, more-
subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes. The rough and rugged implements un-
earthed by the eroding current of the river Soan near Rawalpindi carry the saga
of human toil and labour to the interglacial ages, roughly estimated at 500,000
years from now.
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After 350,000 BP the more refined so-called levallois technique was developed,
a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers ("racloirs"), needles,
and flattened needles were made. Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more
refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the
immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers). Bone tools were also made
by H. sapiens in Africa by 90–70,000 years ago and are also known from
early H. sapiens sites in Eurasia by about 50,000 years ago.

It is estimated that about 50,000 B.P, the modern human culture started to evolve
more rapidly. The transition to behavioral modernity has been characterized by
some as a "Great Leap Forward", or as the "Upper Palaeolithic Revolution", due
to the sudden appearance of distinctive signs of modern behavior and big game
hunting in the archaeological record. The evidence of behavioral modernity
significantly earlier also exists from Africa, with older evidence of abstract imagery,
widened subsistence strategies, more sophisticated tools and weapons, and other
"modern" behaviors, and many scholars have recently argued that the transition to
modernity occurred sooner than previously believed.Some scholars consider the
transition to have been more gradual, noting that some features had already appeared
among archaic African Homo sapiens since 300–200,000 years ago.

The recent evidence suggests that the Australian Aboriginal population separated
from the African population 75,000 years ago, and that they made a sea journey
of up to 160 km 60,000 years ago, which may diminish the evidence of the
Upper Paleolithic Revolution. The modern humans started burying their dead,
using animal hides to make clothing, hunting with more sophisticated techniques
(such as using trapping pits or driving animals off cliffs), and engaging in cave
painting. As human culture advanced, different populations of humans
introduced novelty to existing technologies: artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons,

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 and bone needles show signs of variation among different populations of
humans, something that had not been seen in human cultures prior to 50,000 BP.

2.3 2 Typology, Formation and Techniques of Stone Tools

The stone tools were made by removing material from a pebble or core until the
desired shape of the core has been attained. The first flakes stuck off bear traces
of the outer surface. Trimming flakes are then stuck off to achieve the final
shape and certain edges may then be retouched by further removal of tiny
secondary flakes. Although the core is the main implement thus produced the
flakes themselves may well be used as knives, scrapers etc. The tool maker’s
work will have varied in accordance with the type and amnt of raw material
available. The history of stone tool technology shows a sporadically increasing
degree of refinement. The first recognizable tools are simple choppers and flakes
made by knocking pieces off pebble to obtain sharp edges. The best known
examples are the so called Oldowan tools from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. After
hundreds of thousands of year, people progressed to flaking both surfaces of the
tool eventually producing the symmetrical Acheulian hand-axe shape, with its
finally worked sharp edges. The ext improvement around 100,000 years ago came
with the introduction of the “Levallois technique” named after a site in a Paris
where it was first identified.

Around 35,000 years ago with the Upper Paleolithic period blade technology
became dominant in some parts of the world. Long parallel sided blades were
systematically removed with a punch and hammer stone from a cylindrical core.
This was a great advance not only because it produced large numbers of blanks
that could be further trimmed and retouched into a wide range of specialized
tools, but also because it was far less wasteful of the raw material.

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The pre-historians often adopt function to identify tool types; for instance
handaxe is named after an exe held by hand, chopper-chopping tool after
chopping-cutting and scraper for scraping wood or bone. Similarly the form or
shape of a stone tool can be judged by its appearance such as; circular, triangular,
irregular, oval or named after fruits e.g. pear shaped, almond shaped or date-
shaped etc. Then there is another attribute; the technique, which can separate
different types of artefacts and tools, for example flakes could be Clactonian,
Levallois or non-Levallois, with faceted or prepared striking platforms, with deep
or shallow flakes scares indicating hard-soft hammer. It could be direct percussion
one or two-way directional flaking and short or wide flake removal.

1. Flint: Flint is most commonly used materials for the manufacture of stone
tools during the Stone Age. It splits into thin sharp splinters called flakes
or blades when stuck by another hard object such as a hammer stone made
of another material. This process is referred to as knapping. Flint was
widely used historically to make stone tools and start fires. It occurs
chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and
lime stones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green,
white or brown in colour and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A
thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour,
typically white and rough in texture. The nodules can often be found along
streams and beaches. Flint breaks and chips into sharp-edged pieces,
making it useful for knife blades and other cutting tools. The use of flint to
make stone tools dates back millions of years, and flint's extreme
durability has made it possible to accurately date its use over this time.
Flint is one of the primary materials used to define the Stone Age. During
the Stone Age, access to flint was so important for survival that people
would travel or trade to obtain flint.

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2. Handaxe: It is a standard Lower Paleolithic tool, flaked on both sides
with or without regular cutting edge, either made on a core or a flake. It is
a prehistoric stone tool with two faces that is the longest-used tool in
human history. It is usually made from flint or chert. It is characteristic of
the lower Acheulean and middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) periods. Its
technical name (biface) comes from the fact that the archetypical model is
generally bifacial Lithic flake and almond-shaped (amygdaloidal).
Handaxes tend to be symmetrical along their longitudinal axis and formed
by pressure or percussion. The most common hand axes have a pointed
end and rounded base, which gives them their characteristic shape, and
both faces have been knapped to remove the natural cortex, at least
partially. Hand axes are a type of the somewhat wider biface group of two-
faced tools or weapons. Hand axe tools were possibly used to butcher
animals; to dig for tubers, animals and water; to chop wood and remove
tree bark; to throw at prey; and as a source for flake tools.

There are different forms such as;

i. Pear shape; in this shape, the butt is convex with broad side above it.
The width below tip us kisser than the middle portion.
ii. date shape; where a handaxe has convex edges but both ends are U-
shaped
iii. Oval shape; the oval shape is rather log with or without regular edges
iv. Oval concave; it forms the combination of both oval shape as a whole
and concavities to its side edges somewhat resembling as string bean.

3. Cleaver: It is another characteristic tool form of Paleolithic period which

is widely spread in South Asia and Africa. A cleaver is a large knife that

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 varies in its shape but usually resembles a rectangular-bladed hatchet. It is
largely used for hacking through bone.
It has usually following main forms:
i. Convex shape; it gives resemblance to chopper but here it is made on
a thick flake with cutting edge opposite to prominent bulb of
percussion.
ii. V shape; it is usually made on large flakes by trimming sides to obtain
cutting edge which may be straight or convex by retouch.
iii. U shape; the cutting edge may be opposite to the bulb of percussion or
on its sides.
4. Pick: It is classified under a separate type because of its pointed character.
It is neither a hand-axe nor a cleaver. It has a wide convex base often with
cortex and the pointed end opposite it. The end could be sharp, slightly
smooth or convex. The end usually shows retouch or sigs of use.
5. Chopper: This is referred to a pebble tool classification. It is a core tool
made on a pebble with cortex on butt end, which could be convex or u-
shaped depending upon the shape of a pebble. The butt could be thick or
thin. The cutting edge is produced by flaking one end of a pebble on one
side only. Choppers are crude forms of stone tool and are found in
industries as early as the Lower Palaeolithic from around 2.5 million years
ago. These earliest known specimens were found in the Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania by Louis Leakey in the 1930s. The name Oldowan was given to
the tools after the site in which they were excavated. These types of tools
were used an estimated time range of 2.5 to 1.2 million years ago.
6. Chopping tool: This is another variety but more developed than the
chopper. It is made on a pebble as a core tool with convex cortex base held
by hand and convex cutting edge opposite it.

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 7. Scrapper: Scrapers are mostly made on flakes. The retouch varies from
wide to small with shallow or deep scars. A hand scraper is a single-edged
tool used to scrap a surface.
8. Borer: They are smaller and less heavy than the Pick type. Borers are
made on a flake or on a thin core with flat bottom and dome-shaped upper
surface.
9. Core:A core is a stone from which flakes have been detached so that the
flakes can be made into tools. It is developed out of the parent rock or
pebble which provides basis raw material. The intension of the tool maker
is to break it into pieces, so that either core or broken pieces with sharp
edges which could be used as tools. Core may be of any convenient size
from a small to a large pebble either round, flat or oval in shape, with
cortex area on un-flaked surface. Core tools date at least to the beginning
of the Oldowan tool industry and are the earliest stone tools known to
have been deliberately fashioned by humans. Core tools include choppers,
cleavers, and hand axes.
10. Levallois Core: A core is a stone from which flakes have been detached
so that the flakes can be made into tools. The name Levallois is derived
from the Paleolithic site of Levallois Perret Paris reported in the 19th
century. The intention of tool maker is usually to flake a core in such a
way that it represent a turtle-back form where only one flake is detached.
A core is in fact a stone from which flakes are detached so that the flakes
can be made into tools. This one was made with a special technique called
Levallois core preparation that was widely used during the Middle
Paleolithic Period. The Middle Paleolithic saw the rise of more complex
stone tool technologies and more variability in tool types compared to the
Lower Paleolithic. This change is associated with the increasing
complexity of Hominin behavior —such as specialized hunting, and the
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 use of symbols— eventually resulting in anatomically and behaviorally
modern humans. Levallois cores were made by removing flakes in a
specific way, such as centripetally around an edge, so that the last flakes
detached have a predetermined shape.
11. Scrapers: They usually form an important retouched tool kit associated
with Acheulian collection. Most are the scrapers are made on flakes and
are therefore lesser in weight.
12. Flakes: The next common artefacts of Lower Paleolithic Age are flakes.
It is piece or pieces from core. The main purpose of early man was to
obtain a sharp edged artifact so that he could employ or use it to cut or
process food. The raw meat is difficult to cut with bare hands as it
becomes slippery, so a tool such as flake was needed by him. There could
be one flake or several from the same core depending upon the size of
pebble, raw material or an intention of the tool maker. It could be
triangular, sub-circular, oval or irregular in shape with sharp edges onsides
or distal end. Its thickness varies but such flakes are usually thick with
prominent cone and bulb of percussion, and this character separates them
from later Paleolithic Cultures.
13. Blades: It is observed that occasionally or by accident when tool maker
was flaking river pebbles, long pieces of stone were detached, which can
be called blades, because they resemble shaving blades and may be
parallel sided. They are actually flakes but are classified separately, their
length being twice their width or more. They retain cortex on dorsal
surface with prominent bulbs of percussion indicating stone hammer technique.
The signs of rolling may be preserved on their surfaces. They may have been
utilized for various functions such as those performed by flakes.

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2.3.3 Paleolithic Stone Tool Techniques:

This basic principle in the manufacture of stone stools is the removal of a flake or
series of flakes from a stone matrix. It is characteristic of all stones that a blow
stuck near an edge of a block will detach a chip or flake. The Flakes may be
removed from blocks by various natural causes such as wave action, pressure in
the earth and soil creep, but those produced intentionally by man exhibit definite
characteristics. Their most important attribute is the bulb of percussion which
appears on the lower surface of the flake just below the pint where the blow was
stuck. The bulbs of percussion vary in size and shape depending on the force and
direction of the low the nature of the stone and the nature of the object with which
the blow was stuck. The block from which a flake has been detached the core or
nucleus bears the imprints of the bulb in the form of a bulbular cavity and also
lateral ridges left by the removal of the flake. These ridges often form a definite
pattern showing that a piece has unquestionably been the work of man. The
flaking produced by natural causes is usually haphazard and fractures by frost or
heat are characterized by a series of concentric rings as opposed to the ripple
marks left by a man-made fracture.

The stone tools were chipped basically by two principle methods; percussion and
pressure. The chipping by percussion may be done either by striking a block of
lint with a hammer of stone, wood or bone held in the hand or by sticking the
block itself on the edge of a fixed stone; the latter method is called the anvil
method. The pressure flaking consists of applying pressure by mean of a pointed
stick or bone near the edge of a flake or blade, to detach small flaked from both
sides, This method was used mostly to put the finishing touches on tools or to
produce desired shape. The following techniques were used for manufacturing of
stone tools:-

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i. Hamerstone- Artefact:
One of the common and important techniques is this in which a
hammerstone is directly hitting a pebble to flake it. This method is also
called as direct percussion. Here a pebble to be flaked is held in one
hand and a hammerstone in the other, either single or multiple blows
are applied to detach flakes or sometimes artifacts may have been
retouched.
ii. Hammerstone-Artefact-Anvil:
The second method is the application of three objects involved to flake
pebbles, heavy raw material, anvil and Bipolar scars.
iii. Non-Levallois Technique
It is the commonest technique in collections of Lower Paleolithic,
Middle Paleolithic and Mesolithic. It may require direct percussion or
the application of above mentioned two techniques. Flaking is done
regularly or at random removing one, two, three or several flakes some
retaining cortex on dorsal surface. The flakes may be circular sub-
circular, triangular or sub-triangular in shape some with prominent
bulbs percussion.
iv. Levallois Technique:
It is mainly characterized by production of flakes but in a different
manner than the non-Levallois types. Core is prepared carefully with
flake scars nearly from all directions leaving no cortex on dorsal
surface. The prehistoric man had predetermined the shape of a flake in
his mid before he started knapping stone he wanted a cortex free flake
with sharp edges and a single blow detached the required piece.

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2.4 Geological Time Scale
2.4.1 Early Brief History:

In ancient Greece, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) experimental that fossils of seashells

in rocks resembled those found on beaches, so he inferred that the fossils in rocks
were formed by organisms, and he reasoned that the positions of land and sea had
changed over long periods of time. Then Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
mentions with Aristotle's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of
ancient life. Later on in the 11th century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sina)
and the 13th century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus extended Aristotle's
explanation into a theory of a petrifying fluid. Avicenna also first proposed one of
the principles underlying geologic time scales, the Law of superposition of strata,
while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing (1027). The
Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095) also recognized the concept of “Deep Time”.

2.4 2 Primary Principles

In the late 17th century Nicholas Steno (1638–1686) pronounced the principles
underlying geologic (geological) time scales. Steno argued that rock layers (or
strata) were laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice" of time. He
also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is
probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. While Steno's
principles were simple, applying them proved challenging. Steno's ideas also lead
to other important concepts geologists use today, such as Relative Dating. As such
over the course of the 18th century geologists realized that:

1. Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted or even inverted

after deposition
2. Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely
different appearances
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 3. The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history

The theories popular at this time proposed that all rocks had precipitated out of a
single enormous flood. A major shift in thinking came when James
Hutton presented his Theory of the Earth; or, an Investigation of the Laws
Observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the
Globe in 1785. John McPhee however, asserts that "as things appear from the
perspective of the 20th century, James Hutton in those readings became the
founder of modern geology". Hutton proposed that the interior of Earth was hot,
and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock, the land
was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea, and heat then
consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory,
known as “Plutonism” stood in contrast to the "Neptunist" flood-oriented theory.

Formulation

The first serious attempts to formulate a geologic time scale that could be applied
anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century. The most influential of
those early attempts divided the rocks of Earth's crust into four types: Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory,
formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a
"Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" remained in
use as the name of a geological period well into the 20th century and
"Quaternary" remains in formal use as the name of the current period.

The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William

Smith, George Cuvier, Jean d’Omalius d’Halloy and Alexander Brongniart in the
early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely. It
also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental)
boundaries. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition)

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contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the
same time. Detailed studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils of
Europe produced the sequence of geologic periods still used today. The geological
time scale is therefore a result of hundreds of years of investigation and remains
very much a work in progress.

The geologic time scale is an important tool used to represent the history of the
Earth. It is a standard timeline used to describe the age of rocks and fossils, and
the events that formed them. It spans Earth's entire history and is separated into
four principle divisions; Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras.
A geological period is one of the several subdivisions of geologic time enabling
cross-referencing of rocks and geologic eventsfrom place to place.
These periods form elements of a hierarchy of divisions into which geologists have
split the Earth's history. The Geologic time spans are divided into units and
subunits, the largest of which are eons. The Eons and Eras are larger subdivisions
than periods while periods divided into Epochs and Ages.
Eons

The eon is the broadest category of geological time. Earth's history is

characterized by four eons; in order from oldest to youngest, these are the
Hadeon, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. Collectively, the Hadean,
Archean, and Proterozoic are sometimes informally referred to as the
"Precambrian." (The Cambrian period defines the beginning of the Phanerozoic
eon; so, all rocks older than the Cambrian are Precambrian in age.)

We live during the Phanerozoic, which means "visible life." This is the interval of
geological time characterized by abundant, complex fossilized remains. Being the
youngest eon of time, it is also very well represented by rock at Earth's surface.

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Because of these two factors, most paleontologists and geologists study fossils
and rocks from the Phanerozoic eon.

The Hadean and Archean are difficult eons to study, however, because they are
exposed in very limited places on Earth's surface. (Since they are the oldest eons,
rocks that are Hadean and Archean in age are often buried far below younger
rocks at Earth's surface.) Proterozoic rocks--which span nearly 2 billion years
(42% of Earth's history)--are much more accessible, but, until recently, have
received significantly less attention from paleontologists than rocks from the
younger, fossil-rich Phanerozoic eon. That is slowly beginning to change,
however, as more clues about the origins of complex life begin to be revealed
from Proterozoic-aged rocks.
Eras

Eons of geological time are subdivided into eras, which are the second-longest
units of geological time. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Most of our knowledge of the fossil record
comes from the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The Paleozoic ("old life") era is
characterized by trilobites, the first four-limbed vertebrates, and the origin of land
plants. The Mesozoic ("middle life") era represents the "age of dinosaurs," though
also is noteworthy for the first appearances of mammals and flowering plants.
Finally, the Cenozoic ("new life") era is sometimes called the "age of mammals"
and is the era during which we live today.
As chronological points of reference, it is worth memorizing the ages of the
boundaries that separate the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. Long before
geologists knew these absolute age dates, they realized that the boundaries
represent important events in the history of life: mass extinctions. For example,
many fossils that are commonly found in the youngest Paleozoic rocks are not
found in overlying Mesozoic rocks. Similarly, dinosaur fossils found in the
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youngest Mesozoic rocks are never again found in the overlying Cenozoic rocks.
Paleontologists and geologists used these mass extinction events to define these
(and other) boundaries within the Phanerozoic portion of the geological time
scale. It is therefore no coincidence that some of the major boundaries coincide
with mass extinction events. The older Archean and Proterozoic eons are similarly
divided into several eras. For example, the youngest era of the Proterozoic eon is
called the Neoproterozoic.

Periods

Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are subdivided into units of time called
periods. The most well known of all geological periods, is the Jurassic period of
the Mesozoic era. The Paleozoic era is divided into six periods. From the oldest to
the youngest, these are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Permian. In the United States, the Carboniferous is divided
into two separate periods: the Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian.

Epochs and Ages

Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs. In turn, epochs are divided
into even narrower units of time called ages. For the sake of simplicity, only the
epochs of the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods are shown on the time
scale at the top of this page. It is important to note, however, that all of the periods
of the Phanerozoic era are subdivided into the epochs and ages.

The Paleogene period is divided into--from oldest to youngest--the Paleocene,

Eocene, and Oligocene epochs. The Neogene is divided into the Miocene and
Pliocene epochs. Finally, the Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene and
Holocene epochs. Some geologists now think that--since humans are having such
a notable impact on the Earth and its life--a new, youngest epoch should be added
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to the Quaternary: the Anthropocene. There is still considerable discussion in the
geological community about whether this epoch should be added, as well as
debate about what characteristics should define its beginning.

The Geologic dating allows scientists to better understand ancient history,

including the evolution of plant and animal life from single-celled organisms to
dinosaurs to primates to early humans. It also helps them learn more about how
human activity has transformed the planet. The time scale was developed through
the study of physical rock layers and relationships as well as the times when
different organisms appeared, evolved and became extinct through the study of
fossilized remains and imprints.

The primary and largest catalogued divisions of time are periods called eons. The
first eon was the Hadean, when the Earth and moon were predicted to be formed,
lasting over 600 million years until the Archean, , which is when the Earth had
cooled enough for continents and the earliest known life to emerge. After about
2.5 billion years, oxygen generated by photosynthesizing single-celled organisms
began to appear in the atmosphere marking the beginning of the Proterozoic.
Finally, the Phanerozoic eon encompasses 541 million years of diverse abundance
of multi cellular life starting with the appearance of hard animal shells in the
fossil record and continuing to the present.

Eons are divided into eras, which are in turn divided into periods, epochs and
ages. The first three eons can be referred to collectively as
the Precambrian supereon. This is in reference to the significance of the
Cambrian Explosion, a massive diversification of multi-cellular life forms that
took place in the Cambrian period at the start of the Phanerozoic.

Corresponding to eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages, the terms “eonothem”,
“erathem”, “system”, “series”, “stage” are used to refer to the layers of rock that
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belong to these stretches of geologic time in Earth's history.

Geologists qualify these units as "early", "mid", and "late" when referring to time,
and "lower", "middle", and "upper" when referring to the corresponding rocks.
For example, the Lower Jurassic Series in chronostratigraphy corresponds to the
Early Jurassic Epoch in geochronology. The adjectives are capitalized when the
subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus "early
Miocene" but "Early Jurassic."

Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years
old. The geology or Deep Time of Earth's past has been organized into various
units according to events which are thought to have taken place. Different spans
of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the
composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events,
such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous
period period and the Paleogene period period is defined by the Cretaceous-
Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian
dinosaurs and many other groups of life. The older time spans, which predate the
reliablefossil record (before the Proterozoic eon) are defined by their absolute age.

Geologic units from the same time but different parts of the world often look
different and contain different fossils, so the same time-span was historically
given different names in different locales. For example, in North America, the
Lower Cambrian is called the Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones
based on succession of trilobites. In East Asia and Siberia, the same unit is split
into Alexian, Atdabanian and Botomian stages. A key aspect of the work of the
International Commission on Stratigraphy is to reconcile this conflicting
terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.

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Some other planets and moons in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid
structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus,
Mars and the Earth’s Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do
not preserve their history in a comparable manner. Apart from the Late Heavy
Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the
Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets.
Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited
relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context.

Since the early work on developing the geologic time scale was dominated by
British geologists, and the names of the geologic periods reflect that dominance.
The "Cambrian", (the classical name for Wales) and the "Ordovician" and
"Silurian", named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined using
stratigraphic sequences from Wales. The "Devonian" was named for the English
county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous" was an adaptation of "the Coal
Measures", the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The
"Permian" was named after Perm, Russia, because it was defined using strata in
that region by Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison.

However, some periods were defined by geologists from other countries. The
"Triassic" was named in 1834 by a German geologist Friedrich Von Alberti from
the three distinct layers (Latin trias meaning triad) – red beds, capped by chalk,
followed by black shales – that are found throughout Germany and Northwest
Europe, called the ‘Trias’. The "Jurassic" was named by a French geologist
Alexandre Brongniart for the extensive marine limestone exposures of the Jura
Mountains. The "Cretaceous" as a separate period was first defined by Belgian
geologist Jean d’Omalius d’Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris basin and
named for the extensive beds of chalk found in Western Europe.

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British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into eras and
the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In 1841 John
Philips published the first global geologic time scale based on the types of fossils
found in each era. Phillips' scale helped standardize the use of terms like
Paleozoic ("old life") which he extended to cover a larger period than it had in
previous usage, and Mesozoic ("middle life") which he invented.

2.4.3 Dating of Time Scales

Chronological dating, or simply dating, is the process of attributing to an object or

event a date in the past, allowing such object or event to be located in a previously
established chronology. This usually requires what is commonly known as a
"dating method". Several dating methods exist, depending on different criteria and
techniques, and some very well known examples of disciplines using such
techniques are, for example, history, archaeology, geology, paleontology,
astronomy and even forensic science in the latter it is sometimes necessary to
investigate the moment in the past during which the death of a cadaver occurred.
These methods are typically identified as absolute, which involves a specified
date or date range, or relative, which refers to dating which places artifacts or
events on a timeline relative to other events and/or artifacts. Other markers can
help place an artifact or event in a chronology, such as nearby writings and
stratigraphic markers.

William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell were however, the first who recognized that
rock strata represented successive time periods, and time scales could be
estimated only very imprecisely since estimates of rates of change were uncertain.
While creationists had been proposing dates of around six or seven thousand years
for the age of Earth based on the Bible, early geologists were suggesting millions
of years for geologic periods, and some were even suggesting a virtually infinite
age for Earth. The Geologists and paleontologists constructed the geologic table
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based on the relative positions of different strata and fossils, and estimated the
time scales based on studying rates of various kinds of weathering, erosion
sedimentation and lithification. Until the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and
the development of its geological applications through radionmetric dating during
the first half of the 20th century, the ages of various rock strata and the age of
Earth were the subject of considerable debate.

The first geologic time scale that included absolute dates was published in 1913
by the British geologist Arthur Holmes. He greatly furthered the newly created
discipline of geochronology and published the world-renowned book The Age of
the Earth in which he estimated Earth's age to be at least 1.6 billion years.

In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission

on Stratigraphy) began to define global references known as GSSP (Global Boundary
Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages.

Popular culture and a growing number of scientists use the term “Anthropocene”
informally to label the current epoch in which we are living. The term was coined
by Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000 to describe the current time in
which humans have had an enormous impact on the environment. It has evolved
to describe an "epoch" starting sometime in the past and on the whole defined by
anthropogenic carbon emissions and production and consumption of plastic goods
that are left in the ground. The critics of this term say that the term should not be
used because it is difficult, if not nearly impossible, to define a specific time when
humans started influencing the rock strata – defining the start of an epoch. Others
say that humans have not even started to leave their biggest impact on Earth, and
therefore the Anthropocene has not even started yet.

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Relative dating

Relative dating methods are unable to determine the absolute age of an object or
event, but can determine the impossibility of a particular event happening before
or after another event of which the absolute date is well known. In this relative
dating method, Latin terms ante quem and post quem are usually used to indicate
both the most recent and the oldest possible moments when an event occurred or
an artifact was left in a stratum, respectively. But this method is also useful in
many other disciplines. Historians, for example, know that Shakespeare's
play Henry-V was not written before 1587 because Shakespeare's primary source
for writing his play was the second edition of Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles
Chronicles, not published until 1587. Thus, 1587 is the post quem dating of
Shakespeare's play Henry V. That means that the play was without fail written
after (in Latin, post) 1587.

The same inductive mechanism is applied in archaeology, geology and

paleontology, by many ways. For example, in a stratum presenting difficulties or
ambiguities to absolute dating, paleopalynology can be used as a relative referent
by means of the study of the pollens found in the stratum. This is admitted
because of the simple reason that some botanical species, whether extinct or not,
are well known as belonging to a determined position in the scale of time.

Absolute dating

The Absolute dating methods seek to establish a specific time during which an
object originated or an event took place. While the results of these techniques are
largely accepted within the scientific community, there are several factors which
can hinder the discovery of accurate absolute dating, including sampling errors
and geological disruptions. This type of chronological dating utilizes absolute
referent criteria, mainly the radiometric dating methods. Material remains can be

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absolutely dated by studying the organic materials which construct the remains.
For example, remains that have pieces of brick can undergo the process of
thermoluminescence dating in order to determine approximately how many years
ago the material was fired. This technique was used to discover the date of St.
James Church in Toruń by testing the thermoluminescence of removed bricks. In
this example, an absolute date was determined which filled a gap in the historical
knowledge of the church.

These techniques are utilized in many other fields as well. Geologists, for
example, apply absolute dating methods to rock sediment in order to discover
their period of origin.

Some examples of both radiometric and non-radiometric absolute dating methods

are the following:

1. Amino acid dating

2. Archaeomagnetic dating
3. Argon–argon dating
4. Uranium–lead dating
5. Samarium–neodymium dating
6. Potassium–argon dating
7. Rubidium–strontium dating
8. Uranium–thorium dating
9. Radiocarbon dating
10. Fission track dating
11. Electron spin resonance dating
12. Luminescence dating
i. Thermoluminescence dating
ii. Optically stimulated luminescence
13. Iodine–xenon dating
14. Lead–lead dating
15. Oxidizable carbon ratio dating
16. Rehydroxylation dating

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 17. Cementochronology (this method does not determine a precise moment in
a scale of time but the age at death of a dead individual)
18. Wiggle matching
19. Datestone (exclusively used in archaeology)
20. Obsidian hydration dating (exclusively used in archaeology)
21. Tephrochronology
22. Molecular clock (used mostly in phylogenetics and evolutionary biology)
23. Dendrochronology
24. Herbchronology
The geological time scale is one of the crowning achievements of science in
general and geology in particular. It is a reference and communication system for
comparing rocks and fossils from throughout the world and is geology's
equivalent of the periodic table of the elements. Most of the boundaries on the
geological time scale correspond to the origination or extinction of particular
kinds of fossils. Knowing when major groups of fossils first appeared or went
extinct is therefore incredibly useful for determining the ages of rocks in the field.
For example, if a rock is with a trilobite fossil upon it, then the rock is Paleozoic
in age (541 Ma to 252 Ma) and not older or younger; knowing the species of
trilobite allows even greater precision. This relates to a third important principle
of relative age dating: the principle of faunal succession. Faunal succession is the
principle that different kinds of fossils characterize different intervals of time.
This is because evolution and extinction are facts of nature.

The principle of faunal succession was developed by an English surveyor

named William Smith (1769-1839). As he studied layers of rocks to determine
where to build canals, he noticed that he found the same ordering of fossil species
from place to place; Fossil A was always found below Fossil B, which in turn was
always found below Fossil C, and so on. By documenting these sequences of
fossils, Smith was able to temporally correlate rock layers (or, strata) from place
to place (in other words, to establish that rock layers in two different places are
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equivalent in age based upon the fact that they include the same types of
fossils). Temporal correlation allowed Smith to construct the first geological map
of an entire country. The geological time scale provides a global summary of
countless small-scale temporal correlations of rock layers made at local and
regional scales. It is based almost entirely upon careful observations of the
distributions of fossils in time and space.

The ICS's Geologic Time Scale 2012 book which includes the new approved time
scale also displays a proposal to substantially revise the Precambrian time scale to
reflect important events such as the formation of the Earth or the Great Oxidation
Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous
chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.
 Hadean Eon – 4600–4031 Ma

 Chaotian Era – 4600–4404 Ma – the name alluding both to the

mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation
 Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era – 4404–4031 Ma – both names allude to
the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral
grains on Earth, zircons[39][36]

 Archean Eon – 4031–2420 Ma

 Paleoarchean Era – 4031–3490 Ma

o Acastan Period – 4031–3810 Ma – named after the Acasta

Gneiss[39][36]
o Isuan Period – 3810–3490 Ma – named after the Isua
Greenstone Belt[39]

 Mesoarchean Era – 3490–2780 Ma

 Vaalbaran Period – 3490–3020 Ma – based on the names of the

Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons[39]

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  Pongolan Period – 3020–2780 Ma – named after the Pongola
Supergroup[39]

 Neoarchean Era – 2780–2420 Ma

 Methanian Period – 2780–2630 Ma – named for the inferred

predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes[39]
 Siderian Period – 2630–2420 Ma – named for the voluminous banded
iron formations formed within its duration[39]

 Proterozoic Eon – 2420–541 Ma

 Paleoproterozoic Era – 2420–1780 Ma

o Oxygenian Period – 2420–2250 Ma – named for displaying the

first evidence for a global oxidizing atmosphere[39]
o Jatulian or Eukaryian Period – 2250–2060 Ma – names are
respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion
event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed)[41][42] first
fossil appearance of eukaryotes[39]
o Columbian Period – 2060–1780 Ma – named after the
supercontinent Columbia[39]

 Mesoproterozoic Era – 1780–850 Ma

 Rodinian Period – 1780–850 Ma – named after the supercontinent

Rodinia, stable environment[39]

 Neoproterozoic Era – 850–541 Ma

 Cryogenian Period – 850–630 Ma – named for the occurrence of

several glaciations[39]
 Ediacaran Period – 630–541 Ma

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Table showing Geological eras in Earth's history

Eon Era Time frame (Ma = million years ago)

Cenozoic 66 million years ago to present

Phanerozoic Mesozoic 251.902 to 66 million years ago

Paleozoic 541 to 251.902 million years ago

Neoproterozoic 1,000 to 541 million years ago

Proterozoic Mesoproterozoic 1,600 to 1,000 million years ago

Paleoproterozoic 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago

Neoarchean 2,800 to 2,500 million years ago

Mesoarchean 3,200 to 2,800 million years ago

Archean
Paleoarchean 3,600 to 3,200 million years ago

Eoarchean 4,000 to 3,600 million years ago

not officially divided into Formation of Earth to 4,000 million

Hadean
eras years ago

153
 This clock representation below shows of the major units of geological
time and definitive events of Earth history. The Hadean eon represents the time
before fossil record of life on Earth; its upper boundary is now regarded as 4.0
Ga (billion years ago).Other subdivisions reflect the evolution of life; the Archean
and Proterozoic are both eons, the Paleeozoic, Mesozoic, are eras of the
Phanerozoic eon. The three million year Quaternary period, the time of
recognizable humans, is too small to be visible at this scale. (source:
www.wekipedia.org)

154
Self Assesment Questions

Q. No. 1: Define three Age System of Archaeology.

Q. No. 2: What do you know about Stone Age culture of Europe?

Q. No. 3: What do you know about the evolution of Man? Discuss.

Q. No. 4: Discuss the begning of life on the earth and origin of Man.

Q. No. 5:Write a detaile essay on the types and techniques of stone tools.

Q. No. 6: Explain the Geological Time Scale of the world with examples.

Q. No. 7: Discuss different dating methods of archaeology.

155
 Bibliography

Allchin, B & Allchin, R (1982).The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan,

Cambridge Printing University Press, Cambridge.

Allchin, B. (1979). Stone Blade industries of Early Settlements in Sindh as

indicators of geographical and Socio-Economic change, South Asian
Archaeology, 1977, Naples, Italy.

Biagi, P. & Shaikh, Nilofer (1994).An Italo Pakistani Joint Project in the Rohri
Hills (Sindh Pakistan) in Ancient Sindh, Vol. 1.Shah Abdul Latif
University, Khairpur, Sindh.
Dennell R. (1991)Pakistan’s Oregustirt: a glimpse at the first two million years,
Ancient India and Iran Trust, Cambridge.

Kenoyer, J.M. (1998).Ancient cities of Indus Valley Civilization, U.S.A.

Pelegrin, J. (1994). Lithic Technology in Harappan times, South Asian

Archaeology, 1993.

Renfre, Colin & Bahn, P. (1991).Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice,

Thames & Hudson Ltd. London.

Salim, M. (1996). Lower Paleolithic in the Soan Valley, Rawalpindi, Journal of

Central Asia, Vol.XIX, No. 2, Islamabad.

Veesar, G.M & Shaikh, Nilofer. (2006-7). Archaeological Investigations of

Mesolithic Period in the Western Thar Desert of Sindh, inAncient
Sindh, Vol. 9, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur, Sindh.

156
UNIT. 3

WORLD CIVILIZATIONS

Written by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

Reviewed by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

157
 CONTENTS

Introduction 159
Objectives 160

3. World Civilizations 161

3.1 Origin and Developments 161
3.1.2 The Components of a Civilization 168
3.1.3 Cradle of Civilization 170
3.2 Egyptian Civilization 172
3.2.1 Cultures of Egypt Civilization 176
3.2.2 Art, Architecture and Technological Development 178
3.3 Mesopotamian Civilization 185
3.3.1 Bronze Age Culture of Mesopotamia 190
3.3.2 Significant Achievements of the Mesopotamian Civilization 191
3.4 Chinese Civilization 196
3.4.1 Significance of Bronze Age Culture in China 197
3.4.2 Peculiarity of Chinese Civilization 198
3.4.3 Cultural Significance of the Chinese Civilization 200

Self Assesment Questions 203

Bibliography 204

158
Introduction
Roughly 6000 to 8000 years ago, agriculture was well under the way in several
regions including Ancient Egypt, around the Nile River; the Indus Valley
civilization; Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers; and the
Ancient China, along the Yellow and the Yangtze rivers. This is because the
regular river floods made for fertile soil around the banks and the rivers could also
supply fresh water to irrigate crops. It’s no coincidence that as agriculture allowed
for denser and denser populations along with more specialized societies, some of
the world’s first civilizations developed in these areas as well.

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of the ancient Northeast Africa, situated in the
Egyptian Nile Valley in the country Egypt. Ancient Egyptian civilization
followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC with the political
unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes. Egyptian
civilization developed along the Nile River in large part because the river's annual
flooding ensured reliable, rich soil for growing crops. Repeated struggles for
political control of Egypt showed the importance of the region's agricultural
production and economic resources.

Mesopotamia—mainly modern-day Iraq and Kuwait—in particular is often

referred to as the cradle of civilization because some of the most influential early
city-states and empires first emerged there—although it’s not the only place! Its
modern name comes from the Greek for middle—mesos—and river—potamos—
and literally means a “country between two rivers.” Those two rivers are the Tigris
and the Euphrates. Not only was Mesopotamia one of the first places to develop
agriculture, it was also at the crossroads of the Egyptian and the Indus Valley
civilizations. This made it a melting pot of languages and cultures that stimulated a
lasting impact on writing, technology, language, trade, religion and law.

Associated with Mesopotamia are ancient cultures like the Sumerians, Assyrians,
Akkadians, and Babylonians. Learning about this time period can be a little
confusing because these cultures interacted with and ruled over each other over
the course of several thousand years. These terms can also be associated with city-
states, languages, religions, or empires—depending on the time and context we
are looking at.

159
Similarly the earliest known written records of the history of China date from as
early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty, during the king Wu Ding's reign, who
was mentioned as the twenty-first King of Shang by the same. Ancient China is
responsible for a rich culture, still evident in modern China. From small farming
communities rose dynasties such as the Zhou (1046-256 B.C.E), Qin (221-206
B.C.E), and Ming (1368-1644 C.E.). Each had its own contribution to the region.
During the Zhou Dynasty, for example, writing was standardized, iron working
refined, and famous thinkers like Confucius and Sun-Tzu lived and shared their
philosophies. During the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shi Huang commissioned the
Terracotta Army, and the Ming Dynasty refurbished the Great Wall to protect the
nation from Mongol attacks.

Objectives: After studying this unit, the student will be able;

 to arouse student’s interest in the history, antiquities and monuments of
the Egyption, Mesopotamian and Chinese civilizations of the world.
 to create a public consciousness that they may respect and seek to preserve
these remains of world cultural heritage.
 to trace the growth and development of ancient culture and civilization of
world wide
 to examine analytically the sources of Ancient history of Egyptian
civilization
 to understand human past and evolutionary process that mankind
underwent through ages
 to give insight to the student an in-depth understanding of the
development of Mesoptamian civilization.
 to highlight history, geographical extention and achievements of the
Chinese civilization

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3. World Civilizations
3.1 Origin and Developments

The written history was preceded by its prehistory, which begin with the
Paleolithic Era ("Old Stone Age"), followed by the Neolithic Era ("New Stone
Age"). The Neolithic saw the Agricultural Revolution begin, between 10,000 and
5000 BCE, in the Near East's Fertile Crescent. During this period, humans began
the systematic husbandry of plants and animals. As agriculture advanced, most
humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent
settlements. The relative security and increased productivity provided by farming
allowed communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by
advances in transportation.

In prehistoric or historic times, people always needed to be near reliable sources

of potable water. Settlements developed as early as 4,000 BCE in Iran, in
Mesopotamia, in the Indus River valley, on the banks of Egypt's Nile River, and
along China's rivers. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more
sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing
seasons. Labour divisions led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the
development of cities, which provided the foundation for civilization. The growing
complexity of human societies necessitated systems of accounting and writing.

With civilizations flourishing, ancient history up to about 500 CE saw the rise and
fall of empires. Post-classical history (the "Middle Ages," c. 500–1500 CE,
witnessed the rise of Christianity, the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258
CE), the Timurid and Italian Renaissance (from around 1300 CE). The mid-15th-
century introduction of movable-type printing in Europe revolutionized
communication and facilitated ever wider dissemination of information, hastening
the end of the middle Ages and ushering in the Scientific Revolution. The Early
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Modern Period, sometimes referred to as the "European Age and Age of the
Islamic Gun powders", from about 1500 to 1800, included the Age of
Enlightenment and the Age of Exploration. By the 18th century, the accumulation
of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the
Industrial Revolution and began the Late Modern Period, which started around
1800 and has continued through the present.

However, by the 18th century, due to extensive world trade and colonization, the
histories of most civilizations had become substantially intertwined, a process known
as globalization. In the last quarter-millennium, the rates of growth of population,
knowledge, technology, communications, commerce, weapons destructiveness, and
environmental degradation have greatly accelerated, creating unprecedented
opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities.

The word civilization comes from the 16th-century French civilisé ("civilized"),
from Latin civilis ("civil"), which is related to civis ("citizen") and civitas ("city").
The most basic definition of the word “civilization” is “a society made up of
cities.” However, early in the development of the term, anthropologists used
“civilization” and “civilized society” to differentiate between societies they found
culturally superior and those they found culturally inferior. The term
“civilization” was often applied in an ethnocentric way, with “civilizations” being
considered morally good and culturally advanced.

The first known use of word in French is in 1757, by Victor de Riqueti, marquis
de Mirabeau, and the first use in English is attributed to Adam Ferguson, who in
his 1767 Essay on the History of Civil Society wrote, "Not only the individual
advances from infancy to manhood but the species itself from rudeness to
civilization". In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution,

162
"civilization" was meant the progress of humanity as a whole. The use of
"civilizations" as a countable noun was in occasional use in the 19th century, but
has become much more common in the later 20th century, sometimes just
meaning culture.

Earlier in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement.
The historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the
writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. Here,
civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with
human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of
or approximation to an original discursive or pre rational natural unity”. From
this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann
Gottfried Herder, and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche.
This sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by "conscious, rational,
deliberative acts", but a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit". Civilization, in contrast,
though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and
leads to "vices of social life". In “The Philosophy of Civilization” (1923), Albert
Schweitzer outlines two opinions: one purely material and the other material and
ethical. He said that the world crisis was from humanity losing the ethical idea of
civilization, "the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action
and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual
perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress".

A political scientist and historian Anthony Pagden wrote that the 18th-century
social theory held that a civilization was “the optimum condition for all
mankind.” He further said that “only the civilized can know what it is to be
civilized,” pointing out the implicit elitism of this concept. As imperialism

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boomed in the 19th century, this meaning of CIVILIZATION gained popularity, but
today it is considered narrow-minded, except when used in a historical context.

In the early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler, uses the German

word Kultur, "culture", for what many call a "civilization". Spengler believed a
civilization's rationality is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures
experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a potent
new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states
civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as "the most external and
artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable".This
"unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian
Arnold J. Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization
processes in his A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the
decline of civilizations. Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to
Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority", through moral or
religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or
environmental causes. Samuel P. Huntington defines civilization as "the highest
cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have
short of that which distinguishes humans from other species".

It is generally believed that once a nation, culture, or group of people has been
brought out of the darkness into an enlightened and advanced state, it becomes
a Civilization. This sense arose about the same time, but without the imperialistic
undertones attached to the original meaning of the word. When used with a
modifier, it refers to the civilization of a specific region such as European
civilization, French civilization or people such as Mayan civilization or period of
time such as modern civilization. In the early 19th century, speakers of English

164
started using CIVILIZATION to mean cities or populated areas in general—that is,
places where civilizations are located.

However, still most anthropologists agree on some criteria to define a society as a

civilization. First, civilizations have some kind of urban settlements and are
not nomadic. From this specialization comes class structure and government, both
aspects of a civilization. Another criterion for civilization is a surplus of food,
which comes from having tools to aid in growing crops. Besides, the writing,
trading, artwork and monuments, and development of science and technology are
all aspects of civilizations.

However, there are many societies that scholars consider civilizations that do not
meet all of the criteria above. For example, the Incan Empire was a large
civilization with a government and social hierarchy. It left behind a wealth of art,
and had highly developed architecture—but no written language. This is why the
concept of “civilization” is hard to define; however, it is still a helpful framework
with which to view how humans come together and form a society.

A civilization is any complex society characterized by urban development, social

stratification, a form of government and symbolic systems of communication such
as writing. Civilizations are intimately associated with and often further defined
by other socio-politico-economic characteristics, including centralization, the
domestication of both humans and other organisms, specialization of labour,
culturally ingrained ideologies of progress and supremacism, monumental
architecture, taxation, societal dependence upon farming and expansionism.

Civilization has often been understood as a larger and "more advanced" culture, in
contrast to smaller, supposedly primitive cultures. In this broad sense, a

165
civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures
of nomadic pastoralists. Civilizations are organized in densely populated
settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with ruling elite and
subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in intensive agriculture,
mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power,
extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human
beings. Therefore Civilization is a concept originally linked to towns and cities.

The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally associated with the final

stages of the Neolithic Revolution, culminating in the relatively rapid process of
urban revolution and state formation, a political development associated with the
appearance of governing elite. Gordon Childe defined the emergence of
civilization as the result of two successive revolutions: the Neolithic Revolution,
triggering the development of settled communities, and the Urban Revolution.

At first, the Neolithic was associated with shifting subsistence cultivation, where
continuous farming led to the depletion of soil fertility resulting in the
requirement to cultivate fields further and further removed from the settlement,
eventually compelling the settlement itself to move. In major semi-arid river
valleys, annual flooding renewed soil fertility every year, with the result that
population densities could increase significantly. This encouraged a secondary
products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat,
but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts.

The earlier Neolithic technology and lifestyle were established first in Western
Asia (about 9,130 BCE), and later in the Yellow River and the Yangtze basins in
China (7,500 BCE), and later spread. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest
developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, with

166
civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago. This area has been identified as
having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history
including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the
development of the cursive script." Similar pre-civilized "Neolithic revolutions"
also began independently from 7,000 BCE.

This marked the beginning of the accumulation of transferable surpluses, which

helped economies and cities develop. It was associated with the state monopoly of
violence, the appearance of a soldier class and endemic warfare, the rapid
development of hierarchies, and the appearance of human sacrifice.The civilized
urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of seeding, the
domestication of grains and animals and development of lifestyles that facilitated
economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social
sectors. The transition from complex cultures to civilizations, while still disputed,
seems to be associated with the development of state structures, in which power
was further monopolized by an elite ruling class who practiced human sacrifice.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations
began to rise in various "cradles" from around 3300 BCE, expanding into large-
scale empires in the course of the Bronze Age.

A parallel development took place independently in the Pre-Columbian Americas.

Urbanization in the Norte Chico civilization in coastal Peru emerged about 3200
BCE; the oldest known Mayan city, located in Guatemala, dates to about 750
BCE and Teotihuacan in Mexico was one of the largest cities in the world in 350
CE with a population of about 125,000.The Bronze Age collapse was followed by
the Iron Age around 1200 BCE, during which a number of new civilizations
emerged, culminating in a period from the 8th to the 3rd century BCE which Karl
Jaspers termed the Axial Age, presented as a critical transitional phase leading to

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classical civilization. William Hardy McNeill proposed that this period of history
was one in which cultural contact between previously separate civilizations and
led to accelerated social change from China to the Mediterranean, associated with
the spread of coinage, larger empires and new religions.

The term "Civilization" can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just
the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and
customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique.
Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision
making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion
and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with
maintaining the elite.The intricate culture associated with civilization has a
tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them
into the civilization. For example Chinese civilization and its influence on nearby
civilizations occurred such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Many civilizations are
actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The
civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.

3.1.2 The Components of a Civilization

The social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that
distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Civilizations have been
distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement
patterns, and forms of government, social stratification, economic systems,
literacy and other cultural traits. Similarly Andrew Nikiforuk claim that
"civilizations relied on shackled human muscle. It took the energy of slaves to
plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities" and considers slavery to be a
common feature of pre-modern civilizations.

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All the civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the
possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended
upon maritime resources. Grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a
surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques
such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation. It is possible but more
difficult to accumulate horticultural production, and so civilizations based on
horticultural gardening have been very rare. Grain surpluses have been especially
important because grain can be stored for a long time. A surplus of food permits
some people to do things besides producing food for a living: early civilizations
included soldiers, artisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with
specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labour and a more
diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. However, in
some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among
some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the
Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large
scale social organization and division of labour predates plant and animal
domestication. There are many different elements must come together before a
human community develops to the level of sophistication commonly referred to as
civilization. The first is the existence of settlements classifiable as towns or cities.
This requires food production to be efficient enough for a large minority of the
community to be engaged in more specialized activities like buildings or works of
art, the practice of skilled warfare, and above all the administration of a
centralized bureaucracy capable of running the machinery of state. In the
organization, a system of writing is an almost indispensable aid. Our knowledge
of prehistory derives from surviving objects from the evidence of archaeology.
History, by contrast, is based on documents. These various interconnections mean
that history, civilization and writing all begin at the same time, which is about
3100 BCE.
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3.1.3 Cradle of Civilization

The use of word “cradle” to mean "the place or region in which anything is
cherished or sheltered in its earlier stage" is traced by the Oxford English
Dictionary to Spenser (1590). Charles Rollin's Ancient History (1734) has
mentioned as "Egypt that served at first as the cradle of the holy nation".The
phrase "cradle of civilization" plays a certain role in national mysticism. It has
been used in Eastern as well as in Western cultures, for instance, in Indian
nationalism (In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995) and Taiwanese
nationalism (Taiwan; The Cradle of Civilization 2002). The terms also appear in
esoteric pseudohistory, such as the Urantia Book, claiming the title for "the
second Eden” or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain (Civilization
One 2004, Ancient Britain: The Cradle of Civilization 1921).

The Cradle of civilization is a location, where civilization is understood to have

independently emerged. There was no single "cradle" of civilization; instead,
there were several cradles of civilization which developed independently. The
Fertile Crescent for instance Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt and Ancient India
are believed to be the earliest. Ancient China emerged somewhat later. The extent
to which there was significant influence between the early civilizations of the
Near East and those of the East Asia or Far East is disputed. Scholars accept the
fact that the civilizations of Mesoamerica, those which mainly existed in modern-
day Mexico, and the civilization which existed in Norte Chico, a region which is
located in the north-central coastal region of Peru, emerged independently from
those which emerged in Old World.

Some scholars have defined civilization by using various criteria such as the use
of writing, cities, a class-based society, agriculture, animal husbandry, public
buildings, metallurgy and monumental architecture. The term cradle of
170
civilization has frequently been applied to a variety of cultures and areas, in
particular the Ancient Near Eastern Chalcolithic as Ubaid period and Fertile
Crescent, Ancient India and Ancient China. It has also been applied to ancient
Anatolia, the Levant and Iranian plateau, and used to refer to culture
predecessors—such as Ancient Greece as the predecessor of Western civilization.

The coming of farming had allowed the growth of settled populations to take
place, but it did not make the coming of civilization predictable. With the rise of
civilization, small-scale, village-based societies became large-scale ones with
cities, advanced technologies and the capability to mobilize the labour of
thousands of workers to achieve specified ends. The emergence of civilization is
the rise of two social institutions, the State and the City. Both are dependent upon
one another: cities cannot exist without states, and states without cities.

The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the
Levant to as early as 12,000 BC, when the Natufian culture became sedentary; it
evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BCE. The importance of water to
safeguard an abundant and stable food supply, due to favourable conditions for
hunting, fishing and gathering resources including cereals, provided an initial
wide spectrum economy that triggered the creation of permanent villages. The
earliest proto-urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the
Neolithic. The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and
Uruk, by the 31st century BCE.The historic times are marked when "records of
the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations"; it may be in
written or oral form. If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the
development of writing out of proto-writing, the Near Eastern Chalcolithic, the
transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th
millennium BCE, and the development of proto-writing in Harappa in the Indus

171
Valley of South Asia around 3300 BC are the earliest, followed by Chinese proto-
writing evolving into the oracle bone script, and again by the emergence of
Mesoamerican writing systems from about 900 BCE.

However, in the absence of written documents, most aspects of the rise of early
civilizations are contained in archaeological assessments that document the
development of formal institutions and the material culture. A "civilized" way of
life is ultimately linked to conditions coming almost exclusively from intensive
agriculture. A small number of major river valleys in different parts of the
Eastern Hemipshere played a critical role as cradles of civilization: it was here
that all the “original” or “foundational” civilizations emerged. The great
civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley and China all belonged to
this category whereas those of Greece, Rome, Japan and Korea are examples of
secondary civilizations, as they owed their existence to earlier ones. The river
valleys offer areas of well-watered, fertile soil which, because of their very high
agricultural productivity, can give rise to large human populations concentrated in
a comparatively small area.

3.2 Egyptian Civilization

The ancient Egypt was a splendid civilization of ancient North Africa,

concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is
now Egypt. The ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and
united around 3100 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The history of ancient Egypt was occurred as a series of stable kingdoms,
separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old
Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze
Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

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The ancient Egypt reached at the apex of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling
much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Near East, after which it entered a
period of slow decline. During the course of its history Egypt was invaded or
conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the Hyksos, the Libyans, the
Nubians, the Assyrians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians under the
command of Alexander the Great. The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the
aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra,
it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman territory.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt
to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding
and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which
supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. As with
resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley
and surrounding desert regions. The early development of an independent writing
system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade
with surrounding regions, and a military planned to declare Egyptian dominance.
Hence by inspiring and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite,
religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured
the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate
system of religious beliefs.

A number of achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying,

surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental
pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and
effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production
techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology,
new forms of literature. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its

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antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have
inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A spanking
respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans
and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a
greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

The Egyptian civilization was developed in about 3200 BCE in the region where
the southwest Asia joins northeast Africa along the narrow strip of the Nile valley.
In the historic outlook, rivers offer two main advantages to a developing
civilization as it is well witnessed from the Egyptian civilization. They provide
water to irrigate the fields, and they offer the easiest method of transport for a
society without paved roads. The river played an equally important role in two
other early civilizations of the Indus Valley and of China.

The developed Neolithic cultures (10,200 BCE) and (7600 to 6000 BCE)
appeared in the Fertile Crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards.
Then contemporaneously, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle
blades had replaced the culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering people using
stone tools along the Nile. The geological evidence and research studies also
suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BCE began to dry out the
extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the Sahara. The
continued drought forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the
Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. The oldest fully
developed Neolithic culture in Egypt is Fayum -A culture which began around
5500 BCE.

In Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age begins in the Protodynastic period, c. 3150 BC.
The archaic Early Bronze Age of Egypt, known as the Early Dynastic Period of
Egypt,[11][12] immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt,
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c. 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting
from the Protodynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of
the Old Kingdom. With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Abydos to
Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained
the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization,
such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early
Dynastic Period. Memphis in the Early Bronze Age was the largest city of the
time. The Old Kingdom of the regional Bronze Age[11] is the name given to the
period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of
civilization in complexity and achievement – the first of three "Kingdom" periods,
which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others
being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom).

The First Intermediate Period of Egypt,[13] often described as a "dark period" in

ancient Egyptian history, spanned about 100 year after the end of the Old
Kingdom from about 2181 to 2055 BC. Very little monumental evidence survives
from this period, especially from the early part of it. The First Intermediate Period
was a dynamic time when the rule of Egypt was roughly divided between two
competing for power bases: Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper
Egypt. These two kingdoms would eventually come into conflict, with the Theban
kings conquering the north, resulting in the reunification of Egypt under a single
ruler during the second part of the 11th Dynasty.

Middle Bronze Dynasties

The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 2055 to 1650 BCE. During this
period, the Osiris funerary cult rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion. The
period comprises on the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th &
13th Dynasties centered on el-Lisht. The unified kingdom was previously
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considered to comprise the 11th and 12th Dynasties, but historians now at least
partially consider the 13th Dynasty to belong to the Middle Kingdom.

During the Second Intermediate Period, Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a
second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New
Kingdom. It is the best known for the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the 15th
and 16th Dynasties. The Hyksos first appeared in Egypt during the 11th Dynasty,
began their climb to power in the 13th Dynasty, and emerged from the Second
Intermediate Period in control of Avaris and the Delta. By the 15th Dynasty, they
ruled Lower Egypt, and they were expelled at the end of the 17th Dynasty.

Late Bronze Dynasties

The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, lasted from
the 16th to the 11th century BCE. The New Kingdom followed the Second
Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was
Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of Egypt's power. The later
New Kingdom (1292–1069 BCE), is also known as the Ramesside period, after
the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses.

3.2.1 Cultures of Egypt Civilization

In about 5500 BCE, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a
series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan, demonstrating firm control of
agriculture and animal husbandry and identifiable by their pottery and personal
items, such as combs, bracelets and beads. The largest of these early cultures in
the upper Southern Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the
Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools and use of
copper. The oldest known domesticated bovines in Africa are however from

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Fayum dating back to around 4400 BCE. The Badari culture was followed by the
Naqada culture, which brought a number of technological improvements.

As early as the first Naqada Period, Amratia, Egyptians imported obsidian from
Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. During the period
about 3300 BCE, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into
two kingdoms, known as Upper Egypt to the south, and Lower Egypt to the north.

The Egyptian civilization was however begin during the second phase of the
Naqda culture, known as the Gerzeh period, around 3500 BCE and united with
the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BCE. Then farming
produced the vast majority of food; with increased food supplies, the populace
adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle and the larger settlements grew to cities.

It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their
cities, and the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect became
popular. Similarly, copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools
and weaponry. The symbols on Gerzean pottery also resemble nascent Egyptian
hieroglyphs.

The early evidence also exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan
and the Byblos coast, during this time. As a result of these cultural advances, a
process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper
Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt,
also underwent a unification process. King Narmer during his reign in Upper
Egypt defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper
and Lower Egypt under his single rule.

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The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of
Upper and Lower Egypt. It is generally taken to include the First and Second
Dynasties, lasting from the Naqada III archaeological period until about the
beginning of the Old Kingdom, Ca. 2686 BCE. The capital was moved from
Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt.

The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many
aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. The strong
institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state
control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and
growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.

3.2.2 Art, Architecture and Technological Development

The major advances in architecture, art and technology were made during the
subsequent Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and
resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration.
Egypt's greatest achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were
constructed during the Old Kingdom. The state officials collected taxes,
coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on
construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and
order. Along with the rising importance of a central administration there arose a
new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the
pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their
mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the
resources to worship the pharaoh after his death.

The scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the
economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to
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support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh lessens,
regional governors began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This,
coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BCE, is assumed to have
caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the
First Intermediate Period.

The birth of pharaonic civilization itself, shortly before the beginning of the third
millennium BCE was marked by the appearance of new motifs in art and
architecture that had direct antecedents in archaic Susa and the Uruk culture of
Mesopotamia. The evidence of direct trade exists in Mesopotamian cylinder seals
found in Egypt and in the use of silver imported from Anatolia. These
commodities were probably acquired through contract with the Uruk-Jamdat Nasr
culture in northern Syria rather than directly from Mesopotamia.

The existed Mesopotamian motifs and objects disappeared from the Egyptian
record in the middle of the First Dynasty contemporary with Early Bronze Age-II.
From the reign of Khasekhemui (Second Dynasty, Ca. 2650 BCE) onward
Egyptian kings sent regular trading missions by sea to Byblos, primarily for cedar.
The Egyptian inscriptions throughout the third millennium BCE mention frequently
military campaigns in the Sinai and the southern Levant. These seem to have been
intended primarily to protect Egyptian commercial interests from the predations of
nomads, both along the land route used between about 3000 -2700 BCE.

The end of the third millennium corresponds to Egypt’s First Intermediate Period
(Ca. 2250-2050 BCE). This was a time of weakened central rule and internal
turmoil in Egypt, and contemporary records for Egypt’s relations with the Near
West during this period are lacking. However, literary texts from the early Middle
Kingdom (Ca.2000-1900 BCE) reflect incursions of nomadic population from the
east into Egypt’s Delta. Though largely regulated by Pharaohs of the Middle
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Kingdom these migrations continued into the middle of the second millennium
eventually resulting in the Asian control of northern Egypt.

In the field of history of technology, the glass materials are relative latecomers.
The earliest was however, faience, and might be called as pre-glass. It was made
by coating a core material of powdered quartz with a vitreous alkaline glaze.
Originating in pre-dynastic Egypt, before 3000 BCE, it was much used in dynastic
times for simple beads and pendants. The first real glass vessels have been found
in sites of the Egyptian 18th Dynasty, Ca. 1500 BCE. The earliest known glass
furnace is that at Tell el Amarna, Egypt dating to 1350 BCE. The vessels were
made using a technique like the lost-wax method; the molten glass was fashioned
around clay core which was scraped out once the glass had cooled. This leaves a
characteristic rough, pitted interior. Besides, statuettes and hollow vessels were
also made in stone or clay molds.

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of

ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil
resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were
thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote
more time and resources to cultural, technological and artistic pursuits. Land
management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on
the amount of land a person owned.

The system of farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River.
The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and
Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September,
depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops.
After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to
February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated
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with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile
to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their
crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain.

The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal
grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and
beer.The Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the
fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into
thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus
growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. The vegetables and
fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground and had
to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses,
lettuce and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain
rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established
trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with
Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the
First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to
slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in
Canaan and exported back to Egypt.

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a
critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade
with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as
monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities
of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary
for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis
lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's
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Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided,
among other goods, supplies of olive oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and
raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen and papyrus, in addition
to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.

The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in
the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building
projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative
purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The
ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and
sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great
accuracy and precision that is still envied today.

The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed
from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived.
The peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh
were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as
those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes
of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures
such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of
stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first
large-scale stone building, Djoser's mortuary complex, include post and lintel
supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of
single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New
Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed
hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until
the Greco-Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the
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Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or
stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a
series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during
the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but later rulers abandoned them in favor of less
conspicuous rock-cut tombs. The use of the pyramid form continued in private
tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal pyramids of Nubia.

The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500
years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed
during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign
influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes and
flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with
no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a
composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple
walls, coffins, stelae and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays
figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that
governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served
its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.

Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine
reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were
obtained from minerals such as iron ores, copper ores, soot or charcoal, and
limestone. Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into
cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.

Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and
places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the
invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes
were found in Avaris. The most striking example of a politically driven change in
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artistic forms comes from the Amarna Period, where figures were radically altered
to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as
Amarna art, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the
traditional forms.

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the
world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the Kingdom of Kush and
Meroë with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds
of pyramids which are 6–30 meters high were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as
using Egyptian writing as the basis of the Meroitic script. Meroitic is the oldest
written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd
century BC until the early 5th century CE. The cult of the goddess Isis, for
example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were
transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from
Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus,
Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans
came to view as a place of mystery.

During the middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in
decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian
antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-
Misri and al-Maqrizi. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European
travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys.
This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were
given many important antiquities. Napoleon arranged the first studies in
Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and
document Egypt's history, which was published.

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3.3 Mesopotamian Civilization

Mesopotamia is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–

Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, presently
comprising on Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and
regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders. The Euphrates and Tigris
rivers have their headwaters in the Taurus Mountains. Both rivers are fed by
numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous
region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the
banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult.

The Sumerians and Akkadians dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of

historic period (Ca. 3100 BCE) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE, when it was
conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BCE,
and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire. In about 150
BCE, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia
became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with western parts of
Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. However, in 226 CE, the
eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the Sassanid Persians. The division of
Mesopotamia between Roman and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century
Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the
Levant from Byzantines. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of
the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE. It has been identified as
having been inspired some of the most important developments in human history,
including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops, and the
development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture.

The Greek historian Herodotos, writing in the 6th century BCE marveled at the
fertility of Babylonia, the richest grain bearing country in the world and its
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enormous crops of wheat, millet and sesame that grew to unbelievable size. This
land known in the 3rd millennium BCE as Sumer and Akkad and later named after
the city of Babylon encompasses the southern part of a diverse landscape that is
referred to in later Greek sources as Mesopotamia or the land between the rivers
Tigris and the Euphrates. It comprises the eastern tip of the Fertile Crescent of
popular literature. Mesopotamian’s fertility however is not the natural state of this
southern alluvial plain where the first cities were founded, but the bounty as
praised by Herodotes was the work of men who invented irrigation agriculture to
overcome an adverse climate characterized by unpredictable rainfall and
damaging floods. It extends from the mountains and fertile plains of eastern
Turkey and the barren plateau of the Jazira in eastern Syria and northern Iraq to
the lowland alluvial plains that reach beyond the Tigris into Elam, in
southwestern Iran. In the south the plains give way to the vast marshlands in the
delta at the head of the Gulf. The other areas under the cultural hegemony of
Sumer or Akkad are also sometimes referred to as being part of Mesopotamia. Its
unique geography was one of the determining factors that promoted the
technological and cultural advancements in the southern Mesopotamian alluvium.
The flat plains and river channels promoted unification and communication.

The Mesopotamia civilization occupies a special place among the world’s first
civilizations. It appears to be not only the oldest having produce the first cities,
but also one of the most enduring lasting for more than three thousand years. This
civilization emerged during the fourth millennium BCE within the wide alluvial
plain between present Baghdad and the head of the Gulf. The creation of the city
is one of the most significant legacies of ancient Mesopotamia. The cities
emerged after millennia of continuous settlement on the level of villages and
small towns over large areas that extended from the mountainous realms towards
the great central plains. Therefore increasing dependence on agriculture and
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experience in food production enabled settlements to occupy ever larger areas. In
addition, a similarly narrow spectrum of utilizable material for housing and
implements was available, requiring organized ways of securing further recourses
from abroad. These developments indicate a level of organization that implies the
existence of a set of rules as a guiding principle for societal institutions. The
appearance of city walls, the specialization of labour, the emergence of writing
and administration, these all principles define urban life.

The Sumerians inherited some of the means for the artistic expression of their
societal values from the complex visual and conceptual vocabulary that had
developed in the great city of Uruk before the onset of the Early Dynastic period.
This inherited iconographic system included the definition of the ruler as the
supreme priest who mediates and effectuates the man-god relationship, a link that
encompasses all aspect of life. In Mesopotamia, the junction of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation to
the civilization. Around 10,200 BCE the first fully developed Neolithic cultures
(7600 to 6000 BCE) appeared in the Fertile Crescent and from there spread
eastwards and westwards direction.

The old civilizations that emerged around the rivers are among the earliest known
non-nomadic agrarian societies. It is because of this that the Fertile Crescent
region, and Mesopotamia in particular, are often referred to as the cradle of
civilization. The period known as the Ubaid period (Ca. 6500 to 3800 BCE) is the
earliest known period on the alluvial plain, although it is likely earlier periods
exist obscured under the alluvium. It was during the Ubaid period that the
movement towards urbanization began. Agriculture and animal husbandry were
widely practiced in sedentary communities, particularly in Northern
Mesopotamia, and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced

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in the south. In about 6000 BCE, Neolithic settlements appear all over Egypt. The
Eridu is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period, around 5300 BCE, and
the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period. In the south, the Ubaid
period had a very long duration from around 6500 to 3800 BCE; when it is
replaced by the Uruk period.

Sumerian civilization united in the subsequent Uruk period (4000 to 3100 BCE).
This period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and, during its later
phase, the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script was occurred. The Proto-
writing in the region dates to around 3500 BCE, with the earliest texts dating to
3300 BCE; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BC. It was also during this
period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along
with cylinder seals. Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably
theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king, assisted by a council of
elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian
pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. The Uruk trade networks
started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus, and
strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to
emerge leading to the Early Dynastic Period (Ca. 2900 BCE).

The Jemdet Nasr period, which is generally dated from 3100–2900 BCE and
succeeds the Uruk period, is known as one of the formative stages in the
development of the cuneiform script. The oldest clay tablets come from Uruk and
date to the late fourth millennium BCE. By the time of the Jemdet Nasr Period,
the script had already undergone a number of significant changes. It originally
consisted of pictographs, but by the time of the Jemdet Nasr Period, it was already
adopting simpler and more abstract designs. It is also during this period that the
script acquired its iconic wedge-shaped appearance.

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The discovery of Polychrome pottery from a destruction level below the flood
deposit has been dated to immediately before the Early Dynastic Period around
2900 BCE. By 2500 BCE, Mesopotamia was making the first beads of real glass,
which seem to have been highly prized of the Mesopotamia civilization. Once it
had been discovered, glass was easy and cheap to make as it simply involves
melting sand and cooling it again the liquid cools without crystallization and
therefore remains transparent.

The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though

rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic
groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. The earliest ziggurats
began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period, although architectural precursors
in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period. The well-known
Sumerian King List dates to the early second millennium BCE. It consists of a
succession of royal dynasties from different Sumerian cities, ranging back into the
Early Dynastic Period. Each dynasty rises to prominence and dominates the
region, only to be replaced by the next. The document was used by later
Mesopotamian kings to legitimize their rule.

Eannatum, the Sumerian king of Lagash, established one of the first verifiable
empires in history in 2500 BCE. The neighboring Elam, in modern Iran, was also
part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period. Elamite states were
among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. The emergence of
Elamite written records from around 3000 BCE also parallels Sumerian history,
where slightly earlier records have been found. During the 3rd millennium BCE,
there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the
Akkadians. The Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language
somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BCE. The Semitic-speaking

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Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BCE under Sargon the Great. The
Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 2400-2200 BCE. Under
Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on
neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. After the fall of the
Akkadian Empire and the overthrow of the Gutians, there was a brief reassertion
of Sumerian dominance in Mesopotamia under the Third Dynasty of Ur. After the
final collapse of Sumerian hegemony in Mesopotamia around 2000 BCE, the
Semitic Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major
Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later,
Babylonia in the south.

3.3.1 Bronze Age Culture of Mesopotamia

The Mesopotamian Bronze Age began about 3500 BC and ended with the Kassite
period (Ca. 1500 -1155 BCE). The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several
tens of thousands of people. Ur, Kish, Isin, Larsa and Nippur in the Middle
Bronze Age and Babylon, Calah and Assur in the Late Bronze Age similarly had
large populations.

The Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BCE) became the dominant power in the
region, and after its fall the Sumerians enjoyed a renaissance with the Neo-
Sumerian Empire. Assyria was extant from as early as the 25th century BCE, and
became a regional power with the Old Assyrian Empire (Ca. 2025–1750 BCE).

The earliest mention of Babylon appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of
Akkad in the 23rd century BCE. The Amorite dynasty established the city-state of
Babylon in the 19th century BCE. Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia all used the
written East Semitic Akkadian language for official use and as a spoken language.

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By that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in
religious use in Assyria and Babylonia, and would remain so until the 1st century
CE. The Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in later Assyrian
and Babylonian culture, even though Babylonia itself was founded by non-native
Amorites and often ruled by other non-indigenous peoples, such as Kassites,
Arameans and Chaldeans, as well as its Assyrian neighbors.

3.3.2 Significant Achievements of the Mesopotamian Civilization

A considerable quantity of written record of ancient Sumer and Babylon

(Ca.3000-1600 BCE) has been discovered mainly in the form of clay tablets. The
Sumerian king list provides an excellent example of annals recording information
for future use. It is very useful to the modern scholars for dating purposes as well
as it offers stoical insights in to the way the Sumerian conceived the exercise of
power, for instance the terminology of rank that they used. Besides, the
inscriptions on royal statues help us perceive how the Sumerians viewed the
relationship between their rulers and the immortals.

However, of even greater significance for an understanding of the structure of

Sumerian society are the tablets associated with the working or organizing centers
which in Sumerian society were often temples. For example the 1600 tablets from
the temple of Bau at Tello give a close insight into the dealing of the shire, listing
fields and the crops harvested in them, craftspeople and receipts or issues of
goods such as grain and livestock. But perhaps the most important of all are the
law codes, of which the most impressive example is the law code of Hammurabi
of Babylon written in the Akkadian language and in cuneiform script dating about
1750 BCE.

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Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic
pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later
camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal
grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally
lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied
upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying
areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing
culture has existed since prehistoric times, and has added to the cultural mix.

Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of

reasons. The demands for labor have from time to time led to population increases
that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of
climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining
populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from
marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and
neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states
has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended
to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller
regional units.

The Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and

copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water
storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the
world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were
decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also,
copper, bronze and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such
as swords, daggers, spears and maces.

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Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara
and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BCE. The Sumerian temples
functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit,
but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking.

In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available
land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in
frequency. The word Ensi was used to describe the official who organized the
work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are known to have worked most
frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.

The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only

with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the
evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the
Sumerians, and later on the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and
Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. The cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took
root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on
branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish, reeds and
clay for building materials.

The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the
Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile.
Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land
farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the
development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. The
other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use
of aqueducts. The early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden
plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes,
turnips and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make
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beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian,
farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were
some exceptions. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by
frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian
weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of
food such as cows and lambs were also kept.

The art of Mesopotamia rivaled that of Ancient Egypt as the most sophisticated
and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BCE until the Persian
Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BCE. The main
emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little
painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for
geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also
painted.

The Proto-literate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated

works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an
outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BCE, part man
and part lion.The sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally
had large, staring eyes and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also
been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Ca. 2650 BCE).

From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian
Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively
small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of
moulded pottery. The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large
terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and
attendant owls and lions. The stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably
commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples.
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The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the
Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before.
The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely
detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting.
They produced very little sculpture in the round, even before dominating the
region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often
exceptionally energetic and refined. The study of ancient Mesopotamian
architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation
of buildings, and texts on building practices. The scholarly literature usually
concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental
buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.
The brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally,
whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities.
The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of
which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in
polychrome brick, is the most famous.

The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple
complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BCE, temples and palaces from the
Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell
Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur and Ur, Middle Bronze Age
remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late
Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age
palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh),
Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis,
Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf,
Karatepe).

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The houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur.
The textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's
cylinders dated from the late 3rd millennium are however, notable, as well as the
Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.

3.4 Chinese Civilization

The ancient China had created one of the greatest human civilizations in the
world. The Great Wall of China, the Terracotta Army, the Forbidden City and
many other achievements are known to the whole world as the best
representatives of Chinese civilization. The Chinese people have created a
splendid civilization during a long process of historical evolution from Da Yu
control of the floods to the “four great inventions” i.e compass, papermaking,
printing and gun powder. It has continuous recorded history of nearly 4000 years.
In China, cultivated rice and millet as well as farming tools have been found from
Hemudu ruins in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province and the Banpo ruins near Xi’anin
Shannnxi Province. These relics of the past date back 6000 to 7000 years ago.

China’s earliest dynasty appeared over 4000 years ago-the Xia Dynasty (Ca.2070-
1600 BCE). During the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) iron tools came into
use. Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) witnessed the emergence of steel production
technology. During the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States period (770-
221 BCE) there was a great upsurge of intellectual activity, producing many
famous philosophers and military strategists. During this and later periods, the
agriculture, handicrafts, as well as commerce flourished and textile, dying,
ceramic and smelting technologies were developed. During the Han Dynasty (206
BCE-220 CE) the great “Silk Roads” from Chang’an (Xi’an) through today’s
Xijiang and Central Asia and on to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean was

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commenced. All types of Chinese goods including silks and porcelains were
traded along the Silk Road.

3.4.1 Significance of Bronze Age Culture in China

In China, the earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site
during the period about 3100-2700 BCE. The "Early Bronze Age" in China is
sometimes taken as equivalent to the "Shang Dynasty" period of Chinese
prehistory about 16th-11th centuries BCE), and the "Later Bronze Age" as
equivalent to the "Zhou dynasty" period around 11th-3rd Century BCE. Although
there is an argument to be made that the "Bronze Age" proper never ended in
China, as there is no recognizable transition to an "Iron Age". Significantly,
together with the jade art that precedes it, bronze was seen as a "fine" material for
ritual art when compared with iron or stone, a stone only becoming popular for
tombs in the Han on probable Indian influence.

The Bronze metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the Erlitou

period, which some historians argue places it within the range of dates during the
Shang dynasty.

The widespread use of bronze in Chinese metallurgy and culture dates to

significantly later, probably due to Western influence. While there may be a
reason to believe that bronze work developed inside China separately from
outside influence, the discovery of Europoid mummies in Xinjiang suggests a
possible route of transmission from the West beginning in the early second
millennium BCE. This is, however, still just speculation since there is a lack of
direct evidence. The Shang dynasty of the Yellow River Valley rose to power
after the Xia dynasty around 1600 BCE,while some direct information about the
Shang dynasty comes from Shang-era inscriptions on bronze artifacts, most

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comes from oracle bones – turtle shells, cattle scapulae, or other bones – which
bear glyphs that form the first significant corpus of recorded Chinese characters.

Iron is found from the Zhou dynasty, but its use is very nominal. The Chinese
literature dating to the 6th century BCE attests knowledge of iron smelting, yet
bronze continues to occupy the seat of significance in the archaeological and
historical record for some time after this achievement. Historian W.C. White
argues that iron did not displace bronze "at any period before the end of the Zhou
dynasty (256 BCE)" and that bronze vessels make up the majority of metal
vessels through the Later Han period, or to 221 BCE.

The Chinese bronze artifacts generally are either utilitarian, like spear points or
adze heads, or "ritual bronzes", which are more elaborate versions in precious
materials of everyday vessels, as well as tools and weapons. Examples are the
numerous large sacrificial tripods known as dings in Chinese.The surviving
identified Chinese ritual bronzes tend to be highly decorated, often with the motif,
which involves highly stylized animal faces. These appear in three main motif
types: those of demons, of symbolic animals and abstract symbols. There are
many large bronzes also bear cast inscriptions that have helped historians and
archaeologists to piece together the history of China, especially during the Zhou
dynasty (1046–256 BCE).

3.4.2 Peculiarity of Chinese Civilization

The specific cultural regions that developed Chinese civilization were the Yellow
River civilization, the Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization. Early evidence
for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BCE, with the earliest
evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River, dated
to 6500 BCE. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China.
By the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution, the Yellow River valley began to
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establish itself as a center of the Peiligang culture which flourished from 7000 to
5000 BCE, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery and burial
of the dead.With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and
redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and
administrators. Its most prominent site is Jiahu. Some scholars have suggested
that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BCE) are the earliest form of proto-writing in China.
However, it is likely that they should not be understood as writing itself, but as
features of a lengthy period of sign-use which led eventually to a fully-fledged
system of writing.

The archaeologists believe that the Peiligang culture was egalitarian, with little
political organization. It would eventually evolve into the Yangshao culture (5000
to 3000 BC), and their stone tools were polished and highly specialized. They
may also have practiced an early form of silkworm cultivation. The main food of
the Yangshao people was millet, with some sites using foxtail millet and others
broom-corn millet, though some evidence of rice has been found. The exact
nature of Yangshao agriculture, small-scale slash-and-burn cultivation versus
intensive agriculture in permanent fields, is currently a matter of debate. Once the
soil was exhausted, residents picked up their belongings, moved to new lands, and
constructed new villages. However, Middle Yangshao settlements such as
Jiangzhi contain raised-floor buildings that may have been used for the storage of
surplus grains. Grinding stones for making flour were also found.

Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also
centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 to 1900 BCE, its most prominent
site being Taosi. The population expanded dramatically during the 3rd
millennium BCE, with many settlements having rammed earth walls. It decreased
in most areas around 2000 BCE until the central area evolved into the Bronze Age

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Erlitou culture. The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao
culture site (3100 to 2700 BCE).

3.4.3 Cultural Significance of the Chinese Civilization

Chinese civilization embarks on during the second phase of the Erlitou period
(1900 to 1500 BCE), with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East
Asia. There is considerable debate whether Erlitou sites correlate to the semi-
legendary Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty (2070 to 1600 BCE) is the first dynasty
to be described in ancient Chinese historical records such as the Bamboo Annals,
first published more than a millennium later during the Western Zhou period.
Although Xia is an important element in Chinese historiography, there is to date
no contemporary written evidence to corroborate the dynasty. Erlitou saw an
increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing
regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social
stratification.

The Erlitou civilization is divided into four phases, each of roughly 50 years.
During Phase I, covering 100 hectares (250 acres), Erlitou was a rapidly growing
regional center with estimated population of several thousand, but not yet an
urban civilization or capital. Urbanization began in Phase II, expanding to 300 ha
(740 acres) with a population around 11,000. A palace area of 12 ha (30 acres)
was demarcated by four roads. It contained the 150x50 m Palace 3, composed of
three courtyards along a 150-meter axis, and Palace 5. A bronze foundry was
established to the south of the palatial complex that was controlled by the elite
who lived in palaces. The city reached its peak in Phase III, and may have had a
population of around 24,000. The palatial complex was surrounded by a two-
meter-thick rammed-earth wall, and Palaces 1, 7, 8, 9 were built.

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The earthwork volume of rammed earth for the base of largest Palace 1 is 20,000
m³ at least. Palaces 3 and 5 were abandoned and replaced by 4,200-square-
kilometer (4.5×1010 sq ft) Palace 2 and Palace 4. In Phase IV, the population
decreased to around 20,000, but building continued. Palace 6 was built as an
extension of Palace 2, and Palaces 10 and 11 were built. Phase IV overlaps with
the Lower phase of the Erligang culture (1600–1450 BCE).

Around 1600 to 1560 BCE, about 6 km northeast of Erlitou, Eligang cultural

walled city was built at Yanshi, which coincides with an increase in production of
arrowheads at Erlitou. This situation might indicate that the Yanshi City was
competing for power and dominance with Erlitou. Production of bronzes and
other elite goods ceased at the end of Phase IV, at the same time as the Erligang
city of Zhengzhou was established 85 km (53 mi) to the east. There is no evidence
of destruction by fire or war, but, during the Upper Erligang phase (1450–1300
BCE), all the palaces were abandoned.

The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and
written evidence is the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE). The Shang sites have
yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, mostly
divinations inscribed on bones. These inscriptions provide critical insight into
many topics from the politics, economy and religious practices to the art and
medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization. A few historians argue that
Erlitou should be considered an early phase of the Shang dynasty. The Chinese
Bronze Age is described as the period between about 2000 and 771 BCE; a period
that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of
Western Zhou rule. The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age
society, contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty, however they developed a
different method of bronze-making from the Shang. A bronze-foundry site (Ca.
500 BCE) in Shaanxi Province has yielded over 30,000 items including piece-
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mold, clay models and cores. The Chinese perfected the system if piece-molding
quite early in on, already at the time of the Shang Dynasty around 1500 BCE. As
with most of the finest early bronze-working the principle was that of lost-wax
casting. The extraordinary works of craftsmanship were created by the Chinese in
this way.

In China, the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), which is considered as the first
imperial dynasty of China, was followed by the Han Empire (206 BCE – 220 CE).
The Han Dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire
that lay at the other end of the Silk Road. Han China developed advanced
cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The Chinese invented blast furnaces,
and created finely tuned copper instruments. As with other empires during the
Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government,
education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.

After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the demise of the Three Kingdoms,
nomadic tribes from the north began to invade during the 4th century, eventually
conquering areas of northern China and setting up many small kingdoms. The Sui
Dynasty successfully reunified the whole of China in 581, and laid the
foundations for a Chinese golden age under the Tang dynasty (618–907).China
experienced the successive Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, and early Ming dynasties.
Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through
the Gobi Desert, however, provided limited economic and cultural contact
between Asian and European civilizations.

After a period of relative disunity, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581
and under the succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907) China entered a Golden Age.
The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner
and Central Asia. The Tang dynasty eventually wrecked. The Mongol Empire

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conquered all of China in 1279, along with almost half of Eurasia's landmass.
After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted
control with the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368).

It is not a denying fact that the longest consistent civilization in the human story
so far is that of China. This vast eastern empire seems set apart from the rest of
the world, fiercely proud of its own traditions, resisting foreign influences. Its
history begins in a characteristically independent manner.There are no identifiable
precedents for the civilization of the Shang dynasty, which emerges in China in
about 1600 BCE. Its superb bronze vessels seem to achieve an instant
technological perfection; its written texts introduce characters recognizably
related to Chinese writing even today.

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No. 1: What do you know abut the origin & development of world ancient
civilizations? Discuss.
Q. No. 2: How does ancient civilizations contribut to the history of that
particular region? Discuss.
Q. No. 3: Can you explain & highlight the history and discovey of Egyptian Civilization?
Q. No. 4: Highlight the art and architecture ofEgyptian Civilization in light of
readings materials.
Q. No. 5: What do you know about Mesopotamian Civilization? Discuss in detail.
Q. No. 6: Discuss the different features of Bronze Age culture of Mesopotamia.
Q. No. 7: Evaluate the significant achievements of the Mesopotamian Civilization.
Q. No. 8: Discuss the different phasis of Chinese Civilization.
Q. No. 9: What is the cultural significance of Chinese Civilization? Discuss.

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 Bibliography
Allchin, F. R. Neolithic Cattle-Keepers of South India, Cambridge, 1963.

Dani, A. H.(1981). .Indus Civilization—New Perspective, Islamabad.

Fairservis, W. A. (1967). The Origin, Character and Decline of an Early

Civilization.

Fairservis, W. A. (1975). The Roots of Ancient India, 2nd ed., Chicago.

Gowlett,J.(1984). Ascent to Civilization: The Archaeology of Early Man. Collins:

London.
Gupta, S. P. (1979). .Archaeology of Soviet Central Asia and the Indian
Borderland, Vols.I & II, Delhi.

Jacobson, J., (1986) ed., Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan,
New Delhi.

Kenoyer, M. (1998).Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Oxford.

Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilization of South Asia, New Delhi.

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UNIT. 4

EARLY URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN

Written by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

Reviewed by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

205
 CONTENTS

Introduction 207
Objectives 207

4. Early Urbanization in Pakistan 209

4.1 Origin and Developments of Urbanization in Sub-continent1 209
4.2 Bronze Age Culture 213
4.3 Indus Valley Civilization 215
4.3.1 Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization 217
4.3.2 Cultural Significance of Indus Valley Civilization 221
4.3.3 Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization 225
4.3.4 Moenjodaro - Sign Post of Indus Civilization 227
4.4 Different Phases of Indus Civilization 230
4.5 Early Indus, Mature Indus & Late Indus Periods 234
4.6 Decline of Indus Civilization 240

Self Assessment Questions 244

Bibliography 245

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Introduction

As we know that earliest civilizations of the world were flourished in the valleys
of Nile in Egypt, Tigris-Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and Indus in Pakistan. Till
very recently it was believed that out of these riverine civilizations, Indus was the
youngest and even with its political vastness and cultural homogeneity, it received
least attention. The major reason for this has been the absence of such evidences
which could prove that Indus Civilization was the mature stage of that cultural
progression which started earlier in Baluchistan. In absence of such evidence
students of ancient history were made to believe that Indus Civilization was
intended to outside influence of the obvious fact that the Indus valley
geographically lies in the highly probable sphere of interaction of two earliest
civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

In antiquity the Indus Valley resembled Mesopotamia, Susiana and Egypt in being
an alluvial plain which was watered jointly the the Indus and the five rivers of the
Panjab. But in areas, the Indus Valley was more extensive than the Tigis-
Euphrates civilizations, the Karun valley in the western province of Khuzistan in
Iran or the Nile Valley, being roughly 1000 miles in length from north to south
and more than 300 miles broad.

Hence this unit provides you those missing links which were required to complete
the human sequence in the Indus Valley and the Sub-continent. This unit
endeavored to trace the origin and development of human cultures and
civilizations of the Sub-continent from its earliest roots in Stone Age to urbanism,
but the students still need to study this phenomenon in its continuity. By reading
this unit students would be able to understand cultural progression in Indus

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system today‘s Pakistan, from earliest agricultural communities in Baluchistan to
a complex urban Indus culture.

Objectives: After through study this unit, the student will be able to understand the
following;

 to create a public consciousness about ancient period urbanization process.

 to understand human past and evolutionary process that mankind
underwent through ages
 to trace the growth and development of ancient culture and civilization in
sub-continent
 to aware students about Bronze Age culture and its relics
 to arouse student’s interest in the history, antiquities and monuments of
the Indus Valley civilizations.
 to examine analytically different stages of the Indus civilization
 to give insight to the student an in-depth understanding about the decline
of Indus civilization.

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4. Early Urbanization in Pakistan

4.1 Origin and Developments of Urbanization in the Sub-continent

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "subcontinent" signifies a

"subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural
identity" and also a "large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent".
Geographically the Indian subcontinent is a region in southern Asia, which is
situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from
the Himalayas. The Indian subcontinent is related to the landmass that rifted from
the supercontinent Gondwana during the Cretaceous and merged with the
Eurasian landmass nearly 55 million years ago. It is the peninsular region in
south-central Asia, delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in
the west and the Arakanese in the east.

Geopolitically, the Indian subcontinent includes all or part of present Bangladesh,

Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, as well as the country of Maldives.
The Indian subcontinent as a term has been particularly common in the British
Empire and its successors, while the term "South Asia" is the more common
usage in Europe and North America. The region has also been called the "Asian
subcontinent", the "South Asian subcontinent", or the "Indo-Pak subcontinent".

It is estimated that the modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent
from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. However, the earliest known
human remains in Pakistan date to 2.5 million years ago with the discovery of
stone tools made by proto-humans in the Soan River valley, at Rewat and in the
Pabbi Hills, in Pakistan. The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian
subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, found from the
Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million
years ago. The settled life, which involves the transition from foraging to farming
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and pastoralism, began in Mehrgarh, Balochistan around 7,000 BCE. At the site
of Mehrgarh, presence of the wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats,
sheep, and cattle is evident. By 4,500 BCE, settled life had spread more widely
and began to gradually evolve into the Indus Valley Civilization, an early
civilization of the Old world, which was contemporaneous with Ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia. This civilization flourished between 2,500 BCE and 1900 BCE
in what today is Pakistan and north-western India and was noted for its urban
planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage, and water supply.

In the early second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of
the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centers to villages. Around the same
time, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from regions further northwest in
several waves of migration. The resulting Vedic period was marked by the
composition of the Vedas, large collections of hymns of these tribes whose
postulated religious culture, through synthesis with the preexisting religious
cultures of the subcontinent, gave rise to Hinduism. The concept of Varna, a
social grouping system which divided people into different groups based on their
occupations and abilities, such as priests, warriors, merchants, and tradesmen, was
created during this time.

Towards the end of this period, around 600 BCE, after the pastoral and nomadic
Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain, large swaths of
which they deforested to pave way for agriculture, a second urbanization took
place. The small Indo-Aryan chieftaincies, or janapadas, were consolidated into
larger states. The urbanization was accompanied by the rise of new ascetic
movements in Greater Magadha, including Jainism and Buddhism. These
movements gave rise to new religious concepts, which opposed the growing
influence of Brahmanism and the primacy of rituals, presided by the Brahmin
priests that had come to be associated with Vedic religion.
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Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire, during the
4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards, Prakrit and Pali
literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to
flourish. During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by
numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire
stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence,
is known as the classical or Golden Age of India. During this period, many
aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion of Hinduism
and Buddhism, spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India began
to have maritime business links with the Middle East and the Mediterranean.

The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite
struggle centered on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the
Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. Southern India
saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century,
most notably the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western
Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully
invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bengal in the 11th
century.

The Islamic conquests introduced new cultural traits as early as the 8th century,
followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate was founded
in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks who ruled a major part of the northern Indian
subcontinent in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century, and
saw the advent of the Deccan Sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also
emerged as a regional and diplomatic power, lasting over three centuries. This
period saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably Vijayanagara,
Gajapati, and Ahom, as well as Rajput states, such as Mewar. The 15th century
saw the advent of Sikhism.
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The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire
conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, becoming the biggest global economy
and manufacturing power, with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of the world
GDP, superior to the combination of Europe's GDP. The Mughals suffered a
gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the
Marathas, Sikhs, Mysoreans, and Nawabs of Bengal to exercise control over large
regions of the Indian subcontinent.

From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of Indian
subcontinent were gradually annexed by the East India Company, a chartered
company, acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government.
Dissatisfaction with the Company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of
1857, which rocked parts of north and central India, and led to the dissolution of
the company. The country was afterward ruled directly by the British Crown, in
the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was
launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and noted for
nonviolence. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate
Muslim-majority nation-state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in
August 1947 into the Dominion of India (present day Republic of India) and
Dominion of Pakistan (present day Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

According to Michael Fisher, "Scholars estimate that the first successful

expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian
Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years
ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their
descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading
into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the
warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean.
Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000
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years ago." Further, the Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest
the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–
74,000 years ago.

During the Neolithic period, the settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the
western margins of the Indus river alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago,
evolving gradually into the Indus valley civilization of the third millennium BCE.
By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan and over the
next 2,000 years, the practice of farming slowly spread eastwards into the Indus
valley. The earliest settled agricultural society was at Mehrgarh in the hills
between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain. From as early as 7000 BCE,
communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and
selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants.
They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen.

4.2 Bronze Age Culture

The Bronze Age is a historical period that was characterized by the use of bronze,
in some areas proto-writing and other early features of urban civilization. The
Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age i.e. Stone-Bronze-Iron
system, for classifying and studying ancient societies. An ancient civilization is
defined to be in the Bronze Age either by producing bronze by smelting its own
copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze
from production areas elsewhere. Bronze itself is harder and more durable than
other metals available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a
technological advantage. The overall period is characterized by widespread use of
bronze, though the place and time of the introduction and development of bronze
technology were not universally synchronous. Human-made tin bronze
technology requires set production techniques. Tin must be mined and smelted
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separately, then added to hot copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a
time of extensive use of metals and of developing trade networks.

The first urbanization (Ca. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. Along with
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus valley region was one of three early
cradles of civilization of the Old World. Of the three, the Indus Valley
Civilization was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population
of over five million.

The civilization was primarily centered in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river
basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra river basin in eastern Pakistan and
northwestern India. The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to
1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the Indian
subcontinent. The civilization included cities such as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and
Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi,
and Lothal in modern-day India.

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new
techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and
produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilization is noted for its cities built
of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-story houses and is thought to have
had some kind of municipal organization.

Second urbanization (800–200 BCE)

During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Śramaṇa movement formed, from
which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period, the first Upanishads

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were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanization" started, with
new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges
plain.

The foundations for the "second urbanization" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the
Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain;
although most of these sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW
sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized
as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and
embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and
simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the
Northern Black Polished Ware culture.

The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base
of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after
500 BCE during the so-called "second urbanization". It was influenced by the
Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. It "was the
area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was
the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of
Chirand and Chechar".

4.3.1 Indus Valley Civilization

From the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, the individuality of the early
village cultures began to be replaced by a more homogenous style of existence.
By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at
settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab,
Sindh, Balochistan, costal area of Makran and Indian Territory of Uttar Pradesh,
and Gujarat. This earliest known civilization in the Sub-Continent, the starting
point in its history, dates back to about 3000 BCE. Discovered in the 1920s, it was
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thought to have been confined to the valley of the river Indus; hence the name
given to it was Indus Valley civilization. This civilization was a highly developed
urban one and two of its main cities, Moenjodaro and Harappa, represent the high
watermark of the settlements. Subsequent archaeological excavations established
that the contours of this civilization were not restricted to the Indus valley but
spread to a wide area beyond the alluvial plains of Indus River.

The emergence of this civilization is as remarkable as its stability for nearly a

thousand years. All the cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks
of the same size; the streets were laid at right angles with an elaborate system of
covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities and houses were
earmarked for the upper and lower strata of society. There were also public
buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Moenjodaro and the vast
granaries. Production of several metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was
also undertaken and some remnants of furnaces provide evidence of this fact. The
discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks were used
extensively in domestic and public buildings.

Evidence also points to the use of domesticated animals, including cows, goats,
water buffaloes and fowls. The Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas and were
probably the first to grow and make clothes from cotton. Trade seemed to be a
major activity at the Indus Valley and the sheer quantity of pictographic steatite
seals discovered suggest that each merchant or mercantile family owned its own
seal. These seals are in various quadrangular shapes and sizes, each with a human
or an animal figure carved on it. Discoveries suggest that the Harappan
civilization had extensive trade relations with the neighboring regions in India and
with distant lands in the Persian Gulf and Iraq.

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The Harappan society was probably divided according to occupations and this
also suggests the existence of an organized government. The figures of deities on
seals indicate that the Harappans worshipped gods and goddesses in male and
female forms and has also evolved some rituals and ceremonies. No monumental
sculpture survives, but a large number of human figurines have been discovered,
including a steatite bust of a man thought to be a priest, and a striking bronze
dancing girl. Countless terra-cotta statues of Mother Goddess have been
discovered suggesting that she was worshipped in nearly every home.

4.3.1 Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization

The first modern recorded accounts of the ruins of the Indus civilization are those
of Charles Masson, a deserter from the East India Company's army. In 1829,
Masson traveled through the princely state of Punjab, gathering useful
intelligence for the Company in return for a promise of clemency. An aspect of
this arrangement was the additional requirement to hand over to the Company any
historical artifacts acquired during his travels. Masson, who had versed himself in
the classics, especially in the military campaigns of Alexander the Great, chose
for his wanderings some of the same towns that had featured in Alexander's
campaigns, and whose archaeological sites had been noted by the campaign's
chroniclers.

Masson's major archaeological discovery in the Punjab was Harappa, a metropolis

of the Indus civilization in the valley of Indus's tributary, the Ravi River. Masson
made copious notes and illustrations of Harappa's rich historical artifacts, many
lying half-buried. In 1842, Masson included his observations of Harappa in the
book Narrative of Various Journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab.
He dated the Harappa ruins to a period of recorded history, erroneously mistaking
it to have been described earlier during Alexander's campaign. Masson was

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impressed by the site's extraordinary size and by several large mounds formed
from long-existing erosion.Two years later, the Company contracted Alexander
Burnes to sail up the Indus to assess the feasibility of water travel for its army.
Burnes, who also stopped in Harappa, noted the baked bricks employed in the
site's ancient masonry, but noted also the haphazard plundering of these bricks by
the local population.

Despite these reports, Harappa was raided even more perilously for its bricks after
the British annexation of the Punjab in 1848–49. A considerable number were
carted away as track ballast for the railway lines being laid in the Punjab. Nearly
160 km of railway track between Multan and Lahore, laid in the mid 1850’s was
supported by Harappan bricks.

In 1861, three years after the dissolution of the East India Company and the
establishment of Crown rule in India, archaeology on the subcontinent became
more formally organized with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI). Alexander Cunningham, the Survey's first director-general, who had
visited Harappa in 1853 and had noted the imposing brick walls, visited again to
carry out a survey, but this time of a site whose entire upper layer had been
stripped in the interim. Although his original goal of demonstrating Harappa to be
a lost Buddhist city mentioned in the seventh century CE travels of the Chinese
visitor, Xuanzang, proved elusive, Cunningham did publish his findings in 1875.
For the first time, he interpreted a Harappan stamp seal, with its unknown script,
which he concluded to be of an origin foreign to India.

The archaeological work in Harappa thereafter flagged until a new viceroy of

India, Lord Curzon, pushed through the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of
1904, and appointed John Marshall to lead the ASI. Several years later, Hiranand
Sastri, who had been assigned by Marshall to survey Harappa, reported it to be of

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non-Buddhist origin, and by implication more ancient. Expropriating Harappa for
the ASI under the Act, Marshall directed ASI archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni to
excavate the site's two mounds.

Farther south, along the main stem of the Indus in Sind province, the largely
undisturbed site of Mohenjo-daro had attracted notice. Marshall deputed a
succession of ASI officers to survey the site. These included D. R. Bhandarkar
(1911), R. D. Banerji (1919, 1922–1923), and M.S. Vats (1924). In 1923, on his
second visit to Mohenjo-daro, Baneriji wrote to Marshall about the site,
postulating an origin in "remote antiquity," and noting a congruence of some of its
artifacts with those of Harappa. Later in 1923, Vats, also in correspondence with
Marshall, noted the same more specifically about the seals and the script found at
both sites. On the weight of these opinions, Marshall ordered crucial data from the
two sites to be brought to one location and invited Banerji and Sahni to a joint
discussion. By 1924, Marshall had become convinced of the significance of the
finds, and on 24 September 1924, made a tentative but conspicuous public
intimation in the Illustrated London News:

"Not often has it been given to archaeologists, as it was given to Schliemann at

Tiryns and Mycenae, or to Stein in the deserts of Turkestan, to light upon the
remains of a long forgotten civilization. It looks, however, at this moment, as if
we were on the threshold of such a discovery in the plains of the Indus." The
systematic excavations began in Mohenjo-daro in 1924–25 with that of K. N.
Dikshit, continuing with those of H. Hargreaves (1925–1926), and Ernest J. H.
Mackay (1927–1931). By 1931, much of Mohenjo-daro had been excavated, but
occasional excavations continued, such as the one led by Mortimer Wheeler, a
new Director-General of the ASI appointed in 1944.

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After the partition of India in 1947, when most excavated sites of the Indus Valley
civilization lay in territory awarded to Pakistan, the Archaeological Survey of
India, its area of authority reduced, carried out large numbers of surveys and
excavations along the Ghaggar-Hakra system in India. Some speculated that the
Ghaggar-Hakra system might yield more sites than the Indus river basin. Now
over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which
just under a hundred had been excavated, mainly in the general region of the
Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers and their tributaries; however, there are only five
major urban sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala and
Rakhigarhi. It is estimated that about 616 sites have been reported in India,
whereas 406 sites have been reported in Pakistan. However, according to an
archaeologist, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India are those of local cultures;
some sites display contact with Harappan civilization, but only a few are fully
developed Harappan ones.

Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the Director of ASI from 1944, oversaw the establishment
of archaeological institutions in Pakistan, later on joining a UNESCO effort
tasked to conserve the site at Mohenjo-daro. The other international efforts at
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have included the German Aachen Research Project
Mohenjo-daro, the Italian Mission to Mohenjo-daro, and the US Harappa
Archaeological Research Project (HARP) founded by George F. Dales. Following
a chance flash flood which exposed a portion of an archaeological site at the foot
of the Bolan Pass in Balochistan, excavations were carried out in Mehrgarh by
French archaeologist Jean-François Jarrige and his team.

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4.3.2 Cultural Significance of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization represents one of the

world’s earliest urban societies of 3rd millennium BCE. The researches have
brought out its unique character though detailed studies of its cities and
architecture, the organization of technology and trade, its subsistence economy
and a wide range of symbolic arts and ornaments etc. At Harappa at least
following five major periods of development represent a continuous process of
cultural development where new aspects of culture are balanced with long term
continuous and linkage in many crafts and artifact styles:-

Period Chronology/Era Dated

Period-1 Ravi-Hakra Phase 3300-2800 BCE
Period-II Early Harappa Phase (Kot Diji) 2800-2600 BCE
Period-III A Harappa Phase-A 2600-2450 BCE
Period-III B Harappa Phase-B 2450-2200 BCE
Period-III C Harappa Phase-C 2200-1900 BCE
Period-IV Late Harappan (Transitional ) 1900-1800 BCE
Period-V Late Harappan Phase 1800-1300 BCE

The results of the systematic archaeological excavations have revealed the Ravi or
Hakra Phase by representing the very initial occupation. Then over time the
economic and political importance of this small community resulted in its growth
and expansion during the Kot Diji Phase. The excavations of early Ravi and Kot
Diji levels (Period-I & II) from different parts of the ancient city have focused on
aspects of settlement organization, craft technologies, subsistence activities and
various forms of social and political organization. During the Ravi and Kot Diji
Phases various aspects of settlement structure, specialized technologies, and

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socio-economic networks were developed and became the foundation for later
urban structure of the Harappa Phase.

Although the initial urban character of Harappa begins during the Kot Diji Phase
but it is in the following Harappa Phase (Period-III) that the settlement became a
major urban centre with links to other equally large centers, towns and rural
settlements throughout the greater Indus Valley Civilization. Then with the rise of
the Indus cities, technology and crafts appear to have become an essential
mechanism for creating unique wealth objects to distinguish socio-economic
classes and reinforce the hierarchy of the classes in an urban context. The
utilization of pictographic seals along with various forms of writing on a wide
range of artifacts appears to be directly associated with the need to communicate
social or ritual status and for economic control. The limited preserved areas have
been identified dating to the Late Harappan Phases (Period-IV & V) which
provides information on the nature of the Late Harappan subsistence, architecture
and very day life of the people. The Indus Valley Civilization flourished in the
basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a
system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity
of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

The civilization’s cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses,
elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential
buildings, and new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and
metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead and tin). The large cities of Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa very likely grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,
and the civilization itself during its florescence may have contained between one
and five million individuals.

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The Indus civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after its type
site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the 20th century in what
was then the Punjab province of British India and now is Pakistan. The discovery
of Harappa and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work
beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during
the British Raj. There were however earlier and later cultures often called Early
Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area; for this reason, the Harappan
civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan to distinguish it from these
other cultures.The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is
uncertain since the Indus script is still un-deciphered. A relationship with the
Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of
scholars like leading Finnish Indologist, Asko Parpola.

The Indus Valley Civilization is named after the Indus river system in whose
alluvial plains the early sites of the civilization were identified and excavated.
Following a tradition in archaeology, the civilization is sometimes referred to as
the Harappan, after its type site, Harappa, the first site to be excavated in the
1920s; this is notably true of usage employed by the Archaeological Survey of
India after India's independence in 1947.

The geophysical research suggests that unlike the Sarasvati, whose descriptions in
the Rig Veda are those of a snow-fed river, the Ghaggar-Hakra was a system of
perennial monsoon-fed rivers, which became seasonal around the time that the
civilization diminished, approximately 4,000 years ago. In addition, proponents
of the Sarasvati nomenclature see a connection between the decline of the Indus
civilization and the rise of the Vedic civilization on the Gangetic plain; however,
historians of the decline of the mature Indus civilization consider the two to be
substantially disconnected.

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The Indus civilization was roughly contemporary with the other riverine
civilizations of the ancient world: Egypt along the Nile, Mesopotamia in the lands
watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, and China in the drainage basin of the
Yellow River and the Yangtze. By the time of its mature phase, the civilization
had spread over an area larger than the others, which included a core of 1,500
kilometres (900 mi) up the alluvial plain of the Indus and its tributaries. In
addition, there was a region with disparate flora, fauna, and habitats, up to ten
times as large, which had been shaped culturally and economically by the Indus.

It is unsurprising that around 6500 BCE, agriculture emerged in Balochistan, on

the margins of the Indus alluvium. In the following millennia, settled life made
inroads into the Indus plains, setting the stage for the growth of rural and urban
human settlements. The more organized sedentary life in turn led to a net increase
in the birth rate. The large urban centers of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely
grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and during the
civilization's florescence, the population of the subcontinent grew to between 4–6
million people. However, it is believed that during this period the death rate
increased as well, for close living conditions of humans and domesticated animals
led to an increase in contagious diseases. According to one estimate, the
population of the Indus civilization at its peak may have been between one and
five million.

The Indus Valley Civilization extended from Pakistan's Balochistan in the west to
India's western Uttar Pradesh in the east, from northeastern Afghanistan in the
north to India's Gujarat state in the south. The largest number of sites is in
Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir
(disputed states between Pak &India) and Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan
provinces in Pakistan. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in
Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on
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the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan, in the Gomal River valley in
northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India,
and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. The
southernmost site of the Indus valley civilization is Daimabad in Maharashtra.
Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient
seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. Hence, a long
period of cultural evolution eventually led to a fully mature and urbanized stage that
is known from the past and recent excavations at Moenjodaro, Harappa, and a
number of other sites in the Indus River Valley of Pakistan and adjacent of India.

4.3.3 Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization

A remarkable cultural pattern such as; urban town planning, as demonstrated at

Moenjodaro with streets and lanes lined with public and private buildings and an
elaborated drainage system and water management, economic strength of cities,
network of exchange of finished and raw material with outside, availability of
resources to mobilize labour and construction of large fortification and public
buildings like the Great Bath and granaries, these all produce interest for
investigation of the unknown mysteries of the Indus Valley Civilization. The
recent researches at Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Harappa and small sites like
Alladino have added more details about this Civilization.

Many aspects of the Indus society are being reconstructed based on inferences
drawn from divers categories of evidence such as the funerary objects, specialized
craft related activities of pottery making of specific shapes and functions,
decorative and ritual objects, production of steatite pictographic seals and
implements, bronze utensils and weapons of war and standardized weights and
measures are worth mentioning. The mass production of standardized articles of
daily use, existence of high level of technology, availability of economic surplus

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for keeping armies to defend cities and their wealth, creation of an elaborate
communication network and an effective political or administrative system over a
vast territory did lead to the creation of a sort of pan-Indus cultural integration not
approached anywhere in the ancient world.

The Indus Valley Civilization is known for the production of various types of
earthen vessels and their decoration by painting or incised designs. The Indus
people have continued the typical form of expression of early hunters of pre-
harappan phase by adopting the animal style in rock paintings. They were greatly
impressed ad adopted in their drawing and painting on the pottery and seals. The
animal world depiction wild and species as well as domesticated animals were
main topic of artisans of early civilizations. The Indus artists also have drawn their
skills of portraying such kinds of images from the rock art phase. The skill of the
graffiti shows the strength of engraving and that the superimposition of figures must
be the outcome of their observations of animal’s line drawing of the rock art period.

The main ceramic types of Mature Harappan Period are the large storage jars with
straight sides and large mouth with flat extended rims. The other forms are the
small jars with a globular body, high neck and disc or ring footed base, the dish-
on-stand, the dishes, the cylindrical perforated jars, the large and medium sized
jars, the beakers, goblets, vases, etc. These are made with fine clay, turned o fast
wheel and fired well. A course Gray Ware was also in use for cooking purposes
and storing the water as well. A few of these types were decorated with incised
designs on the body surfaces.

However, a large quantity of pottery of Mature and Late Harappan period is plain
and only a small percentage is decorated. However, some of the motifs occurring
in the Harappan period are worth noted. Among them the animal figures drawn on
the pots of Harappa and Moenjodaro are very few and not fully integrated as they

226
are painted only to fill the surface without regard for realism. But in the provincial
style like Lothal, a great attention was given to realism and the animal figures
which are fully integrated with environment. The motifs generally found on the
pottery contain the figures of human, animals and plants.

4.3.4 Moenjodaro - Sign Post of Indus Civilization

The structural remains of Moenjodaro which are lying on the right bank of River
Indus consist of a number of high and low mounds. Among these, two are
however worth mentioning; the first one which is close to the river is spread over
an area of about 450,000 square metre and rose to a height of 5 to 7 metre above
the surrounding area. The second important mound is lying towards its west
which occupies approximately 80,000 square metre and is about 22 metre above
the ground level.

The high mound or the citadel area contains administrative and religious buildings
while the low mound or the lower city represents residential quarters, shopping
areas and other important buildings. Each area has been given a particular name
which is derived from the name .of the principal excavator who worked in that
particular sector. For instance the S.D Area is derived from the name of A.D
Siddiqui, D.K Area from K.N Dikshit, H.R from H. Hargreaves, V .S from M.S
Vans, L from B.L Dhama, M.N from Q.M Muneer and D from G.F Dales.

The Buddhist Stupa of Kushan period (2nd Century CE) is the most prominent
feature of S.D area. It was built at the highest surviving, mound concealing
beneath it the remains of Moenjodaro. The Stupa itself is 21.9 metre above the
surrounding plain and encircled by 30 cells on its four sides. The inner core of the
stupa is constructed with sun-dried bricks, while in all other buildings including
the monastic cells baked bricks have been used. These bricks were obtained from
the nearby old remains. The presence of this magnificent stupa (about 1700 years
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old) facilitated the discovery of the lost city of Moenjodaro, which remained
hidden from the earth surface for the last 35 centuries.

Another imposing architectural marvel of Indus Civilization at Moenjodaro is the

Great Bath. It is a beautifully laid out rectangular swimming pool constructed
with bricks, measuring 11.9 metre in length, 7 metre in breadth and 1.9 metre
deep, The Great Bath which is undoubtedly the first ever swimming pool of
South-Asia has been made water tight by laying out the floor with baked bricks
set on edge .in gypsum mortar. The side walls of the Great Bath have been
provided with a thick damp proof course (D.P .C) of bitumen. The cloistered area
of the Great Bath originally appears to had two entrances each on the northern and
southern sides and an opening on the eastern side. The whole complex of this
Great Bath seems to have carried some ritualistic significance. It was most
probably a place for social gatherings of the elite on religious occasions. It is
apparent that the Great Bath used to be filled with fresh water at regular intervals
from the three wells located in its neighborhood.

On the east of the Great Bath is a building seems to be the residence of the Priest
or the college of Priests. The building is, however, unusually long consisting of an
open cloistered court and an assemblage of rooms paved with bricks. The building
was evidently a double storey structure.

To the west of Great Bath, are the remains of a large Granary. The Granary
presumably served the purpose of a State Treasury. It appears that there was no
currency and the people were required to pay the taxes in kind. Unfortunately
only the podium of the State Granary now exists. The Granary was originally
comprised twenty-seven blocks constructed with bricks of varying but regulated
size. The super structure of the Granary was made with timber and the external
walls of the podium were battered, which looks like a fortress. It is believed that

228
the use of this treasury continued for a long period during the heyday of
Moenjodaro and ultimately fell into ruins with the decline of the city.

To the south of the large group of buildings of the stupa mound is a small mound
which is separated from it by a distance of about 28 metre. The geographical
extent shows that the stupa mound and this mound, where the Pillared Hall is
situated, were linked together but the rains and denudation have now created a
.vast gap between them. The Pillared Hall, which measures 8 square metre has got
20 brick piers arranged in four aisles probably to support the roof. The building
has got a small courtyard, which carried a large roof supported on twenty pillars
arranged in row of five. According to the scholars, it was used as a court of the
city magistrate or a secretariat of the city.

The houses in D.K area are comparatively large in size and in certain cases
comprise many rooms. The best representation of the town planning of
Moenjodaro can be seen here through the beautiful streets and lanes of this area.
However the most important building in this area is the "Chiefs House". This
house includes two courtyards with an eight feet door opening through the
corridor towards south. Besides, there are two wells in this house, which make it
prominent from other houses.

This architectural planning provides ample proof of the remarkable town planning
of Moenjodaro.

The houses in H.R area is small as compared to D.K area which was occupied by
the working class of the people of Moenjodaro. But the unique specimen of
architecture of this area is two well built privies constructed against the wall. The
privies are about half a meter higher from the level and resemble with old style of
privies which are still being used in many villages, towns, and small cities of

229
Pakistan. The world famous "Dancing Girl" in bronze was found about 1.92 meter
below the surface in a house of this area.

V.S area is an extensive irregularly shaped mound immediately to the north of the
H.R area. Here are the remains of a house which measures 26 metre by 20 metre
and divided into four separate dwellings. The main entrance to this house was
from the Main Street. The remains of which can be traced very easily. The main
feature of this entrance chamber is that it consists of five conical pits or holes
sunk in the floor and formed by wedge shaped bricks, apparently intended to hold
the pointed bases of large storage jars.

4.3.2 Different Phases of Indus Civilization

The remarkable discovery of the archaeological remains of Moenjodaro was made
in 1922 when Mr. Rakal Das Banerji, an archaeologist, who was in search of a
Buddhist Stupa in this area, found some inscribed seals akin to that already
discovered at Harappa by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. These
pictographic seals and other objects like copper vessels, painted pottery and lithic
implements witnessed an entirely different culture from what the archaeologists
were expecting in this area. Sir John Marshall, who was the Director General of
Archaeology in India at that time himself' started excavations which were
continued upto 1927. He published the results of excavations in his book entitled
“ Moenjodaro & the Indus Civilization" in 1931. Sir John Marshall declared the
discovery of Indus Civilization comparable with Mesopotamian Civilization in
Tigris-Euphrates Valley as well as the Egyptian Civilization in the Nile Valley
and the Chinese Civilization in the Hwang Valley.

Further excavations at Moenjodaro were resumed under the guidance of Ernest

H.J Mackey from 1927 to 1931 who published his report in 1938 with its title
"Further Excavations at Moenjodaro". The publication of these early reports
230
aroused great excitement among the scholarly world. The discovery of
Moenjodaro in fact represented such a civilization which was spread over the
whole expanse of alluvium plains of the River Indus and its large tributaries. The
evidences show that the area covered by the Indus Civilization was larger than
any of the known civilizations of the ancient worldly was extended to the east
upto Delhi, on the west upto the Makran coast, to the north upto Jammu-Kashmir
and to the south upto the coast of C3mbay Gulf. lt was cel1ainly a tremendous
leap backwards in the antiquity of civilization in the South-Asian Sub-Continent
dating back about 5000 years.

After the emergence of Pakistan, Sir R.E Mol1imer Wheeler excavated the
remains of Moenjodaro in 1950 and obtained some substantial results. Later on
Dr. George F.Dales, an American Archaeologist did some field work at
Moenjodaro during 1964-65. However, due to rise in the sub-soil water he could
not continue his work and had to abandon J the excavations. The Federal
Department of Archaeology, which is custodian of the cultural heritage of
Pakistan however carried out limited salvage excavations during 1987 and 1989.

A number of phases are employed for the periodisation of the Indus Valley
Civilization. The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilization
into Early, Mature and Late Indus or Harappan Phase. An alternative approach by
Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-
Harappan "Early Food Producing Era," and the Regionalisation, Integration, and
Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature
Harappan, and Late Harappan phases. However, Gregory Possehl includes the
Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term Indus Age for this broader time
span, into a seven stage sequence.

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The most commonly used nomenclature classifies the Indus Valley Civilization
into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. The Indus Civilization was preceded
by local agricultural villages, from where the river plains were populated when
water-management became available, creating an integrated civilization. This
broader time range has also been called the Indus Age and the Indus Valley
Tradition.

The Early, Mature and Late Harappan periodisation was introduced by

archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler, who "brought with them existing systems
from elsewhere, such as the Three Age System,"and further developed by M.R.
Mughal, who "proposed the term Early Harappan to characterize the pre- or proto-
urban phase." This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro, assuming an evolutionary sequence. According to Manuel, this division
"places the Indus Valley within a tripartite evolutionary framework, of the birth,
fluorescence, and death of a society in a fashion familiar to the social evolutionary
concepts of Elmond Service.

Whereas, Shaffer divided the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the
pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era," and the Regionalization, Integration,
and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature
Harappan, and Late Harappan phases. Each era can be divided into various
phases. A phase is an archaeological unit possessing traits sufficiently
characteristic to distinguish it from all other units similarly conceived. There was
considerable regional variation, as well as differences in cultural sequences, and
these eras and phases are not evolutionary sequences, and cannot uniformly be
applied to every site.

A critical feature of Shaffer's developmental framework was replaced; the

traditional Mesolithic/Neolithic, Chalcolithic/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan

232
and Late Harappan terminology with Eras which were intended to reflect the
longer-term changes or processes which provided the platform for eventual
complexity and urbanization.

The Early Food Producing Era corresponds to ca. 7000-5500 BCE. It is also
called the Neolithic period. The economy of this era was based on food
production, and agriculture developed in the Indus Valley. Mehrgarh Period I
belongs to this era. The Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300
BCE or ca. 5000-2600 BCE. The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era.
According to Manuel, "the most significant development of this period was the
shift in population from the uplands of Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus
Valley." This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts were invented. The
Regionalisation Era includes the Balakot, Amri, Hakra and Kot Diji Phases.

The Integration Era refers to the period of the "Indus Valley Civilisation". It is a
period of integration of various smaller cultures. The Localisation Era (1900-1300
BCE) is the fourth and final period of the Indus Valley Tradition. It refers to the
fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Localisation Era
comprises following several phases:

• Punjab Phase (Cemetery H, Late Harappan). The Punjab Phase includes

the Cemetery H and other cultures. Punjab Phase sites are found in Harappa and
in other places.

• Jhukar Phase (Jhukar and Pirak) The Jhukar Phase refers to Mohenjo-daro
and sites in Sindh.

• Rangpur Phase (Late Harappan and Lustrous Red Ware). Rangpur Phase
sites are in Kachchh, Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat.

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• The Pirak Phase is a phase of the Localisation Era of both the Indus Valley
Tradition and the Baluchistan Tradition.

Gregory Possehl includes the Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term
Indus Age for this broader time span, into a seven stage sequence:

1. Beginnings of Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps

2. Developed Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps

3. Early Harappan

4. Transition from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan

5. Mature Harappan

6. Post-urban Harappan

7. Early Iron Age of Northern India and Pakistan

The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had "social hierarchies, their writing
system, their large planned cities and their long-distance trade which mark them
to archaeologists as a full-fledged 'civilization.' The mature phase of the Harappan
civilization lasted from c. 2600–1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and
successor cultures – Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively – the entire Indus
Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries
BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan
occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.

4.4 Early Indus, Mature Indus & Late Indus Periods

The Early Harappan era:

The site of Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) period site in the

234
Balochistan province of Pakistan which gave new insights on the emergence of
the Indus Valley Civilization. Mehrgarh site is one of the earliest sites with
evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. Mehrgarh was influenced by the
Near Eastern Neolithic, with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties,
early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some
domesticated plants and herd animals."

Jean-Francois Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. He describes

"the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-
East to South Asia," and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern
Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural
continuum" between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige
concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background," and is not a
"'backwater’ of the Neolithic culture of the Near East."

Lukacs and Hemphill suggest an initial local development of Mehrgarh, with

continuity in cultural development but a change in population. According to
Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the Neolithic and
chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the
chalcolithic population did not descend from the Neolithic population of
Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow.

i) Early Indus or Early Harappan Period (Ca. 3300–2600 BCE)

The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from
Ca. 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the
Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–
2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near
Mohenjo-daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd
millennium BCE.The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by
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Rehman Dheri in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Amri in Sindh. Kot Diji represents
the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralized
authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.

Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.
The trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant
sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-
making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas,
sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo.
Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from
where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus
Valley people migrated from villages to cities.The final stages of the Early
Harappan period are characterized by the building of large walled settlements, the
expansion of trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional
communities into a "relatively uniform" material culture in terms of pottery styles,
ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script, leading into the transition to the
Mature Harappan phase.

About the early Indus period, Qasid H. Mallah mentions that the early Indus
period, especially the Kot Dijian phase (2800-2600 BCE) has larger settlement
and mass-production of various items and increase in occurrence of the permanent
settlements in Sindh. For instance, the archaeological features in Loal Mari, Peer
Sarihiyo, Kandherki and other settlements shows that in the Thar Desert and the
Rohri hills mass production of beads and chert tools was conducted. The
development of settlement and economic complexity is observed all over the
Indus valley during Kot Dijian Period. The arrival of several semi precious stones
as raw material explain the existence of wide spread interaction system. The
gold, semiprecious stone, faience and other type of material was spreading and
arriving at distant settlements from the original resources areas. During the Kot
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Dijian phase, further increase in settlement number is seen throughout the Indus
Valley and beyond. The most important sites appeared in north and Balochistan
such as Rehman Dheri, Sarai Khola and Jalilpur, Amri, Kot Diji, Loal Mari,
Bhando Qubo and many others in Sindh. The sites of Sindh were connected not
only with those settlements, but also with the raw material source areas.

ii) Mature Indus or Mature Harappan Period (Ca. 2600–1900 BCE)

The mature Indus Period is the most fascinating period when a highly developed
state society appeared. The several new mega cities appeared during this period,
for instance; Harappa in the Ravi Phase, Ganweriwala in Cholistan and
Moenjodaro in the lower Indus plains, these all cities developed their own
infrastructure. During the Mature Indus Period, several cities grew with definite
industrial character and a variety of cultural items were produced. The producers
and merchants focused on the lapidary, metallurgy, architecture, and all other
aspects required for production and safe transaction of the items.

The metropolitan city of Moenjodaro itself was the largest production centre as its
eastern section of the Lower Mound was used for manufacturing of various types of
beads, shell, bangles pottery and other items. Many cities around the city of
Moenjodaro were developed as archaeological documentation is gradually adding
information about their commercial activities such as; Chanhudaro, Lakhanjodaro and
Juderjodaro. The site of Chanhudaro was a famous centre for manufacturing of seals
and various types of beads. Similarly the chert tool industrial unit of the Rohri hills was
actively engaged in the manufacturing and distribution of chert production like blade,
cores, and even good quality plain and banded chert nodules.

Besides, the tools, the good quality of chert, banded chert and limestone blocks
were obtained and distributed within the settlements in Sindh and throughout the
communities of the entire Indus Valley Civilization. There have been found many
237
other smaller towns around these cities. The discovery of seals and identical
copper figurines from Chanhudaro and Lakhanjodaro suggest the establishment of
some type of administrative organization, distribution and arrangements having
extended relations with other settlements around the cities.

According to Giosan, the slow southward migration of the monsoons across Asia
initially allowed the Indus Valley villages to develop by taming the floods of the
Indus and its tributaries. Flood-supported farming led to large agricultural
surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The Indus Valley
Civilization residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the
seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. Brooke further notes that the
development of advanced cities coincides with a reduction in rainfall, which may
have triggered reorganization into larger urban centers.

According to J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein, the Mature Harappan

Civilization was "a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions or 'ethnic
groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan". By
2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centers. Such
urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern-day
Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-
day India. More than 1,000 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the
general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.

iii) Late Indus or Late Harappan Period (Ca. 1900-1300 BCE)

During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple regional cultures
emerged within the area of the Indus civilization. The Cemetery H culture was in
Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, the Jhukar culture was in Sindh, and
the Rangpur culture (characterized by Lustrous Red Ware pottery) was in Gujarat.

238
Other sites associated with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are Pirak in
Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.

Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around
1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent examination of human
skeletons from the site of Harappa has demonstrated that the end of the Indus
civilization saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases
like leprosy and tuberculosis. According to historian Upinder Singh, "the general
picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban
networks and an expansion of rural ones."

The largest Late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Dwarka in Gujarat, and
Daimabad in Maharashtra, which can be considered as urban, but they are smaller
and few in number compared with the Mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was
fortified and continued to have contacts with the Persian Gulf region, but there
was a general decrease of long-distance trade. On the other hand, the period also
saw a diversification of the agricultural base, with a diversity of crops and the
advent of double-cropping, as well as a shift of rural settlement towards the east
and the south.

The pottery of the Late Harappan period is described as "showing some continuity
with mature Harappan pottery traditions," but also distinctive differences. Many
sites continued to be occupied for some centuries, although their urban features
declined and disappeared. Formerly typical artifacts such as stone weights and
female figurines became rare. There are some circular stamp seals with geometric
designs, but lacking the Indus script which characterized the mature phase of the
civilization. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a
decline in long-distance trade, although the local cultures show new innovations
in faience and glass making, and carving of stone beads. Urban amenities such as

239
drains and the public bath were no longer maintained, and newer buildings were
"poorly constructed". Stone sculptures were deliberately vandalized, valuables
were sometimes concealed in hoards, suggesting unrest, and the corpses of
animals and even humans were left unburied in the streets and in abandoned
buildings. During the latter half of the 2nd millennium BCE, most of the post-
urban Late Harappan settlements were abandoned altogether. The subsequent
material culture was typically characterized by temporary occupation, "the
campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist" and which
used "crude handmade pottery." However, there is greater continuity and overlap
between Late Harappan and subsequent cultural phases at sites in Punjab,
Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, primarily small rural settlements.

After 1900 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization began to decline, resulting into two
major phenomena first that the large cities reduced in their size, character and
elegancy of residential and material culture as well. The second critical
phenomenon was the localization which appeared as fragmentation of united
cultures into smaller cultural units commonly known as “Cemetery H culture” in
Punjab and Cholistan, Gandhara Grave Culture in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
Jhukar Culture in Sindh. The same process of fragmentation is documented in
Balochistan and the sites in India. The factors like invaders , flood, less rainfall,
change in population, wearing out of the landscape, change of river course, drying
up of Saraswati/Hakra, powerful tectonics, collapse of the administrative system
and even the idea of epidemics are documented.

4.5 Decline of Indus Civilization

The decline and disappearance of the civilization is never likely to be so firmly
fixed. In approaching the causes of its fall we have to exercise a degree of
caution, on the one hand there is archaeological testimony of internal decay; in the

240
final centuries at Moenjodaro a marked lowering of civic standards took place. On
the other hand we have the Aryan invaders occupying the Punjab the land of the
Five Rivers, and their traditions of military conquest. They were in control of the
Indus valley around 1500 BC. They may have been a source of anxiety to the
Indus people from a much earlier date. The degeneration was in progress at most
Indus valley sites after 1900 BC. The residential houses ceased to be so
meticulously planned and the chief concern was the building up of the city level
against renewed flooding.

At Moenjodaro the numbers of inhabitants were declined. Further, into the

depressed Indus valley poured the fierce Aryans. The date of their first arrival in
the Punjab is unknown but in Balochistan the earliest presence of Aryans is well
attested around 1800 BC. Their settlements are found in Sibi and Kachhi plans on
the borders of the present day Sindh province just 200 km far from Moenjodaro.
So the pressure of nomad Aryans could have been long-standing. Their raids
would have been sufficient to complete the ruin of the cities. The causes of
decline or cultural changes have been debated and discussed ever since the
discovery and history of archaeological excavations carried out at Moenjodaro
and Harappa. There are however, several factors which are considered as main
causes of decline of this great civilization such as;

i. climate change,
ii. diseases,
iii. floods,
iv. environmental degradation,
v. depletion of economic resources and
vi. foreign invasions

241
These main factors have been considered and discussed frequently with varying
degree of emphasis responsible of decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The increasing effect of natural disasters such as flood and earthquake resulted in
the decline of a prosperous commercial and industrial port-town like Lothal in
about 2000 BCE. It provides an evidence of the general decline of other large and
small Indus Valley cities and towns which were built in the flood plains of the
Indus, Sarasvati and its tributaries. In Luthal, about 2000-1900 BCE, the
merchants and craftsmen tried to revive trade but internal decay had set in and
civic amenities were lacking, and the towns sank in size too. The ragged
constructed houses, the ill-paved drains, and the damaged public works such as
protective ramparts and the poor ceramic wares are a pointer to a general decline
in Late Harappan Period.

In fact in the life history of the Indus Valley Civilization, the beginning of second
millennium is considered very significant because of visible changes in the
material culture and settlement patterns that began to appear in the Indus Valley.
These changes have been identified at a number of towns and cities in the greater
Indus Valley Civilization. In this regard of special interest are absence of square
Indus seals, rarity of Indus script and virtual absence of cubical weights. These
and other changes are considered to be the signs of decline of Indus Valley
Civilization which had seen its climax around 2500 BCE.

The researches carried out in Cholistan area by Dr. M. R Mughal reveals that
various cultural changes in the Indus Civilization were actually induced by the
frequent hydrographic changes in the upper and lower Indus Valley. The riverine
plain of Sindh was profoundly affected by the changes in river courses especially
of the Ghaffar-Hakra River which once flowed all the way down to the Rann of
Kuch skirting the Thar Desert in ancient times. As a result the water deflected
towards southeast to feed the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers and the once perennial
242
Hakra River gradually died up. By the first millennium BCE the river had dried
up completely as indicated by the location of Painted Grey Wares sites right in the
bed of the dry water.

The consequences of various environmental changes are seen in the abandonment

of settlements and weakening of Indus political and administrative system,
forcing changes in the organizational structure of the Indus society. The depletion
of economic resources and demographic changes due to migration or movement
of population would have weakened the culturally integrated Greater Indus
Valley. However, the Harappan culture and tradition lingered on for some time
until about the middle of second millennium BCE and most probably even later.

A review of archaeological and environmental data makes it clear that the Indus
Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly or abruptly but with some kind of
gradually as some factors are found responsible as evident from excavations for
its decline. However, the gradual drying of the region's soil during the 3rd
millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanization associated
with the civilization, but eventually weaker monsoons and reduced water supply
caused the civilization’s demise, and to scatter its population eastward and
southward.

As mentioned by Mark Kenoyer, the first urban civilization of the subcontinent

gradually faded into the background as new cultures emerged at the eastern and
northern edges of the Indus Valley region. It took over one thousand years for the
political and cultural centre of the northern sub-continent to shift from the Indus
Valley to the middle Ganga region. Because the process of change was gradual, it
is unlikely that anyone living during the period between the decline of the Indus
cities (1900-1300 BCE) and the rise of the Early Historic cities (800 -300
BCE)would have been aware of the shift. The factors that had played a role in the
decline of the Indus cities are as diverse as those which stimulated their growth.

In the core regions of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra valley the wide extension of
trade networks and political alliances was highly venerable to relatively more

243
changes in the environment and agricultural base. Further with the increase in
water flow the Indus itself began to swing east, flooding many settlements and
burying them with silt. The mounds of Moenjodaro survived because they were
on slightly higher land and were protected by massive mud-brick walls and
platforms but many smaller sites were destroyed. Therefore extensive and
repeated flooding, combined with shifting rivers had a devastating effect to the
agricultural foundation and economic structure of the Indus cities. The refugees
were forced to develop new subsistence strategies or move to more stable
agricultural regions. In the absence of direct external forces we can attribute the
decline of the Indus cities to internal factors that over time undermined the
economic and political power of the ruling elites.

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No.1. Define and discuss the origin and developments of urbanization in
the Sub-continent.
Q. No.2. What do you know about early Bronze Age culture of the Sub-
continent?
Q. No.3. Discuss the cultural heritage of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Q. No.4. What do you know about the different stage of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Q. No.5. What do you understand by the terms i.e., Early Indus, Mature
Indus & Late Indus?
Q. No.6. Evaluate the cultural relics of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Q. No.7. Define the town planning and trade relation of Indus Valley
Civilization.
Q. No.8. Discuss the writing system and highlight religious belief of Indus
Valley Civilization.
Q. No.9. What do you know about the economy and trade relation of the
Indus Valley Civilization?

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No. 24, Department of Archaeology and Museums, Karachi.

Jansen, Michael. (1980). Settlement Patterns in the Harappa Culture, In South Asian
Archaeology 1979 Edi. by Herbert Hartel, Berlin.

Jarrige, J.F Quivran, G. and Jarrige, C. (2011) Nindowari, Pakistan. The Kulli Culture: its
Origins and Its Relations with the Indus Civilization. Paris: CNRS, Musee Guimet.

Jarrige, J.F. (1985) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan,
Pakistan) at the Beginning of the Second Millennium B.C. in, J. Schotosmans and
M. Taddei (eds), South Asian Archaeology 1983, Naples.

Kenoyer, J. M. and Meadow, R. H. (2000) The Ravi Phase: A New Cultural

Manifestation at Harappa, Pakistan. In, M. Taddei and G. De Marco, South Asian
Archaeology 1997, Rome.

Keoyer, J.M. Acient Cities of Indus Valley Civilization. (1998 ) Oxford University,
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Mackay, E. J. H. (1943) Chanhu -daro Excavations 1935, vol 20.American Oriental

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Mackay, Ernest J.H. (1938). Further Excavations at Moejodaro, New Delhi.

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and A. Uesugi (eds), Lirtstiistic3, Archaeology and Human Past.: Indus Project
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Marshall, Sir John. (1931) Moejodaro and the Indus Civilization, London.

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Moghal, Mohammad Rafique (1972) A Summary of Excavations and Explorations in
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Jalilpur, Archaeology, Vol.27 (2), New York.

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Nash, A. (1998) Rakhigarhi: A Harappan Metropolis in the Sarasvati- Drishadvati

Divide, New Delhi

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Rao, S. R. (1973) Lothal and the Indus Civilization. Bombay: Asia Publishing House,
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Saeed, Tahir (1998) Moenjodaro-Signpost of a Civilization, Karachi.

Shaikh, Nilofer (1997) Recent Explorations of Archaeological and Monuments of

Khairpur District. In

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UNIT. 5

ANCIENT ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN

SOUTH ASIA

Written by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

Reviewed by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 249

Objectives 250

5. Ancient Art and Architecture in South Asia 251

5.1 Ancient Art and Architecture 251

5.2 Vedic Art and Architecture 262
5.3 Jain Art and Architecture 274
5.4 Hindu Art and Architecture 282
5.5 Gandhara Civilization 291
5.6 Buddhist Art of Gandhara 307

Self Assessment Questions 314

Bibliography 315

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Introduction
The works of art which can be held in the hand have always been source of
fascination and pleasure to collectors, but they have often been neglected in
the brad study of the history of art and architecture, simply because of their
size. South Asia has every reason to be proud of the thousands of year’s old
and rich tradition of art and architecuture. Abrief recapitulation of the area
history appears necessary as an intrudction to the understanding of this
phenomina.

The earliest human art that has been found dates back into the Late Stone Age
during the Upper Paleolithic period around 70,000 BCE-40,000 BCE, when
the first creative works were made from shell, stone, and paint by Homo
sapiens, using symbolic thought. During the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000
BCE), humans practiced hunting and gathering and lived in caves, where cave
painting was developed. During the Neolithic period (10,000–3,000 BCE), the
production of handicrafts was started

The architecture of the Indus civilization is plain and utilitarian rather than
ornamental. There are no imposing temples as in Sumer, nor royal tombs as at
Ur and in Egypt. It seems that the aim of the city builders was to make life
comfortable rather than luxurious. The houses are well planned.

Similarly the various objects of art have been found in these ancient cities, is a
large number of burnt clay male and female figurines and models of animals
and birds. The female figurines wear short skirts round their loins, and are
profusely bedecked with jewellery and pannier-like arrangement on each side
of the head; some of the panniers are smoke-stained, and it is possible that oil,
or perhaps incense was burnt in them. The few male figurines are always nude
and mostly bearded, and they wear long hair at back. Both they and the female
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 figurines were modeled by hand and painted light red. The millennium
following the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, coinciding with the
Indo-Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of
anthropomorphically depictions.

Objectives: After details study of this unit, the student will be able to
understand the following;

 to origin of palaeolithic art and architecture of South Asia.

 to understand Bronze Age (Indus Valley civilization) art and architecture
 to trace the growth and development of Vedic period art and architecture
 to make aware students about the Jain period art and architectureof South
Asia
 to stimulate student’s interest in Hindu period art and architecture
 to examine analytically different stages of Gandhara Civilization
 to provide insight and in-depth understanding about Buddhist Art of
Gandhara

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5. Ancient Art and Architecture in South Asia

5.1 Ancient Art and Architecture

The word ‘Art’ has two meanings, one is general and the other is more specified.
In broad sense every skill which has been developed to its highest proficiency is
regarded as art, like the art of writing, art of horse-riding, art of speaking etc.
When it is applied to plastic arts or performing arts it is taken as specific forms
such as sculpture, paintings, architecture, music, poetry etc. The arts and its
different expressions are considered as mirror of a particular society or a culture.
Therefore, an activity which the aesthetic function develops into a firm tradition
has a way of expression that is known as ‘art’. The history of art presents as on
objects made by humans in visual form for aesthetic purposes. The visual art can
be classified in diverse ways, such as separating fine arts from applied arts;
inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media. The
history of art is often told as a chronology of masterpieces created during different
ages of civilizations.

The earliest human art that has been found dates back into the Late Stone Age
during the Upper Paleolithic period around 70,000 BCE-40,000 BCE, when the
first creative works were made from shell, stone, and paint by Homo sapiens,
using symbolic thought. During the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 BCE),
humans practiced hunting and gathering and lived in caves, where cave painting
was developed. During the Neolithic period (10,000–3,000 BCE), the production
of handicrafts was started.

The manifestation of creative capacity within these early societies exemplifies an

evolutionarily selective advantage for artistic individuals. Since survival is not
contingent on the production of art, art-producing individuals demonstrated

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agency over their environments in that they had spare time to create once their
essential duties, like hunting and gathering were completed.

The artistic manifestations of the Upper-Paleolithic reached their peak in the

Magdalenian period (±15,000–8,000 BC). This surge in creative outpourings is
known as the "Upper Paleolithic Revolution" or the "Creative Explosion".
Surviving art from this period includes small carvings in stone or bone and cave
painting. The first traces of human-made objects appeared in southern Africa, the
Western Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe (Adriatic Sea), Siberia
(Baikal Lake), India and Australia. These first traces are generally worked stone
(flint, obsidian), wood or bone tools. To paint in red, iron oxide was used. Color,
pattern, and visual likeness were components of Paleolithic art. Patterns used
included zig-zag, criss cross, and parallel lines.

The ancient cave paintings have been found in the Franco-Cantabrian region.
There are pictures that are abstract as well as pictures that are naturalistic. The
cave paintings were symbolically representative of activities that required learned
participants as they were used as teaching tools and showcase an increased need
for communication and specialized skills for early humans. Animals were painted in
the caves of Altamira, Trois Frères, Chauvet and Lascaux. A function of Paleolithic art
was magical, being used in rituals. Paleolithic artists were particular people, respected
in the community because their artworks were linked with religious beliefs. In this way,
artifacts were symbols of certain deities or spirits

The Neolithic painting is often schematic, made with basic strokes as; men in the
form of a cross and women in a triangular shape. There are also cave paintings in
Pinturas River in Argentina, especially the Cueva de las Manos. In portable art, a
style called Cardium pottery was produced, decorated with imprints of seashells.
New materials were used in art, such as amber, crystal, and jasper. In this period,

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the first traces of urban planning appeared, such as the remains in Tell as-Sultan
(Jericho), Jarmo (Iraq) and Çatalhöyük (Anatolia). In South-Eastern Europe
appeared many cultures, such as the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture (from Romania,
Republic of Moldova and Ukraine), and the Hamangia culture (from Romania and
Bulgaria). Other regions with many cultures are China, most notable being the
Yangshao culture and the Longshan culture; and Egypt, with the Badarian, the
Naqada I, II and III cultures.

However, the common materials of Neolithic sculptures from Anatolia are ivory,
stone, clay and bone. Besides, many are anthropomorphic, especially female,
zoomorphic ones being rare. Female figurines are both fat and slender, both
zoomorphic and anthropomorphic carvings have been discovered in Siberia,
Afghanistan, Pakistan and China.

The last prehistoric phase is the Bronze Age, during which the use of copper,
bronze and iron transformed ancient societies. When humans could smelt and
forge, metal implements could be used to make new tools, weapons and art.

In the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, megaliths emerged. Examples include the

dolmen, menhir and the English cromlech, as can be seen in the complexes at
Newgrange and Stonehenge. In Spain, the Los Millares culture, which was
characterized by the Beaker culture, was formed. In Malta, the temple complexes
consist of Ħaġar Qim, Mnajdra, Tarxien and Ġgantija were built. In the Balearic
Islands, notable megalithic cultures were developed, with different types of
monuments: the naveta, a tomb shaped like a truncated pyramid, with an
elongated burial chamber; the taula, two large stones, one put vertically and the
other horizontally above each other; and the talaiot, a tower with a covered
chamber and a false dome.

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In the Iron Age, the cultures in Austria and Switzerland emerged in Europe. The
former was developed between the 7th and 5th century BC, featured by the
necropolisis with tumular tombs and a wooden burial chamber in the form of a
house, often accompanied by a four-wheeled cart. The pottery was polychromic,
with geometric decorations and applications of metallic ornaments. La Tène was
developed between the 5th and 4th century BC, and is more popularly known as
early Celtic art. It produced many iron objects such as swords and spears.

The Bronze Age refers to the period when bronze was the best material available.
Bronze was used for highly decorated shields, fibulas, and other objects, with
different stages of evolution of the style. Decoration was influenced by Greek,
Etruscan and Scythian art.

In the first period of recorded history, art coincided with writing. The great
civilizations of the Near East: Egypt and Mesopotamia arose. Globally, during
this period the first great cities appeared near major rivers: the Nile, Tigris and
Euphrates, Indus and Yellow River.

One of the great advances of this period was writing, which was developed from
the tradition of communication using pictures. The first form of writing were the
Jiahu symbols from Neolithic China, but the first true writing was cuneiform
script, which emerged in Mesopotamia c. 3500 BCE, written on clay tablets. It
was based on pictographic and ideographic elements, while later Sumerians
developed syllables for writing, reflecting the phonology and syntax of the
Sumerian language. In Egypt hieroglyphic writing was developed using pictures
as well, appearing on art such as the Narmer Palette (3,100 BCE). The Indus
Valley Civilization sculpted seals with short texts and decorated with
representations of animals and people. Meanwhile, the Olmecs sculpted colossal

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heads and decorated other sculptures with their own hieroglyphs. In these times,
writing was accessible only for the elites.

The Mesopotamian art was developed in the area between Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers in modern-day Syria and Iraq, where since the 4th millennium BC many
different cultures existed such as Sumer, Akkad, Amorite and Chaldea.
Mesopotamian architecture was characterized by the use of bricks, lintels, and
cone mosaic. Notable examples are the ziggurats, large temples in the form of
step pyramids. The tomb was a chamber covered with a false dome, as in some
examples found at Ur. There were also palaces walled with a terrace in the form
of a ziggurat, where gardens were an important feature. The Hanging Gardens of
Babylon was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The relief sculpture was developed in wood and stone. The Sculpture depicted
religious, military, and hunting scenes, including both human and animal figures.
In the Sumerian period, small statues of people were produced. These statues had
an angular form and were produced from colored stone. The figures typically had
bald head with hands folded on the chest. In the Akkadian period, statues depicted
figures with long hair and beards, such as the stele of Naram-Sin. In the Amorite
period (or Neosumerian), statues represented kings from Gudea of Lagash, with
their mantles and a turbans on their heads, and their hands on their chests. During
Babylonian rule, the stele of Hammurabi was important, as it depicted the great
king Hammurabi above a written copy of the laws that he introduced. Assyrian
sculpture is notable for its anthropomorphism of cattle and the winged genie,
which is depicted flying in many reliefs depicting war and hunting scenes, such as
in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.

One of the first great civilizations arose in Egypt, which had elaborate and
complex works of art produced by professional artists and craftspeople. Egypt's

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art was religious and symbolic. Given that the culture had a highly centralized
power structure and hierarchy, a great deal of art was created to honour the
pharaoh, including great monuments. Egyptian art and culture emphasized the
religious concept of immortality. Later Egyptian art includes Coptic and
Byzantine art.

The architecture is characterized by monumental structures, built with large stone

blocks, lintels, and solid columns. Funerary monuments included mastaba, tombs
of rectangular form; pyramids, which included step pyramids (Saqqarah) or
smooth-sided pyramids (Giza); and the hypogeum, underground tombs (Valley of
the Kings). Other great buildings were the temple, which tended to be
monumental complexes preceded by an avenue of sphinxes and obelisks. Temples
used pylons and trapezoid walls with hypaethros and hypostyle halls and shrines.
The temples of Karnak, Luxor, Philae and Edfu are good examples. Another type
of temple is the rock temple, in the form of a hypogeum, found in Abu Simbel and
Deir el-Bahari.

The Egyptians painted the outline of the head and limbs in profile, while the torso,
hands, and eyes were painted from the front. Applied arts were developed in
Egypt, in particular woodwork and metalwork. There are superb examples such as
cedar furniture inlaid with ebony and ivory which can be seen in the tombs at the
Egyptian Museum. Other examples include the pieces found in Tutankhamun's
tomb, which are of great artistic value.

Discovered long after the contemporary civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt,

the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan civilization (Ca. 2400–1900 BCE) is
now recognized as extraordinary advanced, comparable in many ways with those
cultures. The various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and

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anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found
at excavation sites.

A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal
the presence of some dance form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears,
monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the
mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic
horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to
substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the
prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in
images of the civilization are religious symbols.

Realistic statuettes have been found in the site in the Indus Valley Civilization.
One of them is the famous bronze statuette of a slender-limbed Dancing Girl
adorned with bangles, found in Moenjodaro. Two other realistic statuettes have
been found in Harappa in proper stratified excavations, which display near-
Classical treatment of the human shape: the statuette of a dancer who seems to be
male, and a red jasper male torso, both now in the Delhi National Museum.

These statuettes remain controversial, due to their advanced techniques.

Regarding the red jasper torso, the discoverer, Vats, claims a Harappan date, but
Marshall considered this statuette is probably historical, dating to the Gupta
period, comparing it to the much later Lohanipur torso. A second rather similar
grey stone statuette of a dancing male was also found about 150 meters away in a
secure Mature Harappan stratum. Overall, anthropologist Gregory Possehl tends
to consider that these statuettes probably form the pinnacle of Indus art during the
Mature Harappan period.

Seals have been found at Moenjodaro depicting a figure standing on its head, and
another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose such as the so-
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called Pashupati. This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall
identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva. If this can be validated, it
would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the
Veda.

During the Chinese Bronze Age (the Shang and Zhou dynasties) court
intercessions and communication with the spirit world were conducted by a
shaman (possibly the king himself). In the Shang dynasty (Ca. 1600–1050 BCE),
the supreme deity was Shangdi, but aristocratic families preferred to contact the
spirits of their ancestors. They prepared elaborate banquets of food and drink for
them, heated and served in bronze ritual vessels. Bronze vessels were used in
religious rituals to cement Dhang authority, and when the Shang capital fell,
around 1050 BCE, its conquerors, the Zhou (Ca. 1050–156 BCE), continued to
use these containers in religious rituals, but principally for food rather than drink.
The Shang court had been accused of excessive drunkenness, and the Zhou,
promoting the imperial Tian ("Heaven") as the prime spiritual force, rather than
ancestors, limited wine in religious rites, in favour of food. The use of ritual
bronzes continued into the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 CE).

One of the most commonly used motifs was the taotie, a stylized face divided
centrally into 2 almost mirror-image halves, with nostrils, eyes, eyebrows, jaws,
cheeks and horns, surrounded by incised patterns. Whether taotie represented real,
mythological or wholly imaginary creatures cannot be determined.The enigmatic
bronzes of Sanxingdui, near Guanghan (in Sichuan province), are evidence for a
mysterious sacrificial religious system unlike anything elsewhere in ancient China
and quite different from the art of the contemporaneous Shang at Anyang.

Even in antiquity, the arts of Greece were recognized by other cultures as pre-
eminent. The Latin poet Horace, writing in the age of Roman emperor Augustus

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(1st century BC to 1st century AD), famously remarked that although conquered
on the battlefield, "captive Greece overcame its savage conqueror and brought the
arts to rustic Rome." The power of Greek art lies in its representation of the
human figure and its focus on human beings and the anthropomorphic gods as
chief subjects. During the Classical period (5th-4thcenturies BCE), realism and
idealism were delicately balanced. In comparison, work of the earlier Geometric
(9th- to 8thcenturies BCE) and Archaic (7th-6thcenturies BCE) ages sometimes
appears primitive, but these artists had different goals: naturalistic representation
was not necessarily their aim. Roman art lover collected ancient Greek originals,
Roman replicas of Greek art, or newly created paintings and sculptures fashioned
in a variety of Greek styles, thus preserving for posterity works of art otherwise
lost. Wall and panel paintings, sculptures and mosaics decorated public spaces
and well-to-do private homes. Greek imagery also appeared on Roman jewellery,
vessels of gold, silver, bronze and terracotta, and even on weapons and
commercial weights. Since the Renaissance, the arts of ancient Greece,
transmitted through the Roman Empire, have served as the foundation of Western
art. The Greek and Etruscan artists built on the artistic foundations of Egypt,
further developing the arts of sculpture, painting, architecture, and ceramics.
Greek art started as smaller as and simpler than Egyptian art, and the influence of
Egyptian art on the Greeks started in the Cycladic islands between 3300 and 3200
BCE.

The Achaemenid art includes frieze reliefs, metalwork, decoration of palaces,

glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and
gardening. Most survivals of court art are monumental sculpture, above all the
reliefs, double animal-headed Persian column capitals and other sculptures of
Persepolis.

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Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all
corners of their empire, they produced not simply a combination of styles, but a
synthesis of a new unique Persian style. Cyrus the Great in fact had an extensive
ancient Iranian heritage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which
inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Medes, was for instance in
the tradition of earlier sites.There are a number of very fine pieces of jewellery or
inlay in precious metal, also mostly featuring animals, and the Oxus Treasure has
a wide selection of types. Small pieces, typically in gold, were sown to clothing
by the elite, and a number of gold items have survived.

The Roman art is sometimes viewed as derived from Greek precedents, but also
has its own distinguishing features. Roman sculpture is often less idealized than
the Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often used
concrete, and features such as the round arch and dome were invented. Luxury
objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes
considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art, although this would
not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries.

Roman artwork was influenced by the nation-state's interaction with other

people's, such as ancient Judea. A major monument is the Arch of Titus, which
was erected by the Emperor Titus. Scenes of Romans looting the Jewish temple in
Jerusalem are depicted in low-relief sculptures around the arch's perimeter. The
ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine
wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste,
and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an
affordable price. The Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and
have survived in enormous numbers.

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The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast
area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic
remains of the region show a remarkable combination of influences that
exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society.

From the late second millennium BC until very recently, the grasslands of Central
Asia – stretching from the Caspian Sea to central China and from southern Russia
to northern India – have been home to migrating herders who practised mixed
economies on the margins of sedentary societies. The prehistoric 'animal style' art
of these pastoral nomads not only demonstrates their zoomorphic mythologies and
shamanic traditions but also their fluidity in incorporating the symbols of
sedentary society into their own artworks.Central Asia has always been a
crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called Silk Road – that complex
system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the
Bronze Age (3rd and 2nd millennium BCE), growing settlements formed part of
an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to the Indus Valley,
Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including architecture, painting,

sculpture, pottery, and textile arts such as woven silk etc. Geographically, it spans
the entire Indian subcontinent, including what are now called as; India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and eastern Afghanistan. A strong sense of
design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and
traditional forms.The origin of Indian art can be traced to pre-historic settlements
in the 3rd millennium BCE. On its way to modern times, Indian art has had
cultural influences, as well as religious influences such as Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, Sikhism and Islam. In spite of this complex mixture of religious
traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been
shared by the major religious groups.
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In historic art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the
Indian climate better than other media and provides most of the best remains.
Many of the most important ancient finds that are not in carved stone come from
the surrounding, drier regions rather than India itself. Indian funeral and
philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the main source of ancient
art in other cultures.

Indian artist styles historically followed Indian religions out of the subcontinent,
having an especially large influence in Tibet, South East Asia and China. Indian
art has itself received influences at times, especially from Central Asia and Iran,
and Europe.

Rock art of India includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings, some
(but by no means all) from the South Asian Stone Age. It is estimated there are
about 1300 rock art sites with over a quarter of a million figures and figurines.
The earliest rock carvings in India were discovered by Archibald Carlleyle,
twelve years before the Cave of Altamira in Spain, although his work only came
to light much later via J Cockburn (1899). Similarly, Dr. V. S. Wakankar
discovered several painted rock shelters in Central India, situated around the
Vindhya mountain range. Of these, the c. 750 sites making up the Bhimbetka rock
shelters have been enrolled as a UNESCO World Heritage Site; the earliest
paintings are some 10,000 years old. The paintings in these sites commonly
depicted scenes of human life alongside animals, and hunts with stone
implements. Their style varied with region and age, but the most common
characteristic was a red wash made using a powdered mineral called geru, which
is a form of Iron Oxide (Hematite).

5.2 Vedic Art and Architecture

Hinduism is one of the oldest regions which have passed through various
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evolutionary stages before it attained its present form. The Vedas and the Vedic
religion are considered to be the basis of Hinduism and Hindu civilization but, it
is striking that these books contain references to earlier cultures and religious
practices. It is believed that from the prehistoric times, man has sought to
worship powers of nature or symbols representing those powers or idols reflecting
those symbols. Besides, the primitive man’s idea of God always tended to be
anthropomorphic. The heavenly bodies were also worshipped by the ancient
Greeks. For instance, the sun god was represented by Apollo; the moon god was
represented by Selene. Similarly, in the Indus Valley Civilization of South Asia,
there is indirect evidence that worship of heavenly bodies such as sun and other
planets was in vague. The religious practices followed by the people of Indus
Valley have a great bearing on Hinduism. According to some scholars the religion
of Indus people was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.

A number of cults prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilization are shared by

Hinduism. For instance, apart from Mother Goddess, there is a male god which is
a proto-type of Hindu “Shiva”. The various forces of nature having been
personified as gods and goddesses were namely; Fire (Agni) on earth, wind
(Indra) in the air and sun (Surya) in the heavens. The Vedic deities; Agni, Indra
and Surya, however lost their importance in the crowd of deities introduced by the
Puranas as Brahmanical religion. Thus emerged the Puranic Triad; Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva. By the time the art of sculptures stepped into give these
conceptions Lithic form. Brahma had almost forfeited his claims to worship
through the growth of an immoral charge against him. Further Vishnu and Shiva
were practically the masters of the field. Their only powerful competitor was the
old sun god, Vishnu. But since this historic phase began the sun god has been
ousted from the field his worship is no longer an active cult. Vishnu and Shiva in

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their various forms together with their wives, children, vehicles, incarnations etc.
now share among themselves the worship of the Brahmanical population of India.

There is no recorded evidence of the use of image worship in the Vedic times.
The image worship seems to be a contribution of non-Vedic cultural trends, as it
is observed from the presence of a number of images found from the Indus Valley
Civilization. Further later on the Mahayana School of Buddhism enriched the
Hindu image worship. The worship of different sects in Hinduism, which like so
many small streams move together to meet god, who is like the ocean. However,
the chief aim of the images or art work is the expression of ‘bhava’ or emotion
rather anatomic precision. The Hindus place images of gods or abstract symbols
on shrines in their homes, for the purpose of worship and the temples dedicated to
certain gods/goddess like Shiva, Vishnu, Kali etc. are built to shrine these Hindu
religious art pieces.

Early Vedic Period (Ca.1500-1000 BCE)

The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and
Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices
(akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as
mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive.
Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many
interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect
the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas
and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent
before the Vedic Aryans. Likwise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges
Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, a difference
also noted by Samuel.

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Accounts of military conflicts inbetween the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are
also described in the Rigveda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of
Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day
Ravi). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas,
against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions
of the river Saraswati, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the
lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in
the region of Punjab. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for
the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the
embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.
Purukutsa, the chief of the Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the
Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war.

Later Vedic period (Ca. 1000 – 600 BCE)

After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic
society, which is associated with the Kuru-Pancala region but were not the only
Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to
settled agriculture in north-western India.[40] Possession of horses remained an
important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle,
resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses
needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains
had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover.
After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the
jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their
settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the old
tribes coalesced to form larger political units.

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The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom,
systematizing its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual. It is associated
with the Painted Grey Ware culture (Ca.1200-600 BCE), which did not expand east of
the Ganga-Yamnuya Doab. It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture
of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished
Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha.

In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in
this stage of Indian history were a "hierarchical order of estates which reflected a
division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were
four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders
were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the
indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal,
and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and the Vedic era
texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras important to later Hindu
culture were completed.

Modern replica of utensils and falcon shaped altar used for Agnicayana, an elaborate
Śrauta ritual originating from the Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.The Kuru
Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined
several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and
transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Śrauta
rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the
king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant
political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.

The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were
the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated
horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen

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band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had
to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This
sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period
saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of varna, the division
of Vedic society in Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic Salva tribe, and the
political centre of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the
Ganges, under King Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE).
Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a
political centre farther to the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and
southeastern Nepal, reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court
provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya,
Uddalaka Aruni, and Gargi Vachaknavi; Panchala also remained prominent
during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali.

The Vedic religion due to the process of assimilation and absorbed some of the
pre-Vedic cults. The Puranas and Brahmanas also brought some new concepts.
The Buddhism in the Mahayana sect encouraged the worship in the Hindu
pantheon. Further, with the downfall of the Mauryans and emergence of Gupta
who rule from 350-650 CE, the Hinduism was revived. The object of worship
began to assume a visible form usually an image. This necessitated a covered
edifice, where the deity could be installed and worshipped. In consequence, the
structure that so came into being was in fact the Hindu Temple. The Shastras, the
ancient texts on architecture classify temples into three different orders such as;
the Nagara or Northern style, the Dravida or southern style and Vasara or hybrid
style which is seen in the Deccan between the two main styles. It is generally
believed that the temples of Hindu architecture have got a distinct style of
architecture having been influenced by the architectural traditions of Gandhara
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and Hellenism. All the temples were constructed between 8-10th centuries when
the region was ruled by Hindu-Shahi dynasty.

The Expressions in Art Form

The millennium following the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization,

coinciding with the Indo-Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of
anthropomorphically depictions. It has been suggested that the early Vedic
religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature
by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to
anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the
Copper Hoard Culture (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting
anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact
signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which
they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract
pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the
Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including
the area of Mathura.

After a gap of about a thousand years, most of the early finds correspond to what
is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium
BCE. The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started in the
middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of the influx of
foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and
the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism, such as Buddhism, Jainism
and local popular cults.

The north Indian Maurya Empire flourished from 322 BCE to 185 BCE and at its
maximum extent controlled all of the sub-continent except the extreme south as

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well as influences from Indian ancient traditions, and Ancient Persia, as shown by
the Pataliputra capital.

The emperor Ashoka, who died in 232 BCE, adopted Buddhism about half-way
through his 40-year reign, and patronized several large stupas at key sites from the
life of the Buddha, although very little decoration from the Mauryan period
survives, and there may not have been much in the first place. There is more from
various early sites of Indian rock-cut architecture.

The most famous survivals are the large animals surmounting several of the
Pillars of Ashoka, which showed a confident and boldly mature style and craft
and first of its kind iron casting without rust until date, which was in use by vedic
people in rural areas of the country, though we have very few remains showing its
development. The famous detached Lion Capital of Ashoka, with four animals,
was adopted as the official Emblem of India after Indian independence. Mauryan
sculpture and architecture is characterized by a very fine Mauryan polish given to
the stone, which is rarely found in later periods.Many small popular terracotta
figurines are recovered in archaeology, in a range of often vigorous if somewhat
crude styles. Both animals and human figures, usually females presumed to be
deities, are found.

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of north Indian art for all
the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, and
survives in the Ajanta Caves, the surviving works are almost all religious
sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu
art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, these last often on a
very large scale. The main centres of sculpture were Mathura Sarnath, and
Gandhara, the last the centre of Greco-Buddhist art.The Gupta period marked the

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"golden age" of classical Hinduism, and saw the earliest constructed Hindu
temple architecture, though survivals are not numerous.

The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout
many thousands of years - there are multiple locations found with prehistoric art.
The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the
use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has
continued in some areas into historic times. The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are
on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone
outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and
decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction
with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this day.

The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical period have been preserved in the
Ajanta Caves with Cave 10 having some from the 1st century CE, though the
larger and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic
conditions that tend to work against the survival of older paintings, in total there
are known more than 20 locations in India with paintings and traces of former
paintings of ancient and early medieval times (up to the 8th to 10th centuries CE),
although these are just a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most
significant frescoes of the ancient and early medieval period are found in the
Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal caves, the last being Jain of the 7th-10th
centuries. Although many show evidence of being by artists mainly used to
decorating palaces, no early secular wall-paintings survive.

The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory
passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, and are the first
Chola specimens discovered. Researchers have discovered the technique used in
these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones,

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which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings
were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period the Chola
paintings were painted over. The Chola frescoes lying underneath have an ardent
spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the
completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Great.

In 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms,
commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances
became easy to access. Anga, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the
door step of modern-day West Bengal), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic
culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south
of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The
Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The
newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.

The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political
changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra
texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of
Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of
outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks. Meanwhile, in
the Kosala-Magadha region, the shramana movements (including Jainism and
Buddhism) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding
Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst, the
sramana culture arose in "Greater Magadha," which was Indo-European, but not
Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it
rejected Vedic authority and rituals.

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and

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Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra–Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga
and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), and
Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi, and Aditi (the
mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati,
were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The
relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the
sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two.Archaeological
cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware
culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.

Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found during 1950-1951, in western Uttar
Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was
prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition
between the Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture. This
pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium
fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery
was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of
water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery
was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,
and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north
and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does however seem to exist within
different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in
areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being
heavily associated with the culture.

The Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the
Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These
cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and “mortuary practice”, such as
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inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages:
the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which
urn burials and cremations are added, and the “surface” level, in which graves are
covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these
graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging
out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head
facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons
were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery is greatly important to
this culture, as pottery was often used as a “grave good”, being buried with the
bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots
on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within
this culture we typically see 2 kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.

Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer
Wheeler. The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside
surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends
to fall into 2 categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most of these pieces
of pottery were open mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on
one side, however, jars, pots, and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small
quantities. Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread
during the Neolithic period and continue until the early medieval period in India, as
well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the
process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or
a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing. One researcher however learned that
these 2 theories are quite possibly misguided, as they were able to recreate black and
red ware pottery through double firing, one stating “the characteristic coloration of the
pottery cannot merely be achieved by inverted firing”.

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Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a
group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna
Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the
beginning of the Vedic period. It’s also thought that the groups that introduced the
painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic
plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron age.
The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture,
ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular
patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost
exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have 3 different forms: narrow-waisted,
tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with
outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the
establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has
only made up 10-15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware,
as grey ware pottery was seen as a “highly valued luxury”.

5.3 Jain Art and Architecture

Jain art refers to religious works of art associated with Jainism. Even though
Jainism spread only in some parts of India, it has made a significant contribution
to Indian art and architecture. The Jain art broadly follows the contemporary style
of Indian Buddhist and Hindu art, though the iconography, and the functional
layout of temple buildings, reflects specific Jain needs. The artists and craftsmen
producing most Jain art were probably not themselves Jain, but from local
workshops patronized by all religions. This may not have been the case for
illustrated manuscripts, where many of the oldest Indian survivals are Jain.

Jains mainly depict tirthankara or other important people in a seated or standing

meditative posture, sometimes on a very large scale. Yaksa and yaksini, attendant

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spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them.

A tirthankara or Jina is represented either seated in lotus position (Padmasana) or

standing in the meditation Khadgasana (Kayotsarga) posture. This latter, which is
similar to the military standing at attention is a difficult posture to hold for a long
period, and has the attraction to Jains that it reduces to the minimum the amount
of the body in contact with the earth, and so posing a risk to the sentient creatures
living in or on it. If seated, they are usually depicted seated with their legs crossed
in front, the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee of the other, and the right
hand lying over the left in the lap.

Tirthanakar images do not have distinctive facial features, clothing or (mostly)

hair-styles, and are differentiated on the basis of the symbol or emblem
(Lanchhana) belonging to each tirthanakar except Parshvanatha. Statues of
Parshvanath have a snake crown on the head. The first Tirthankara Rishabha can
be identified by the locks of hair falling on his shoulders. Sometimes
Suparshvanath is shown with a small snake-hood. The symbols are marked in the
centre or in the corner of the pedestal of the statue. The sects of Jainism
Digambara and Svetambara have different depictions of idols. Digambara images
are naked without any ornamentation, whereas Svetambara ones may be clothed
and in worship may be decorated with temporary ornaments. The images are often
marked with Srivatsa on the chest and Tilaka on the forehead. Srivatsa is one of
the ashtamangala (auspicious symbols). It can look somewhat like a fleur-de-lis,
an endless knot, a flower or diamond-shaped symbol.

The bodies of tirthanakar statues are exceptionally consistent throughout the over
2,000 years of the historical record. The bodies are rather slight, with very wide
shoulders and a narrow waist. Even more than is usual in Indian sculpture, the
depiction takes relatively little interest in the accurate depiction of the underlying

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musculature and bones, but is interested in the modelling of the outer surfaces as
broad swelling forms. The ears are extremely elongated, suggesting the heavy
earrings the figures wore in their early lives before they took the path to
enlightenment, when most were wealthy if not royal.

Sculptures with four tirthanakars, or their heads, facing in four directions, are not
uncommon in early sculpture, but unlike the comparable Hindu images, these
represent four different tirthanakars, not four aspects of the same deity. Multiple
extra arms are avoided in tirthanakar images, though their attendants or guardians
may have them.

Like Buddhists, Jains participated in Indian rock-cut architecture from a very early
date. Remnants of ancient jaina temples and monasteries temples can be found all
around India, and much early Jain sculpture is reliefs in these. Ellora Caves in
Maharashtra and the Jain temples at Dilwara near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. The Jain
tower in Chittor, Rajasthan is a good example of Jain architecture.

Modern and medieval Jains built many Jain temples, especially in western India.
In particular the complex of five Dilwara Temples of the 11th to 13th centuries at
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a much-visited attraction. The Jain pilgrimage in
Shatrunjay hills near Patilana, Gujarat is called "The city of Temples". Both of
these complexes use the style of Solanki or Māru-Gurjara architecture, which
developed in west India in the 10th century in both Hindu and Jain temples, but
became especially popular with Jain patrons, who kept it in use and spread it to
some other parts of India. It continues to be used in Jain temples, now across the
world, and has recently revived in popularity for Hindu temples.

A Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of
Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and
secular Jain buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time
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they were built. Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern
Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used
in South India. Its historical use in North India is preserved in the names of the
Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word is vasati,
it implies an institution including residences of scholars attached to the shrine.

Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated temple
buildings, normally with a high superstructure, typically a north Indian shikhara
tower above the shrine) and the Ghar Jain temple, a private Jain house shrine. A
Jain temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is often termed a Tirtha.The
main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula nayak. A Manastambha (column
of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four
'Moortis' i.e. stone figures of the main god of that temple. One facing each
direction: North, East, South and West.

Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation bear similarity to jaina
images, nude and in a meditative posture. The Lohanipur torso is the earliest
known jaina image (presumed to be Jain because of the nudity and posture), and
is now in the Patna Museum. It is also one of the earliest Indian monumental
sculptures in stone of a human, if the dating to the 3rd century BCE is correct; it
might be from about the 2nd century CE. Bronze images of the 23rd tirthankara,
Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna
Museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE. The carved Kankali Tila
architrave with centaurs worshipping a Jain Stupa, is Mathura art, of circa 100
BCE, showing Hellenistic influence.

The early Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, are a number of finely and ornately
carved caves built during 2nd-century BCE excavated by King Kharavela of
Mahameghavahana dynasty. Chitharal Jain Monuments is the earliest Jain

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monument in the southernmost part of India dating back to first century BCE. The
Chausa hoard is the oldest of group of bronzes to be found in India. The bronzes
have varied dates, from between the Shunga and the Gupta periods, from
(possibly) the 2nd century BCE to the 6th Century CE.

The Badami cave temples and the constructed Aihole Jain monuments were built
by Chalukya rulers in the 7th century, and the Jain parts of the Ellora Caves date
from around this period. The earliest of the large group of Jain temples at
Deogarh were begun, and in general the excavation of new rock-cut sites ceased
in this period, as it also did in the other two main religions. Instead stone-built
temples were erected.

Ayagapata is a type of votive slab associated with worship in Jainism. Numerous

such stone tablets discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali
Tila near Mathura in India. Some of them date back to 1st century CE. These
slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the
stupa, dharmacakra and triratna.

A large number of ayagapata (tablet of homage), votive tablets for offerings and
the worship of tirthankara, were found at Mathura. The sculpture seems to have
been part of Jain tradition since the last centuries BCE, but probably was mostly
in wood, which has not survived. The earlier known examples of Jain sculpture
are stone architraves of the 1st century BCE, found in the Art of Mathura,
particularly from the Jain mound of Kankali Tila.

Perhaps the most famous single Jain work of art is the Gommateshvara statue, a
monolithic, 18 meter statue of Bahubali, built by the Ganga minister and
commander Chavundaraya around 983. It is situated on a hilltop in
Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state. This statue was voted
as the first of the Seven Wonders of India.
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Smaller bronze images were probably for shrines in homes. A number of
medieval collections of these have been excavated, probably deposited when
populations fled from wars. These include the Vasantgarh hoard (1956, 240
pieces), Akota Bronzes (1951, 68 pieces, to 12th century), Hansi hoard (1982, 58
pieces, to 9th century), and the Chausa hoard (18 pieces, to 6th century).

Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which

are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara. The
Jivantasvami images represent Lord Mahavira (and in some cases other
Tirthankaras) as a prince, with a crown and ornaments. The Jina is represented as
standing in the kayotsarga pose.

A monolithic manastambha is a standard feature in the Jain temples of Mudabidri.

They include a statue of Brahmadeva on the top as a guardian yaksha. The 58-feet
tall monolithic Jain statue of Bahubali is located on Vindhyagiri Hill,
Shravanabelagola built in 983 CEwas the largest free standing monolithic statue
until 2016, 108 feet monolithic idol Statue of Ahimsa(statue of first Jain
tirthankar, Rishabhanatha) was erected at Mangi-tungi.

Jain temples and monasteries had mural paintings from at least 2,000 years ago,
though pre-medieval survivals are rare. In addition, many Jain manuscripts were
illustrated with paintings, sometimes lavishly so. In both these cases, Jain art
parallels Hindu art, but the Jain examples are more numerous among the earliest
survivals. The manuscripts begin around the 11th century, but are mostly from the
13th onwards, and were made in the Gujarat region. By the 15th-century they
were becoming increasingly lavish, with much use of gold.

The swastika is an important Jain symbol. Its four arms symbolise the four realms
of existence in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly
beings, hellish beings and non-humans (plants and animals). This is conceptually
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similar to the six realms of rebirth represented by bhavachakra in Buddhism. It is
usually shown with three dots on the top, which represent the three jewels
mentioned in ancient texts such as Tattvartha sūtra and Uttaradhyayana sūtra:
correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct. These jewels are the
means believed in Jainism to lead one to the state of spiritual perfection, a state
that is symbolically represented by a crescent and one dot on top representing the
liberated soul.

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsā in Jainism with ahiṃsā
written in the middle. The wheel represents the dharmachakra (Wheel of the
Dharma), which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra (wandering) through the
relentless pursuit of ahimsā (compassion). In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of
the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose one image as an emblem to be
the main identifying symbol for Jainism. The overall shape depicts the three loka
(realms of rebirth) of Jain cosmology i.e., heaven, human world and hell. The
semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila, which is a zone beyond the
three realms. The Jain swastika is present in the top portion and the symbol of
Ahiṃsā in the lower portion. At the bottom of the emblem is the Jain mantra,
Parasparopagraho Jīvānām. According to Vilas Sangave, the mantra means "all
life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence". According to
Anne Vallely, this mantra is from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, and it
means "souls render service to one another".

The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five
vows, small as well as great: The Ashtamangala is a set of eight auspicious
symbols, which are different in the Digambara and Śvētāmbar traditions. In the
Digambara tradition, the eight auspicious symbols are Chatra, Dhvaja, Kalasha,
Fly-whisk, Mirror, Chair, Hand fan and Vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, these

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are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel), Bhadrasana
(seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish.

The Jains left their imprints in some of the areas now comprising on Pakistan. The
existence of Jain temples at Jandial and Sirkap at Taxila are well known. At Katas
and Murti in Chakwal district some objects pertaining to Jains art were discovered
by A. Stein. The accounts are based on relevant Archaeological Reports. Before
the creation of Pakistan, a large number of Jains were living in Maujgarh, Phulra,
Derawar and Bahawalpur in Punjab. A few stone columns and pedestals
belonging to Jain temples are in the different museums of Pakistan. However the
main concentration of Jain temples is in Tharparkar district in Sindh where Jains
temples are found in abundance. These are mostly located in Parinnagar,
Nagarparkar, Viravah, Bodhesar etc. In Parinagar, there are remains of five or six
temples constructed in white marble. Nagarparkar is well known for its beautiful
Jain temples in Karonjhar Mountains close to the city of Nagarparkar.

The Jain temples follow in their architectural treatment almost the same principles
as the Hindus temples. The general character of Jain architecture has been quite
similar in style to that of the Buddhist and Hindus of the same period. As such
there is no distinct Jain architecture. However, certain adjustments are made so as
to meet the requirements of the Jain rituals, for instance the Jains preferred
enclosed compartments instead of open columned cell, thus ensuring more
isolation for their religious ceremonies.

In Jain temples the embellishment is only confined to the interior its façade being
generally left plain. It was the custom of Jains to build their fanes on the summit
of the mountains which are regarded as sacred and worshipped as deities. In view
of the considerable aggregation of religious buildings on the mountains these
places are called “temple cities”. The principle cities where Jain temples have

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been constructed include Kathiawar, Jodhpur, Mewar, Mount abu in Rajutana. In
the realm of art it left very impressive and extensive evidence of the intricacies of
its iconographic trends.

Further on the architectural side, there was a remarkable contribution made by

Jains. These Jain architectural elements show highly monumentality, graceful and
grandeur. For instance in Tharparkar, the Jain temples are modest; each temple
having its own individually character, some of these represent Nagara style of
architecture and Dravidian style. The significant Jain architectural examples are;
Jain temple at Gori, Jain temple at Viravah, three temples at Bodhesar, Jain
temple at Nagarparkar etc.

5.4 Hindu Art and Architecture

The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization some 5,000
years ago, where small stone carvings and bronze castings have been discovered.
Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism developed further, India produced
some of the most intricate bronzes in the world, as well as unrivaled temple
carvings, some in huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora.The Ajanta Caves in
Maharashtra, India are rock-cut cave monuments dating back to the second
century BCE and containing paintings and sculpture considered to be
masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art and universal pictorial art.

Indian architecture encompasses a wide variety of geographically and historically

spread structures, and was transformed by the history of the Indian subcontinent. The
result is an evolving range of architectural production that, although it is difficult to
identify a single representative style, nonetheless retains a certain amount of
continuity across history. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its
architecture. It is a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types,

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forms and technologies from West and Central Asia, as well as Europe. Architectural
styles range from Hindu temple architecture to Islamic architecture to western
classical architecture to modern and post-modern architecture.

India's Urban Civilization is traceable originally to Mohenjodaro and Harappa,

now in Pakistan. From then on, Indian architecture and civil engineering
continued to develop, manifesting in temples, palaces and forts across the Indian
subcontinent and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was
known as sthapatya-kala, literally "the art of constructing"

Indian rock-cut architecture provides the earliest complete survivals of Buddhist,

Jain and Hindu temples. The temples of Aihole and Pattadakal are well-known
early examples of Hindu temple architecture, when the temple was taking on its
final form. This was more or less set out in the Sulbasutras, appendices to the
Vedas giving rules for constructing altars, with detailed geometrical and ritual
requirements. "They contained quite an amount of geometrical knowledge, but the
mathematics was being developed, not for its own sake, but purely for practical
religious purposes." Nonetheless, there is great variety in the details and
decoration of regional and period styles, for example in Hoysala architecture,
Vijayanagara architecture and Western Chalukya architecture.

During the Mauryan Empire and Kushan Empire, Indian architecture and civil
engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha
were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan,
Afghanistan. Over a period of time, the ancient Indian art of construction blended
with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia.

The rule of the Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates and Mughal Empire led to the
development of Indo-Islamic architecture, a style that combined Islamic
influences with traditional Indian styles.During the British Raj, a new style of
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architecture known as the Indo-Saracenic revival style developed, this
incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the British style. The
Churches and convents of Goa which is cast in the Indian Baroque Architectural
style under the orientation of the most eminent architects of the time. It is a prime
example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European
architectural styles

Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many
varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same,
with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber,
where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell.
Around this chamber there are often other structures and buildings, in the largest
cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a
tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often
includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama, a mandapa congregation
hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and
mandapa. There may further mandapas or other buildings, connected or detached,
in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound.

Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma,

beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a
place for Tirtha—pilgrimage. All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate
life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from
images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to
artha, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal
nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture. The form
and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function
as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress
to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.
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The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa
Shastras and Vastu Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic
independence to its temple builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised
considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect
geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the
Hindu way of life.

Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century
BC from the Oc Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were
probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temples were constructed
using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond. The cultural
sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest
evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the
mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in
Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-
century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several
national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada
Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia, except Malaysia and
Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.

Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly
based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles.
However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is
no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian
temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned
from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but
never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative
interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative
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and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian
thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the
Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler
(devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much
as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple
architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java,
Indonesia (9th century), and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century)

A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square

grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares.
Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built
around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected. A temple, states
Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts
mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like an "organism of
repeating cells". The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured
spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and
celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit
of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma
(virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).

At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the
deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa,
the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present
everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple
is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger
the process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to
the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies
to reflect this spiritual spectrum.

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The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and
gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are
heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious
places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the
places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.

While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers),

river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples
may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they
recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with
water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is
symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also
be built, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views,
mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next
to gardens, or at the head of a town street.

In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town. Some sites such as
the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of
sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the
surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often these are the best-
preserved examples of older styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram are examples.

The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their
knowledge and craft traditions were originally preserved by the oral tradition,
later with palm-leaf manuscripts. The building tradition was typically transmitted
within families from one generation to the next, and this knowledge was jealously
guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard
wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made charitable

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donations as evidenced by inscriptions.[ The guilds covered almost every aspect
of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of
construction, which in the case of large projects might be several years.

The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction

superintendent was equal in his authority. Other important members were
stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who collaborated to complete a
temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple
building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing. Hindu texts are
inconsistent about which caste did the construction work, with some texts
accepting all castes to work as a shilpin. The Brahmins were the experts in art
theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed consecration
rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum.

In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th
century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the
considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs.
Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized
and the demand for econometric consistency increased. This "presumably
reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the
"increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins" on suitable forms of
sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in a temple project was
not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form
through a temple, for the most part anonymously.

The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology,
spiritual ideas, and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by
regional availability of raw materials and the local climate. Some materials of
construction were imported from distant regions, but much of the temple was built

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from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in south Karnataka, the
local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural
styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks. In other places, artists cut
granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed
artists to carve cave temples or a region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic
rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were unavailable,
innovations in brick temples flourished.

Hindu Temples in Pakistan

A large number of specimens of Hindu art and architecture are found in the
different areas of Pakistan. The structural remains of one of the Hindu temples
were found during excavations at Banbhore, Sindh. In pre-Muslim period at the
site, a building was recovered which was a Shiva temple due to discovery of two
lingas. The fragments of Vishnu image were also reported. At Sewistan (Sehwan)
in Sindh the existence of a big temple dedicated to Shiva is reported by the later
historians as well. A brass image of Brahma was discovered from Mirpurkhas
which is one of the finest metal sculptures ever discovered anywhere in the sub-
continent. At Brahmanabad (Mansura) several fragments of Hindu stone images
were discovered. A marble frame in relief found from a Shiva temple at
Nagarparkar is a fine specimen of plastic art. In Karachi, the Daryalal temple at
Manora and Swami Narayan temple (M.A Jinnah Road) are very famous. It is
presumed that the cults of Shiva and Vishnu were popular in Sindh from early
historical period. However, the most widely followed cult amongst the Hindus
was the cult of trinity. It consist of the worship of the male-god Shiva, the mother
goddess (Shakti) and their son Ganesh.

In Balochistan the oldest Hindu shrines are located at Hinglaj, Lasbela and
Haptalar, district Makran. The other important architectural specimens include;

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Kali temple at Kalat, sacred place known as Harisar pool, Shobro near Khuzdar
and Gandava. Besides, the temple at Sonmiani contains Lingas and Yunies which
is called as Shiva temple.

In the political history of the area, a new change take place when the Kushans
were over thrown by the advance of Sassanids. Thereafter due to incursion of
Huns and other invaders the area remained a hot bed of rivalries. The Turk Shahi
emerged as victorious and they ruled over the region for nearly two centuries
form 666 to 843 CE. The Turk Sahis were replaced by Hindu Sahis, who held
their sway over the area from 843 to 1026 CE. The Hindu Shahis were definitely
Sivites. In the Gandhara art we can found many elements of Hinduism. For
instance the depiction of Shiva images in a number of Gandhara art. A number of
Rock Carvings depict temples, crowned with sikhara (temple spire) and trisula
(trident). Besides, some depiction of Brahmanic gods likes Brahmana
Lakshamana Paramesvara i.e Shiva. Shivaism seemed to be the dominant cult in
the region as the tribula engravings are found comparatively in large number of
rock carvings in Gilgit-Baltistan. During the excavations at Kashmir Smast, a
large number of Hindu objects found. Beside a large number of Hindu sculptures
of art, there are found a large number of standing temples which are worth
mentioning. However, the most outstanding surviving Hindu temples constructed
during the reign of Hindu Shahi period are at Kafirkot North (7th -8th Century CE)
and Kafirkot South (9th-10th Century CE) near Balot in Dera Ismail Khan.

In Punjab, the city of Lahore was a city totally inhabited by Hindus in 10th and
11th century, while its history can be trace back to Vedic times ranging from 1500
BC to 1000 BCE. . It was founded by Loh son of Ramachandra, legendry hero of
Ramayana. The large number of cultural material pertaining to Hindu art has been
discovered at a number of sites in the province. The important sites from where
the Hindu sculptures have been discovered includes; Mian Ali Faqiran, district
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Sheikhupura, Tulumba, district Khanewal, Son-sakesar, district Khushab, rokhri,
district Mianwali, Pattan Minara, Rahim Yar Khan, Taxila district Rawalpindi etc.

Besides there are a great number of Hindu architectural specimens as well which
are spread all over the region. The most striking examples of the Hindu
architecture are located in various places in Salt Range such as; Malot, Kallar,
Katas, Amb, Nandana etc. However, the district of Chakwal is extremely rich in
the antiquarian remains of Hindu Shahi period as well as the Hindu architecture.
There was a Hindu temple known as Shiv Ganga at Malkana, which is about 5
kilometer in north-east of Malot. There are remains of Kathwai near Pind Dadan
Khan. Then there is a cluster of Hindu temples in a small city of Bhaun, district
Chakwal which were constructed in the middle of 20th century.

5.5 Gandhara Civilization

The word “Gandhāra” is an ancient Sanskrit name of the region which is presently
the area of Peshāwar Valley in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is
first mentioned in Rigveda, the earliest of the Indian sacred texts (2nd Millennium
BCE), which describes region located on the Northwest Frontier of India. The text
from Achaemenian, Hellenistic and Roman periods indicates a region on the
northwestern frontier of India.The ancient region of Gandhāra was however a
very important part of the later Kushan Empire. Alexander the Great came to
Swāt, Ora in 327 BCE. Arrian, the historian of Alexander made distinct mention
of three flourishing towns in Swāt, among them one was Ora-the modern
Udegram. Geographically the boundaries of Gandhāra encircle Jalalabad
(Afghanistan), Khyber and Mohmmand Agencies in the north and towards the
south Kohat, Minawali, Salt Range down to the banks of River Jhelum, in the east
Taxila Valley.

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Brief Political History of Gandhāra:

The ancient land of Gandhāra had been a centre of cultural diffusions throughout
the ages. Archaeologically, the pre-historic period of this region begins with
Middle Paleolithic artifacts recovered from the lowest levels at Sanghao Cave,
Mardan as a result of excavations carried out by A.H. Dani during 1962-63. The
other sites beside Sangao Cave are; Jamal Garhi rock shelter, Mardan and
Khanpur Cave, Haripur, Hazara. Besides, Tangu Nau in Bajure is reported by the
University of Peshāwaras site belonging to Middle Paleolithic Period.

The Mesolithic period was succeeded by the New Stone Age or Neolithic Period.
This Period in and around Gandhāra has come to known from the site of Sarai
Khola, south of Taxila. This site has yielded a cultural sequence as; late Neolithic
(4000-2800 BCE), Bronze Age Culture (2800-1500 BCE), Late Bronze and Early
Iron Age Culture (1000 BCE). The “Harappan Culture” in Gandhāra was
replaced by Gandhāra Grave Culture from the period 1700-600 BCE.

The Gandhāran Grave Culture is associated with speakers of Indo-European who

are believed to have introduced various artifact styles that were brought to
Gandhāra through various immigration processes from north western passes
during the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BCE. During 6th / 5th Century BCE
Gandhāra was incorporated as a province into the Achaemenid Empire under
Darius-I (528-486 BCE). The results of excavations at Bala Hisar testify that this
area was under the control of Achaemenian Rule. In the early 4th Century BCE
Alexander the Great entered Gandhāra to conquer all the Achaemenid provinces.

The Greeks were displaced by Chandra Gupta Maurya when Gandhāra first time
became part of an Indian Empire. His grandson Asoka (272-32 BCE) was a great
patron of Buddhism. He dispatched a number of missionaries from his capital
Patliputra to different areas of the world to propagate Buddhism. The
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archaeological remains of Buddhist Stūpas and Monasteries such as; Rock Edicts
of Asoka at Shahbaz Gari, Mardan, Dharmarajika Stūpa, Taxila, Jamal Garhi,
Mardan, Butkara-I,Swāt are some of the good examples of Mauryan Empire in
Gandhāra.The Emperor Asokain his lifetime issued a series of edicts and
proclamations, which were inscribed on rock surfaces and on finely polished
sandstone pillars throughout his vast empire.

Around 190 BCE the Bactrian Greeks under Demetrus–I established Indo-Greek
Rule, in the Gandhāra region by capturing this region from the Mauryans. Their
rule over Gandhāra lasted for about one hundred years from 190 to 90 BCE. The
Indo-Greeks were defeated by the Sakas (Indo-Scythians) from Iran in 90 BCE.
They were followed by Indo-Parthian in the early first century CE, as evident
from an inscription of Indus-Parthian king Godophares discovered from Takht-i-
Bhāī, which dates early first century C.E.

During the first half of second century BCE, the Kushanas, Central Asian
nomadic tribes conquered the region of Bactria. The tribe became the most
powerful under the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises-I, who united various tribes
and established the Kushan dynasty. The most famous of Kushan rulers was
Kanishka, the successor of Vima Kadphises, who ruled for twenty one years.The
Kushanas contributed a large to the cultural heritage of the north west of the
Indian subcontinent. Their support of Indian, Greek, Roman and Iranian religious
ideas placed significant impact on the religious development of Gandhāra. Hence
with syncretic religious approach, they made Gandhara a centre of multicultural
activities. During the rule of Kanishka, Gandhāra enjoyed its greatest prosperity
and the art of Gandhāra reached at its highest climax.

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During 5th Century CE, a cluster of Chinese known as White Huns or
Hephthalites, from Central Asia under Toramana, crushed Gandhāra region. The
destructions of the Buddhist establishments are mainly attributed to them. After
their massive destruction, Gandhāra however, never recovered. In the absence of
datable monuments it is not possible to affirm that the Gandhāra School had
neatly come to an end with the disasters of the late 5th and early 6th
centuries.During the 7th and 9th century, Gandharā was under the rule of Turk Śāhi
dynasty. Their first ruler was Barhatigin, who took control of Gandhāra, in the
first half of 7th century.

After the death of Bhimpala in 1026, the Hindu Śāhis rule in Gandharā came to an
end. It was steadily forced south into the inhospitable salt range by the annual
incursions from Central Asian Islamic States from the 11th century CE, onwards
that culminated in the 16thcentury CE with the establishment of Mughal Empire.
The Mughal fortress at Hund, Attock and the Bala Hisar at Peshāwar are
testimonies of the strategic importance. The control over Gandhāra was gained
from the Mughals in the 17th century by Afghan rulers and later by Sikhs until its
annexation by the British Raj in the 19th Century.

The results of excavations conducted by Italian Archaeological Mission (during

1985 – 1999) at mount Raja Gira near Udegram, Swāt have identified Islamic
occupation dating from the 11th 13th centuries CE., and almost overlapping two
main pre-Islamic phases, the alter one dated to 8th – 10th centuries and the earlier
one dating from 1st/2nd – 4th centuries. In the beginning of 11th century CE Sultan
Mehmood of Ghazni defeated the Hindu rulers in the battle of Hund and
established the foundation of Muslim rule over Indo Pakistan sub-continent.

Although the Muslims invaded Swāt in the beginning of 11th century and the
foundation of a general spread of Islam here was laid, Buddhism and Hinduism

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prevailed here for centuries to come. It has been proved from the results of
archaeological excavations carried out by Italian Mission to Swāt, at the
Ghaznavid Mosque of Udegram which was abandoned in the 12th century.With
such a history behind them it is not surprising that the people of Gandhara were
thoroughly cosmopolitan in their culture and their outlook. The common speech
of the people was an Indian Prakrit, but the script they used for the writing of this
vernacular was Kharoshthi a modified form of the Aramaic of Western Asia,
which had been adopted for official use throughout the Persian Empire during
Achaemenid times.

Significant Buddhistarchaeological sites in Gandhara:

A brief description of some of the important Buddhist city sites discovered in

Gandhāra which played as a model role as well as served as a melting pot, for
cultural diffusion between east and west civilizations in ancient times is presented
as under:

i) Puskalavati: Puskaravati or Pushkalavati means “town of lotus”, it was

capital of Gandhāra before Purusapura which had undergone many survey.
Alexander Cunningham explored the site in 1870 and Sir John Marshall
conducted a trial dig at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1958, The
Department of Archaeology, Pakistan, investigated Charsadda under the
supervision of Sir Mortimer Wheeler. They dug a trial trench stretching east to
west on the southeast cliff of BalaHissar. It was the capital until somewhere
between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE.

ii) ShaikhanDheri: There is a low wide hill called ShaikhanDheri in the

northeast of BalaHissar. Dr. A.H Dani, from Peshawar University investigated the
site and revealed that it was established by Greco-Bactrians in the 2nd century

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BCE and that even though alterations and reconstruction of the city was carried
out, the original city layout has been adhered to. The city had been the capital
until the Kushanas dynasty of Vasudeva –I moved it in the beginning of the 3rd
century BCE. ShaikhanDheri is the second city of Charsadda and has similar
structures and characteristics to Sirkap, which is the second city of Taxila. The
capital of Gandhāra was moved Purusapura by King Kanishka, it became the
capital of the Kushan Empire.

iii) Purusapura: Purusapura or the modern city of Peshawar is central city of

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The Kanishka grand stupa of “shah-
ji-ki-Dheri” (Peshawar) was mentioned by Chinese monk, Fa Xian, Xuan Zang
and Song Yun in their accounts and was considered as architectural marvel
because of its height. The stupa was investigated by D.B Spooner’s mission from
1909 to 1910. A relic casket with the name of the King Kanishka was excavated
from the site which is now preserved in the Peshawar Museum.

iv) Mekhasanda: The remains of Mekhasanda Temple are located to the

northeast of Shahbagzarhi, on the southeast ridge of Mount Karamar. Foucher
excavated the eastern half of the center of this site including the main stupa
between the years 1895-97. Then in 1902, an expeditionary team headed by
KozuiOtani visited this site and collected the artifacts. The Kyoto University
Scientific Mission for Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan conducted a detailed survey
from 1962 to 1967. The main stupa is located at the center of the site whereas the
small stupas surround the main stupa on all four sides. According to Koji
Nishikawa, many of the excavated relics were stucco sculptures along with a few
stone reliefs. This site in the late Gandhāran Temple style of the 3rd-5th centuries.

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v) Thareli: To the northeast of Jamalgarhi, lies the Utomankhel mountain
range that borders the north of the Gandhāran Plain. Many Buddhist sites scatter
across the southern slop of this mountain range. The Thareli Temple (early
Gandharan Temple) site stands on the ridge of a mountain, which stretches t the
southeast. The Kyoto University Scientific Mission for Iran, Afghanistan and
Pakistan conducted an extensive investigation on this site from 1963 to 1976.
Among the excavated relics, the ratio of stone reliefs was higher than that of
stucco. In addition coins excavated from the site date back to the time when
Kushan dynasty was flourished during the reign of Kings Kanishka, Huvishka and
Vasudeva.

vi) Chanaka-dheri: The result of the archaeological excavations (carried out

from 1959-1967) showed that this site consist of secular buildings with giant base
stones, indicating that it was built somewhere between 1st-3rd century.

vii) Kashmir Smast: Kashmir Smast is the name of a historic period cave
located some 50 km north-east of Mardan and about 20 km north of
Shahbagzarhi, Pirsai village a further 16 km to the north. Many archaeological
sites so far have been discovered in Gandhāra region but the significance of
Kashmir Smast can hardly be compared with any other site of the region.
Antiquities discovered form the site, are quite distinct from those found in the
area, suggest that the Hindu religion was flourishing in this region at least from
the 2nd century CE up to the 10th century CE side by side with other religious of
the time. The Kyoto University Mission surveyed this site in 1960. Besides Dr.
Muhammad Nasim Khan, Peshawar University has conducted extensive
archaeological excavations.

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viii) Jamalgarhi: This important Buddhist site is located to the northeast of
Takht-i-Bahi on a rocky ridge running east-west. Prof. Koji Nishikawa mentions
that at the centre of the site is the main stupa built on a circular plinth, surrounded
by shrines. The south stairs of the stupa lead down to a courtyard where small
votive stupas stand. Most of the structures in the courtyard are shrines. On a level
one step lower, small stupas and shrines with niches in them are lined up. There
are monasteries in the southern part of the site and a large assembly hall, a
canteen and kitchen on the outer side of the terrace to the east.

ix) Shahbagzarhi: Shahbagzarhi, a famous city of ancient Gandhara is

situated about 14 km east of Mardan, on the main highway from Peshawar to
Hund, on the main crossing of river Indus. It was also junction of commercial
activities in old days. It was graced with the royal edicts of Asoka. These
inscriptions permanently recorded for the propagation and preaching among the
people. To convey to them the message of pious deeds and the commandments of
administration. Among the fourteen rock edicts instated by Asoka in the
subcontinent, two rocks edicts are founded here inscribed with Kharosthi script.

x) Takht-i-Bahi: The Buddhiststupa and monastery of Takht-i-bahi like

Jamalgarhi is well preserved which is located about 15 km north east of Mardan
district. The main stupa and two courtyards created on different terraces are
augmented votives stupas and shrines; cells surround the monastic quadrangle for
monks and large square assembly hall. Underground meditations chambers also
discovered in the monastery.

xi) Sehr-i-Behlol: The Kushan city of Sehr-i-Behlol is located on a mound

about 12 km northeast of Mardan. The city was heavily fortified and full equipped
with all the meeting amenities of supporting a large Buddhist population. It was a
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major ceremonial and religious center during the peak period of the Gandhāran
Civilization. The archaeological site of Sehr-i-Behlol and the Buddhist
monuments around the city were extensively explored by Dr. D. B. spooner in
1907 and by Sir Aurel Stein after a decade later. The excavations yielded a large
number of Buddhist sculptures most of which presently housed in the Peshawar
Museum.

xii) Ranigat: The Ranigat site is named after Ranigat (the Queen’s Rock)
rock. It is one of the largest Buddhist sites in Gandhāra, covering a hilly area,
extending about one km from north to south and 0.7 km from east to west. The
site is about 600-650 m above sea level and about 200 meter higher than
Nowgram. According to Alexander Cunningham1, after his visit (1848) says that
this site was the stronghold called Aornos, located in the mountains along the
Indus River, which was conquered by Alexander the Great. Ranigat has attracted
attention because of the large amount of structural remains which can be found
near the small village called Nogram, about 26 km north of Ohind, and 35 km
east of Mardan. During 1881-82, Alexander Cunningham investigated the
Ranigat site again with H.B. Garrick. Similarly, I. Lowenthal who surveyed the
Peshawar District in 1860’s mentions that the palace and the temple, where the
king lived and prayed, were surrounded on all sides by masonry buildings. He
also mentions that the most notable thing on Ranigat hill is the gigantic rock at
the top and the caves carved into a large stones dotted around hill.

In 1864 H.W. Bellew conducted survey and said that the Ranigat site is similar
to Jamalgarhi, Takht-i-Bahi and Sahr-i-Behlol in its plan structure and
architectural forms, however, the material used were different. In 1883 H.H.

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 Cole also visited the Ranigat site and conducted an archeological survey. In
December 1891, Sir Aurel Stein visited the site and showed a great interest. The
Ranigat site has been scientifically excavated and properly conserved by a
research group of Kyoto University Japan from 1983-1992, under the leadership of
Prof.Koji Nishikawa and then by Prof. M. Masui. At the site stone, stucco and
terracotta sculptures have been discovered (total number of antiquities comes to 3659)
apart from the coins right from the Scytho Parthian to early Kushan period.

xiii) ZarDheri: ZarDheri is located in Hazara division; district Mansehra in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Tokyo National Museum Archaeological
Mission carried out survey and excavations here during 1995-2000. This site is a
Buddhist complex having significant role in the old days when pilgrims and
traders passed through this on Silk Route. In 1999 more than 145 unused stone
sculptures, architectural panels have been discovered from a cell.

xiv) Gumbatuna:Swāt, ancient Savastu “land of fragrance” is located in

northern part of Pakistan. According to ancient records Swāt was filled with about
1400 imposing Buddhist stupas and monasteries. The cultural potential of this
valley goes back to 3000 BCE. Gumbatuna site is consisting on a colossal stupa
with viharas and stupas, which is located on the right bank of Swāt River about 6
km west of Barikot village. The salvage excavation conducted by Dr. M. Ashraf
Khan in 1994 and discovered a large number of stone and stucco objects from this
site which belongs to 1st to 3rd century.

xv) Dadhara: It is situated about 26 km west of Saidu Sharif on the right bank
of Swāt River on Kabul Parri road and 1 km to the east of modern village of
Dadhara. It is a Buddhist establishment consisting of stupas and chapels and
belongs to 2nd-5th century. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan excavated this site in 1992.

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xvi) AndanDheri: It is also a Buddhist monastic complex which stands in the
heart of Adin Zai plain about 8 km north of Chakdara. It was excavated by
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan and University of Peshawar
in 1966. The main stupa is surrounded by votive stupas and a monastery. A large
number of sculptures, coins and minor antiquities discovered which belongs to
2nd-4th century.

xvii) Chatpat: It is located 2 km west of Chakdara and 4 km from the main

Chakdara-Dir road. This Buddhist site has been excavated by Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan and Dr. A. H. Dani Peshawar University. It
comprised 37 votive stupas and monastic cells. A number of black schist
sculptures, coins, and pottery as well as Kharosthi inscriptions have been
discovered from here which are mostly belonging to late 1st – 4th century.

xviii) Butkara-I: It is located at the eastern end of Mingora which consist on a

complex of very large and wide stupa & monastery. The Italian Archaeological
Mission (IsMEO now IsIAO) in collaboration with Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Pakistan excavated the site in 1956 – 58. About seven thousand
stone sculptures were recovered from this site. The main stupa and surrounding
structures belong to Ca. 3rd century BCE -10th century.

xix) Butkara-III: The Butkara- III, marks the site of an ancient Buddhist
establishment, the actual name of which has long been forgotten. The present
name, a corrupted form of the Persian word butkada meaning ‘the house of
images’ is the name of the area lying adjacent to the town of Saidu Sharif, Swat to
the east. The actual lies astride on the sides of a ravine called NariKhwar- one of
the several seasonal streams which drain the northern side of the Latokhpa hill
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and after meandering through the terraced fields for a short distance join the main
stream called Jambil, a tributary of the river Swāt. Dr. Abdur Rahman has
conducted archaeological excavation at the site in 1982 and 1985.

xx) Saidu Stupa: This Buddhist complex is located about 1 km south of Swāt
Museum. The Buddhist sacred area of Saidu Sharif is situated at the foot of the
mountains separating the Saidu River valley from the valley of the River Jambil,
not far from the early and extensive built-up area identified by Giuseppe Tucci as
Mengjieli, one of the major cities of Swāt. The Italian Archaeological Mission and
Department of Archaeology, Pakistan had excavated and discovered a large
number of stone sculptures representing Gandhāra art & Buddhist cult objects.
This stupa belongs to 1st -5th century.

xxi) Panr: Panr is situated about 2 km east of Mingora Jambilroad.Italian

archaeological Mission and Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan
excavated the site which consists of two terraces connected by steps. There is a
main stupa surrounded by votive stupas and a column made of soapstone. The site
belongs to the period after the construction of great stupa-III at Butkara-I.

xxii) Nimogram: It is a Buddhist stupa and monastery site, located in Shamozai

area, north of the streamlet in lower Swāt. It was excavated by the Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan in 1968-69. The three main stupas stand in
a row with viharas, fifty-six votive stupas all around it, over a paved floor with
the remains of a monastery in the west. The sacred area was destroyed due to fire
and finally it was abandoned.

xxiii) Baligram: It is Buddhist establishment situated about 4 km south of Swāt

Museum which was excavated by Dr. M. Ashraf Khan, Department of
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Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan in 1991.
xxiv) Nawagai: The site of Nawagai is situated about 3 km east of Barikot
village on the way to Karakar Pass. The site was excavated by Mian Said Qamar
of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan in 1992. This site
consists of main stupa, chapels and numerous votive stupas around over a paved
floor. A number of stone sculptures, a relic casket, copper objects and pottery
were found which belongs to 2nd-10th century. With the exception of only a few
fragments in stucco all the other pieces were carved from blue schist or green
phyllite. Most of the sculptures were found fragmentary and damaged condition
which comprises on isolated images, panel reliefs and friezes depicting various
scenes from the Buddha’s life and also a large number of archaeological elements
such as stupa brackets, cornice parts, umbrella pieces, Corinthian pillars and a
large number of stone slabs with floral, vegetal and geometrical patterns. It was
these sculptures that once adorned the decorated walls of the stupa.

xxv) Shanaisha: The site of Shahnaisha is situated about six km south of Saidu
Sharif, and about 9 km south of Mingora (Swāt ). This site was explored by Sir
Aurel Stein in 1926 revisited some thirty years later by G. Tucci in 1958. Aurel
Stein mentioned this site fairly well preserved while Prof. Tucci found the stupa
greatly damaged. He was also told that from this site many sculptures had been
dug out and sold in the underground market by treasure hunters. In 1989, the first
excavation campaign was conducted by Mr. Nazir Ahmad Khan, the then Curator
of Swāt Museum, Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan. In 1990 a
joint archaeological investigations was carried out by the University of Peshawar and
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan under the leadership of Dr. Abdur
Rahman with the representation of Mian Said Qamar, the then Deputy Director.

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xxvi) Marjanai: The site of Marjanai is situated about 21 km northwest of
Mingora city in Swat. Dr. Shah Nazar Khan excavated this site and reported
results in “Ancient Pakistan”. According to him the sculptures came from Votive
stupa No. 3 which is mostly carved out of green phyllite with the exception of a
few pieces moulded in stucco. The stone sculptures are panels, reliefs depicting
important incidents from the life of the Buddha.

xxvii) Aziz Dheri: The site of Aziz Dheri has been investigated by Dr. M. Nasim
Khan, Peshawar University who has reported that the results shows a complete
and uninterrupted cultural sequence at the site staring at least from the Indo-Greek
to the Islamic period. The archaeological excavations at the site were carried out
during 1993 to 2008. He also mentions that sculptural remains from this site are
quite varied representing various themes starting the previous birth stories of the
Buddha and from the palace life to the display of his relics etc.

xxviii) Charg-pate: The Buddhist religious site of Charg-pate is located about 2

km to the north of Khanpur village some 15 km to the northwest of Chakdara in
District Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It was explored and excavated by the
Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar in 1981. The site was built
on two terraces; an upper and a lower. Executed in grey schist the sculptures from
the upper terrace were rough in style and dresses on some of the figures closely
resemble those Central Asian. The lower terrace yielded sculptures mostly in
green phyllite that exhibit depth in carving ,excellence in workmanship and
Western influences in their style.

xxix) Tokardara, Najigram: The Buddhist monastery of Tokardara is located

about 5 km on the south of Barikot and about 1 km west of the modern village
Najigram at the mouthy of a small picturesque gulley. It is surrounded on the
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west, east and south by hills and on the north by wide strip of agriculture land.
The Buddhist sanctuary of Tokardara was first recorded in 1926 by Sir Aurel
Stein during his archaeological survey in the Swāt Valley. He was followed by E.
Barger and P. Wright, who conducted a small scale test excavation at the site.
After small excavation on the site by Barger and Wright, the site was then robbed
by antique dealers. Nevertheless the site seems to offer a good opportunity for
systematic excavation yielding promising results. The site was revisited by G.
Tucci, Italian Archaeological Mission to Swāt, in 1955. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan,
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan carried out archaeological
excavations in 1995. Most of the findings are sculptures, carved in black and
grey schist, depicting the life story of the Buddha and architectural elements. One
of the stucco fragments depicts the lower part of the Buddha. According to Prof.
M. Farooq Swāti, the sculptures collected from the site are fragmentary but some
pieces are in good state preservation and exhibit deep and fine carving similar to
those excavated from Nawagai, Baligram, Butkara-III, Shanaisha, Marjanai,
Butkara-I, Saidu Sharif Swāt , AndanDheri and Chatpat in Dir. The sculptures
date from 1st to 5th-6th century. Further such sculptures embellished the plinth of
the stupas as some of them found still insitu.

xxx) Taxila Valley: The archaeological remains of Taxila valley are scattered
in Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces. Sir Alexander Cunningham,
explored the Taxila valley and Sir John Marshall, was the first archaeologist who
carried out regular archaeological excavations in the Taxila valley and exposed
the buried history of this region. Then Mortimer Wheeler continued the
excavations for some time. After independence of Pakistan in 1947, excavations
were carried out by Mr. M. A Halim, Dr. M. Sharif, Mr. G.M. Khan, Dr. M.
Ashraf Khan, Mr. Muhammad Bahadur Khan, Dr. Muhammad Arif, of the
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Pakistan. A number of some
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important cultural heritage sites are included; Sarai Khola, Hathial, Bhir Mound,
Sirkap, Sirsukh, Jandial Temple, Dharmarajika Stupa, Julian (I & II), Kunala,
Giri, MohraMuradu, Kalawan, Piplan, Jinan WaliDheri, Lal Chak, Badalpur,
Bhalar, Bhamala, Mankiyala etc.

xxxi) Dharmarajika Stupa Complex: It is the oldest of the Sangharama in

Gandhāra. The Chirtop site where main Dharmarajika stupa located is a huge
complex over a period of about seven centuries from 3rd century BCE to 5th
century CE, hundreds of stupas, chapels, and monastic cells were constructed.
This construction belongs to Mauryan, Indo-Scythians, Parthians, Indo Sasanians and
KidaraKushan but its expansion and maintenance were largely done during Kushan
period particularly during the reign of Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasudeva.

In Gandhāra region a large number of Buddhist settlements, Stūpas, Monasteries

were established by the Buddhist followers in the areas such as: present Malakand
area at the village of Derai Kssinath, Totakan in Zulamkot Valley, Loriyan
Tangai, Allah Dand Dheri and over the hill of Shahkot, Dabar Tangai and Guniar
at Thana. Then in the sub valley of Bari kot: the ancient Bazira of Greek
historians and other note worthy Buddhist sanctuaries including; Udegram, the
Ora of Greek Historians, Kanjar Kote, Nat Maira, Tokardara, Amluk Dara,
Najigram, Abba Sahib China, Nawagai, Abu Tangai, Shingardar and rock
carvings near the village of Tindodag. In Swāt Valley other imposing Buddhist
establishments are at Saidu, Butkara-I, Butkara-III, Loebanr Stūpa, Arab Khan
China, Dangram, Jorjorai, Topdara, Panr, Baligram, Shanasha, including a large
number of rock carvings. Then on the north of Mingora Swāt, an important
Buddha rock image is on high rock near Jahanabad. Another all-embracing
Buddhist site is at Malamjaba plains next to Manglawar.

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Besides masterpieces of Buddhist sculptures, the architecture of Gandhara also
has a marked characteristic of its own composition in nature and scope lending
towards Ionic and Doric style of Classical Greeks. The city plan of Sirkap in
Taxila, the remains of religious establishments Stupas and Monasteries at Jaulian,
Mohra Moradu, Dharmarajika etc. around Taxila, and those at Takht-i-Bahi,
Jamal Garhi, Sehri Bahlol in Mardan district, are remarkable ensemble of the
dissemination and blending of foreign and local traditions of the art of building.
Besides, Butkara, Panr, Udegram, Nimogram, Chat Pat, Andan Dheri, Saidu
Stupa, Shingardar Stupa, Thokardara Stupa, to name only a few, are some of the
famous sites in Swat and Dir area which provide ample evidence of the extent of
this religious cultural phenomenon.

5.6 Buddhist Art of Gandhara

In Gandhara due to diffusion of different cultures there developed an art between

1st century BCE and 7th Century CE, known after its geographic name as
“Gandhara Art”. It is a triangular piece of land (about 100 KM across east to west
and 70 KM north to south) on the western side of Indus River. Gandhara is a
remote area surrounded by mountains yet it served as a gateway to Silk Road,
giving access to Central Asia and hence to the countries of the East and West. We
see that Buddhism became an international faith as it intermingled with various
cultures from Greece, Rome, Saka, Parthia and Sasan.The Silk Road was an ideal
ground for Buddhism to grow and develop. Buddhism’s route of introduction into
China originated in Gandhara then reached in Afghanistan. The fame of Gandhara
however rested on its capital “Taxila” which was a great centre of learning and a
resort of students from all parts of India. Since from the Achaemenians time
through Alexander the Great, the Mauryan Emperor Asoka, the Scythians, the
Parthians, the Khushanas, the Huns and even down through Muslim period to the

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great Mughals, when big caravan sarai was built here, Gandhara specially Taxila
continued to maintain a link between East & West.

The Greek companions of Alexander the Great came across Buddhism in

Northern India, where it had been forced to confine itself by the Brahmanic
reaction. The Indo-Greek princes, the descendents of Alexander the Great’s
companions were Buddhists and it was under their rule that began the amazing art
style, combined Hellenic forms and characteristics with Buddhist attitude &
motifs and which became to known as the art of Gandhara. The advance of
Buddhism towards the east carried it first to China and later to Japan.

However the real amalgamation and cultural interaction between East & West
began in the Kushan dynasty and Gandhara was located in the heart of the Kushan
regime. The events in the history of Buddhist Art like the creation of a Buddha
image, and the remarkable development of relics of Buddha’s life story took place
after the last half of the first century CE. At that time the Kushans (nomads from
Central Asia) founded a great empire extending from Central Asia to India. The
emergence of the great empire changed the region of North West India from a
frontier district to the focus of events. Not only did it become a junction between
Central Asia & India but it was also a link with places as far as away as the
Mediterranean world. The Kushan dynasty was an empire open to the outside and
had an ability to assimilate different cultures. The coins used by this dynasty for
example which depict gods of three different worlds- Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian
testify this theory. Gandhara art undoubtedly owes its prosperity to flourishing
economical developments and cultural exchanges between east and west during the
Kushan dynasty which controlled the important places along the Silk Road.

Gandhara and Mathura were the centres of the Kushan dynasty but there were
also other areas where artistic activity was practiced prior to the dynasty. In

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Gandhara which retained the Hellenistic tradition, Buddha images were made,
probably with reference to statues of Roman emperors as models. The facial
expressions and bodies of the Buddha images in Gandhara are however realistic.

As a result of the recent archaeological excavations carried out in the different

areas of Gandhara it has been proved that Gandhara art lasted until the 5th -6th
Century CE. A number of statues of Buddha, Bodhisattva and religious donors
were made from Stucco in those centuries. During 7th-8th Century CE when
Turkish rulers had gained power over Central Asia, Gandhara lost its position as
an important centre and handed it over to other mountain regions such as
Bamiyan, Kapisi, Swat and Kashmir. The Buddhist Art however enjoyed its last
glory in those places.

Similarly the architecture of Gandhara is represented mainly by a multitude of

stupas and monasteries. It reflects the influence of Greek and Roman forms, but
essentially it is Indian. The archaeological excavation however has revealed a
great deal of the monumental splendor. The efforts have succeeded in uncovering
the remains of the Buddhist religious establishments Stupas and monasteries, at a
large number of places like Charsada, Sarah-e-Bahlol, Takht-e-Bahi, Shah-ji-ki-
Dheri, Jamal Garhi, Taxila and Swat. Charsada is one of the most important sites
so far discovered in the Gandhara region, where are lying the remains of the
ancient capital of Gandhara once known as Pushkalavati. The city was on the
famous trade route linking China and the West. Nevertheless, it is true to say that
Gandhara took its everyday speech from India and its writing from the West. This
intimate fusion of widely divergent elements was equally apparent in the religious
life of the people. As each successive conqueror added his quota to the local
galaxy of deities and creeds, the number and variety went on growing.

The impetus given to Buddhists by the Mauryan Emperor, Asoka, and the artistic

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impulses emanating from the Bactrian Greeks in Central Asia led to the fruition of
the Gandhara Art under the patronage of the Kushanas and their successors. The
period from 1st Century CE to 4th Century CE is a remarkable period in the
history of Pakistan when the sculptural art becomes a hand maiden to spiritual
zeal. Initially, the medium of sculptural art appears to have been the grey schist in
Taxila, Peshawar, Mardan, Malakand, Dir, Swat and Buner regions, but then other
kinds of locally available stones like phyllite, soapstone, green schist, chlorite,
etc. were also used for carving sculptures alongwith the more plastic stucco to
fulfill the insatiable demand of Buddhist devotees who filled the innumerable
monasteries and stupas thickly dotting the whole Gandharan country of that time.
While, Graeco-Roman impulse was responsible for initiation and development of
Gandhara art, the local talent made it what it looked like the representation of the
true society of the elite and the religious monks who roamed about with an aura of
spiritual dignity.

In Theravada, only images of the Buddha are used as aids to meditation, focusing
on his virtue, but the followers of Mahāyanā Buddhism worship many different
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. When the word ‘Bodhisattva’ began to be used is not
known. Some scholars believe that it already existed during Asoka’s time, and
others suggest that it appeared during the first century BCE. It seems certain that
the meaning and the usage of the word were fully established by the first and
second centuries CE around which time the images with the inscription
“Bodhisattva” appeared in Mathurā.

In Mahāyanā, based on the concept of Mahapurusa (Great Man), with distinctive

“laksanas”, the images of Buddha were created in the different areas. As a result
different regional styles were evolved and developed which were based on the
existing artistic customs as well as methods. The first images of Buddha are said
to have been created in ancient Gandhāra by the Buddhist followers due to their
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spiritual zeal of Buddhist faith. The Buddhist Sculptures were used to fix to the
bases, drums and stairs of the Buddhist Stūpas and around witch the worshippers
circumambulated. The individual Buddha images were used to fill the niches
around the Stūpas and monasteries. The “Harmika” (solid box in square) above
the dome of the Stūpa was carved on all sides with Buddha life stories by
chiseling on stone tablets and fixed to the Stūpas inside which, the “relics” of
Buddha were kept in a casket for worship.

The Buddhist art of Gandhara presents a heterogonous social picture of the time; a
medley of foreign immigrants such as Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, Kushans and
Huns. This art is primarily created in the schist but is also seen in other mediums
as in stucco, terracotta and also on Bronze material. The primary aim of this art
was not to extol the kings and their ministers but to adore the Buddha, his whole
life and his preaching to mankind for the observation of moral ways of life and
salvation.

Gandhara art represents a phase of cultural efflorescent which was the result of
the fervent zeal and religious consciousness of Buddhism that had affected the life
of the people of this region. This religious awakening inspired the creation of
Gandhara art which are now pored processions of different museums in Pakistan
and aboard.

The Buddhist art of Gandhara flourished for a long time and thousands of stupas
and monasteries were decorated with these sculptures. The masterpieces were
chiefly designed to decorate the base of the stupa or stand in niches within the
monasteries. A large number of Gandhara sculpture depict Jataka tales and scene
such as; birth of Sidhartha, his childhood, his departure from palace, his march
towards enlightenment his attainment as ‘Buddha’ under the Bodhi tree, his
death scene as well as division of his ashes among his devotees and then burial in

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different stupas. Beside, these marvels of Gandhara several other Indian deities,
especially Indra and Brahma also carved.

The study of Gandhāra Art has a history of about one hundred years which is
being carried out from the end of the last century. The historical dating and the
nature of Gandhāra Art has been complicated and made extremely difficult by
many factors such as the insufficient archaeological investigations, the availability
of small number of images with inscriptions and the remaining obscurity of
historical conditions of this area due to the complicated movements and rapid
alternations of races and dynasties. According to the views of Jayawardena, in
investigating the objectives of the origin and development of Buddhist art one
should pay attention to expose the thoughts of early Buddhists who created the
artistic works and the ideas of Pali literature.

Gauranga Nath Banerjee describes that “the Hellenistic sculptures of the region of
the Northwestern frontier, anciently known as Gandhāra have received their full
share of attention in Europe and have been the subject of voluminous discussion.
The existence of an Indo-Hellenistic School of Sculpture was not recognized
generally, until 1870, when Leitner brought to England a considerable collection
of specimens to which he gave the name of Graeco- Buddhist. But so far back as
1833, Gerrard had unearthed the first known example of a circular relief of
Buddha from the chamber of a ruined Stūpa near Kabul. In 1836, James Prinsep
published his account of the so-called Silenus, discovered by Colonel Stacey at
Mathurā”.

Farooq Swāti claims that “the sculptural or regional styles of these states which
are slightly differed from each other and therefore these should be referred to as
Uḍḍiyāna, Gandhāra, Kapisa and Bactrian. Therefore, due to large scale
interaction among these states, the regional styles share some broad characteristic

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features and collectively they should be called as the “Indus-Oxus School of
Buddhist Art”. Vincent A. Smith however, describes that the celebrated Gandhāra
Sculptures found abundantly in the Peshāwar district, and neighboring regions in
the ancient Gandhāra, of which many excellent examples date from the time of
Kanishka and his proximate successors gave vivid expression in classical forms of
considerable artistic merit to this modified Buddhism a religion with a
complicated mythology and well filled pantheon.

According to Juhyung Rhi, Gandhāra is famous for the creation of the first
Buddha images along with Mathurā in northern India. Although the precedence
between the two places was the issue of heated debate in the early 20th century,
scholars tend to support the simultaneous and independent origin of the Buddha
image in both places or to favor the precedence of Mathurā over Gandhāra. The
origin of the Buddha image has been frequently attributed to the Mahayanists.
The image of Fasting Buddha in Gandharā, without any line of difference is a
unique and master piece in the Art history.

Anna Filigenzi however, is very particular when she says that the history of
studies on the art of Gandhāra could be summarized as; analysis of the formal and
iconographical elements in relation to the various components including
Hellenistic, Roman, Indian and Persian (Iranian), origin of the anthropomorphic
Buddha image, identification of the subjects and in the absence of safe reference
for an absolute chronology, a broad criterion to order the bulk of Gandhāran
production at least within a relative chronological framework. This writer further
mentions that on the basis of archaeological excavation results at Butkara-I, by
the Mission, it has been further brought that the earliest images of Butkara-I show
not the “Buddha/Apollo” held by many to be most typical of the genuine
Gandhāran product, but a far more “Indian” Buddha with characteristics very
close to the production of Mathurā.
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The decline of the Buddhist Art of Gandhara started with Sasanid and Hun
invasions which resulted in mass destruction of the cities and religious
establishments of the area. The society and its norm were annihilated, while the
art and architecture adversely affected when monumental buildings, both religious
as well as secular, were put to fire. The havoc was faced throughout the areas
which are now Pakistan. Chinese Pilgrim Hun-Tsang’s account of the ruined
monasteries, stupas and other secular buildings mention that he saw everywhere
in the region is description of the despair of these once flourishing centers.
However, the Buddhist faith was not wiped out completely from these areas. We
come across its manifestation at many places, especially in today’s Sind and in the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Self Assissments Quesitons

Q. No.1. What do you know about palaeolithic art traditions of South Asia?
Explain it with examples.
Q. No.2. Explain the diverse features of art and architecture developed
during Bronze Agein South Asia.
Q. No.3. Discuss the source of art and architecture during Indus Valley
period? Highlight it in detail.
Q. No.4. Discuss Vedic period architecture and emphasize its features.
Q. No.5. Explain the rich traditions of art produced during the Vedic period.
Q. No.6. Discuss the historical and geographical extention of Gandhar art,
why do call it Gandhara art?
Q. No.7. Critally analyze the origin of Gandhara art and architecture in
South Asia, also explain its different phases.
Q. No.8. Evaluate the difference between Gandhara art and Hindu art and
explain the difference between them with examples.

314
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UNIT. 6

NUMISMATICS

Written by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

Reviewed by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

319
 CONTENTS
Introduction 321

Objectives 322

6. Numismatics 323
6.1 Origin of Coinage in South Asia 323
6.1.1 The Origin of Coins 324
6.1.2 The Origin of Coins in South-Asia 325
6.2 Punch Marked Coins 328
6.3 Indo-Greeks Coins 330
6.4 Scytho-Parthian Coins 332
6.5 Kushan Coins 333
6.6 Huna Coins 336
6.7 Hindu-Shahi Coins 337

Self Assestment Questions 342

Bibliography 343

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Introduction
Coins provide a visual guide to the history of the South Asia regions in general
and the sub-continent in particular. Ancient coins always carry portrait, script and
language of that time. Coins offer a valuable source of information regarding the
kings who issued them. Their designs provide detailed information on many
aspects of the culture of the region also. Coins supply an almost unparalleled
series of historical documents. They invoke before us the life and story of those
who had issued them. They furnish us a true picture of environment in which they
are struck. Numismatic research has established a highly refined sequence of
gradual transition from Greek to Scythian, Parthian, Kushan, Sasanian, Hun and
Turkish rule can now be documented.

In Pakistan we do not possess much literature of ancient times, which may serve
as historical evidence in the modern sense. Such of it, as we have, does not reveal
many facts about the rulers, their names, dynasties, their thought and actions. But
we find these facts well illustrated in many instances on coins. Reconstructing the
history of ancient north-western Pakistan depends as much on the evidence
derived from the coins found in the area as it does on ancient texts and the diverse
data obtained from archaeological excavations.

Brief references to the Kushans and the other nomadic peoples who succeeded the
Greeks as masters of the region are to be found in Chinese historical Texts,
particularly the official chronicles of the Han Dynasty. It was in 1830 that the
European adventurers in Afghanistan began to collect the coins of the area to
identify the Greek language and extension of Greek culture in the area. Large
numbers of these coins were placed in the hands of the Asiatic Society of
Calcutta, where James Prinsep used them to make a major breakthrough in the
study of the history of the region.

In the first century of the Christian era, North-Western Pakistan was governed by
monarchs of the Kushan dynasty. Their vast empire extended from Varanasi on
the Ganges, through Pakistan, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Bactria, up to the
River Oxus. The Kushan displayed a keen awareness of the conflicting forces and
pressures that could arise in an empire straddling so wide a range of ethnic and
cultural boundaries. Their diplomacy is strikingly evident in the two distinct types
of coinage they issued for circulation in the western and eastern parts of their

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empire. From their summer capital at Begram in the hills of Afghanistan, they
issued coins featuring Iranian deities, Greek goddesses and the Buddha. Here,
their coin legends used the local Kharoshthi script derived from Aramaic, and
occasionally incorporated Greek lettering. On these coins, emperor Kanishka
chose to call himself ‘’Shah of Shaha, Kanishka of Kushans”.

Objectives: After going through this unit, the students will be able to understand
the following points;

 to know the origin of coinage in South Asia

 to recognize the Punch Marked coins of South Asia
 to make out Indo-Greeks coins and their artistic details
 to understand Scytho-Parthian coins and its features
 to familiarize with Kushana coins and understand its scope and
importance
 to identify surce of Huna dyanasty’scoins
 to distinguish Hindu-Shahi period coins and its facial appreance

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6. Numisrnatics
6.1 Origin of Coinage in South Asia

The ancient coins are discovered from time to time either through the course of
archaeological excavations/explorations or as accidental finds from the earth deposits.
The coins play an important role in illuminating history not known from other sources
and help in the reconstruction of the missing parts of the history of mankind. Further the
ancient coins confirm and substantiate the history known from other sources. The
discovery of new coins therefore constantly provides information and knowledge which
help to modify our earlier thoughts and views about the particular period of the history of
any region.

The history of coins presents us with such an abundance of material that we can trace its
course from the remote antiquity to the present time. A coin is a piece of metal of definite
weight, has a mark or marks of authorization, preferably of the state, testifying to the
weight and purity of the metal and serves the purpose of a medium of exchange. They are
standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate
trade. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. Obverse and its opposite,
reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and medals. In this usage, obverse means the
front face of the object and reverse means the back face. The obverse of a coin is
commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the
reverse tails. The coins are usually product of a metal or an alloy, or sometimes made of
manmade materials. The ancient coins found from the course of archaeological
excavations are usually in the disc shape.

The coins in their own time faithfully served the purpose for which they were made. But
beyond that they still retain their value and importance. They provide an almost
unparalleled series of historical documents. They provide us the life and times of those
who had issued them. They weave the texture of history into their being and do not
simply illustrate it. They provide us true information as historical references.

Even for the history of those who are known from other sources, coins are equally
important. In the realm of religious history coins play an equally important role. The
coins of the Kushanas, for instance, during the first and second centuries CE bear the
effigies of a number of Greek, Iranian, Buddhist and Brahmanical gods and goddesses.
They reflect not only which popular deities were worshipped amongst the people they
rules, but also throw light on the development of various pantheon and other
iconographic forms. The representation of Buddha in human form is noticed for the first

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time on the coins of Kanisha, while in earlier he is shown symbolically. Similarly, the
earliest depiction of Siva in human form with four hands is seen only on these coins.

6.1.1 The Origin of Coins

After the domestication of cattle and the start of cultivation of crops in 9000–6000 BCE,
livestock and plant products were used as money. However, it is in the nature of
agricultural production that things take time to reach fruition. The farmer may need to
buy things that he cannot pay for immediately. Thus the idea of debt and credit was
introduced, and a need to record and track it arose.

The establishment of the first cities in Mesopotamia (Ca. 3000 BCE) provided the
infrastructure for the next simplest form of money of account—asset-backed credit or
Representative money. Farmers would deposit their grain in the temple which recorded
the deposit on clay tablets and gave the farmer a receipt in the form of clay token which
they could then use to pay fees or other debts to the temple. Since the bulk of the deposits
in the temple were of the main staple, barley, a fixed quantity of barley came to be used
as a unit of account.

Trading with foreigners required a form of money which was not tied to the local temple
or economy, money that carried its value with it. As commodity that would mediate
exchanges which could not be settled with direct barter was the solution. Which
commodity would be used was a matter of agreement between the two parties, but as
trade links expanded and the number of parties involved increased the number of
acceptable proxies would have decreased. Ultimately, one or two commodities were
converged on in each trading zone, the most common being gold and silver.

In early Mesopotamia copper was used in trade for a while, but was soon superseded by silver.
The temple (which financed and controlled most foreign trade) fixed exchange rates between
barley and silver, and other important commodities, which enabled payment using any of them.
It also enabled the extensive use of accounting in managing the whole economy, which led to
the development of writing and thus the beginning of history.

The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century
BCE, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia. Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of
gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not
standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as
badges or medals, issued by priests. The unpredictability of the composition of naturally
occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its
development. The Greek coinage reaches a high level of technical and aesthetic quality.
Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait
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of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the
other. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

6.1.2 The Origin of Coins in South-Asia

The Cowry shells were first used in Indo-Pakistan sub-continent as commodity money.
The Indus Valley Civilization may have used metals of fixed weights such as silver for
trade activities which is evident from Mohenjo Daro from the late Harappan period
(1900–1800 BCE or 1750 BCE). D.D Kosambi proposed a connection between
Mohenjodaro silver pieces with the Punch marked coins based on their remarkable
similarity and identity between weights. The remarkable similarities between Punch
marked coin symbols with those appearing in the Indus seals have also been highlighted.
Chalcolithic unmarked gold disc discovered from Eran have been dated to 1000 BCE and
due to their lack of ornamental use, it has been proposed that it was utilized as an object
of money.

When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BCE) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his
realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade. The practice of
using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the
6th century. Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BCE,
following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, who had put in place
the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which
coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in
circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade
powers of the time. It seems Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and
continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull coinage. Original coins of the Achaemenid
Empire were issued from 520 BCE – 450 BCE to 330 BCE. The Persian Daric was the
first truly Achaemenid gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the Siglos,
represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of India during the original expansion
of Cyrus the Great, and the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley is dated to c. 515
BCE under Darius I. An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The
Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard, is a coin hoard discovered in the
vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many
Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. The deposit of the hoard is dated to the
Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BCE. The hoard also contained many locally
produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule. Several of
these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian
column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.

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According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the
use of punch-marked techniques were introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire
during the 4th century BCE. More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati
and in Bhir Mound. The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India,
produced from at least the mid-4th century BCE, and possibly as early as 575 BCE,
influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as
those of the Kabul hoard, or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.

The first manufactured actual coins seem to have appeared separately in India, China, and
the cities around the Aegean Sea 7th century BCE. While these Aegean coins were
stamped (heated and hammered with insignia), the Indian coins (from the Ganges river
valley) were punched metal disks, and Chinese coins (first developed in the Great Plain)
were cast bronze with holes in the center to be strung together. The different forms and
metallurgical processes imply a separate development. All modern coins, in turn, are
descended from the coins that appear to have been invented in the kingdom of Lydia in
Asia Minor somewhere around 7th century BC and that spread throughout Greece in the
following centuries: disk-shaped, made of gold, silver, bronze or imitations thereof, with
both sides bearing an image produced by stamping; one side is often a human head.

Sometime around 600BCE in the lower Ganges valley in eastern India a coin called a
punch marked Karshapana was created. According to Hardaker, T.R. the origin of Indian
coins can be placed at 575 BCE and according to P.L. Gupta in the seventh century BCE,
proposals for its origins range from 1000 BCE to 500 BCE. Kasi, Kosala and Magadha
coins can be the oldest ones from the Indian Subcontinent dating back to 7th century BC
and Kosambi findings indicate coin circulation towards the end of 7th century BCE.

The study of the relative chronology of these coins has successfully established that the
first punch-marked coins initially only had one or two punches, with the number of
punches increasing over time. The first PMC coins in India may have been minted around
the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, The coins of this
period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, old Karshapanas or Pana. Several of
these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin
Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha,had several symbols. These coins were
made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by
cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.
They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three
centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE).

A small round bronze coin recovered from Pandu Rajar Dhibi has a primitive human
figure on obverse and striations on reverse and may recall striated coins of Lydia and

326
Ionia in 700 BC may well be dated before the punch marked coins of ancient India. Cast
copper coins along with punch marked coins are the earliest examples of coinage in
India, archaeologist G. R. Sharma based on his analysis from Kausambi dates them to pre
Punched Marked Coins (PMC) era between 855 and 815 BC on the bases of obtaining
them from pre NBPW period, while some date it to 500 BC and some date them to pre
NBPW end of 7th century BCE.

According to some scholars Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya
Empire by cast, die-struck coins. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this
coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or
from the neighboring Greco-Bactrian kingdom.

Saurashtra Janapada coins are probably the earliest die-struck figurative coins from
ancient India from 450 to 300 BCE which are also perhaps the earliest source of Hindu
representational forms. Most coins from Surashtra are approximately 1 gram in weight.

In this context the antiquity of coins in ancient Pakistan goes back to about 6th century
BCE. The earliest coins of these series are small ingots of silver with three circular dots
on one side. The other type is of some heavy bent bars of silver with devices stamped out
with a punch on one side. These coins have not however been found in any quantity. The
time and the territory in which these circulated were perhaps restricted. The certain small
ingots and Bent Bar coins can hardly be derived from ancient Greek or Achaemenians
coins. Their shape and size indicate of the bulge of metal that were current in the ancient
world. It is believed that such currency was already known to the some parts of ancient
Pakistan before the appearance of ancient Greek and Achaemenians in the region but
there lumps no doubt circulated by the Achaemenians rulers on their own standard as
proved by their weight in order to grantee this weight. The symbols were punched on
them in imitation of their own coins. Thus the local currency was kept up by the Persian
rulers in order to meet the needs of the business community and the use of familiar
symbols would have reassured them of authenticity. Hence, with this new idea, Persian
rulers brought the local currency inline with the system prevalent in their empire. Further,
with this change the other issue of the empire slowly found currency in their region as
well. As such, the origin of coinage in Indo-Pakistan or south Asia is largely indebted to
techniques borrowed form foreign sources but the invention of new types and varieties is
due to local genius.

It is comprehend that the coinage of ancient Indo-Pakistan sub-continent in its earliest

age developed much on the same lines as it did on the shores of the Aegean. The small
ingots of silver marked only with three circular dots, represents the earliest form. The
next chorological orders are some heavy bent bars of silver with devices stamped out

327
with a punch on one side. These two classes of coin are thought to have been circulated
as coins at least as early as 600 BCE but they have not been found in any great quantity.
One the other hand from almost every ancient site from Bengal in the East to Kabul in the
West and in South as Combater, thousands of punch marked coins have been unearthed.

6.2 Punch Marked Coins

The Punch Marked Coins are rectangular and circular flat pieces of thin silver or more
rarely copper cut from a hammered sheet of metal and clipped to standard weight. The
obverse side is marked by a large number of symbols on metal by means of separate
punches. The reverse side usually remains blank but occasionally there are one or a few
punch marks. Some coins have both obverse and reverse covered with recognizable
devices. They comprise human figures, birds, animals, solar and planetary signs.

The early coinage of the sub-continent from the 6th to fourth centuries are of slightly
concave bent bars of silver with wheel symbol found from Taxila, Charsadda and Bajaur
Agency in Pakistan and from Gardez, Jalalabad, Kabul in Afghanistan. Double the
weight of the Persian coins, they were the silver currency of the eastern Achaemenid
province, while the small round concave silver coin with the same solar symbol provided
a fractional denomination.

The silver punch marked coins circulation in the Gangetic region from the 6th century
BCE and subsequently became the standard currency of the unified Mauryan Empire.
The un-inscribed cast copper coins are among the commonest form of ancient era. These
are found especially in Rajputana and the Utter Pradesh on sites which yield punched
marked silver of the same general period.

The 3rd century BCE copper punch-marked coins are much rarer than the silver coins
which were most likely the local coinage of Maghda in the Mauryan period. Many of the
inscribed copper coins have a Brahmi legend naming the tribe who stuck them. The
others are closely associated with a particular locality such as Taxila by the pattern of
finds. Many of them are square in shape with clear traces of the incase square of the
reverse die.

The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their
authenticity. The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins, but also
indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may
have been an offence. Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for
coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.
The Mauryan rule also saw a steady emergence of inscribed copper coins as evidenced by

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Tripuri coins in Ashokan brahmi script and various pre Satavahana coins dated 3rd-2nd
century BCE in Deccan.

The earliest die-stuck coins with a device of the Buddhist symbols like Swstika or Bodhi-
tree have been ascribed to the end of the 4th century BCE. A few specimens bear
inscriptions however, ascribed to about 300 BCE. The coins with a lion device were stuck
at Taxila and show not only a greater symmetry of shape but an advanced knowledge of
die-cutting.

There have found two types of systems of weights of the Punch-marked coins in the sub-
continent. The first system has been termed by Durga Pasad as Rati weight 1 standard; it
is characterized by a group of four symbols well known from Paila Hoard which
estimated to be 43-44 grains in weight. These types of coins are the earliest in sub-
continent introduced in about 200 BCE or earlier. The second type has been termed as 32
Rati weight standards. This group is according to five symbols and known by large
number of sites in subcontinent. The coins measured about 57 grains in weight.

The study of these punch-marked coins reveals many interesting points to consider. The
devices on these coins are as varied as numerous; more than three hundred of them have
been recognized. These symbols are executed beautifully. The commonest of the symbols
is the sun which occurs on the obverse of practically every coin, others are of animals
like elephant, bulls, rabbits, hunting dogs, and the like. The symbols were organically
stamped only on one side of the coin. In course of time when coins had become worn the
other side was also used for depiction of symbols. The coins of differ from one another in
their execution, fabric, weight, quality of metal and symbols.

The coins issued from Gandhara were of a peculiar shape of a concave long bar, about 1
to 1.75” in length and averaging about 0.4” in width. The bars appear to be strips cut
from oblong ingots. The width of the ingots determined the length of the coins, the
thickness remaining the same. The strips were therefore cut into a width which combined
with the other two dimensions, gave the required weight. After being cut the bas were
adjusted more exactly to the correct width by chiseling the corners and in some cases the
obverse sides. A common symbol was punched on them twice on each at the end of the
bar. Then the coins were stuck while hot on a wooden anvil witch resulted in the
concaveness of the coins. The coins in a fresh condition would be in the approximately
183 grains, but are generally found between 150 and 180 grains according to their
condition. Coins of smaller denominations weighting 90, 80, 43, 20 and 7 grains are also
known to have been used. They are different in shape and are cup-shaped, irregular
pieces and bear only one punch of the same symbol which is found in the bigger coins.

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6.3 Indo-Greeks Coins
After the death of Asoka in 232 BCE the Mauryan power began to decline from the
Gandhara and the Punjab areas. The later years therefore witnessed the incursion of
Bactrian Greeks who conquered these regions and established themselves here for about a
hundred years. The coinage of Bactrian Greeks provides yet another point of significance.
The historical importance of these coins can be realized by the fact that since their
discovery a great number of names of the kings of Greek, Scythians and Parthians have
been located from the coins. Further, for the history of the whole dynasties of Parthians
and Scythians coins are the only source of information. The names of the later Kushan
kings too were first discovered form their coins.

The coinage of Indo-Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other
regions by the 1st century BCE. By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and
kingdoms began issuing their coins and the Prākrit legends began to appear. The
extensive coinage of the Kushan Empire (1st–3rd centuries CE) continued to influence
the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.

The coins of the Bactrian kings are however, fine specimen executed in Greek style and it
is generally believed that these must have been engraved by Greeks or by local engravers
trained in the Greek traditions. The most important kings as recorded from their coins
were Demetrios (Ca.190-150 BCE), Antialkidas (145 BCE), Menander (160-140 BCE)
and Strato-I (Ca.156-140 BCE). They ruled over eastern and western Punjab, Taxila and
Gandhara. However, among these rulers, Demetrios was the first king who stuck square
copper coins with a legend in Greek on the obverse and in Kharoshthi on the reverse.
Later on Pantalion and Agathokles introduced not only the name and title in Kharoshthi
but imitated the Indian symbols on the square copper coins. Menander’s coins are found
in abundance in different areas of Pakistan.

The Indo-Greek kings in fact introduced Greek types of coins and among them the
portrait head, into the Indian coinage. Their examples were followed for eight centuries.
Every coin has some mark of authority in it; this is what known as "types". It appears on
every Greek and Roman coin. Demetrios was the however, the first Bactrian king to
strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and
in Kharoshthi on the reverse. The copper coins, square for the most part, are very
numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by
Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. With the exception of certain square
hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, struck to the Persian (or
Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.

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The Indo-Bactrian rulers issued coins by die-striking technique which was perhaps earlier
unknown in India and followed the Greek pattern. They gave a new form to coinage in
more than one way. Firstly they placed portraits of the king on the obverse. The
diademed or helmeted head or bust is usual. Demtrios is shown on some of the types of
his coins wearing an elephant scalp. The heads of Alexander, Antiochus, Diodotus,
Euthydemus, Demetrius and Pantaleon are portrayed on the coins issued by Agathocles to
commemorate them. Secondly they introduced the effigy of the Greeks gods and
goddesses such as; Zeus, Artemis, Herachles, Poseidon, Apollo, Dioskouroi, Nike and
Pallas or some of the symbols of their worship. Inscription is another feature on these
coins. The coins of Diodotus and Euthydemus bear an inscription in Greek on the reverse.

As mentioned by S.R Dar, the earliest Greek coins found from Afghanistan and Pakistan
are however, 30 Athenian drachms and about 20 Greek coins of the 5th and 4th centuries
now in Kabul Museum and in one gold coin of Croesus of Asia Minor discovered from
Mari on the Indus River. But it was only after the secession of Diodotus from the
imperial Hellenistic dynasty of Syria that the Greeks in Bactria and later their successors
in the Indus land started issuing their own coins which still form the only source of
reconstructing their history in Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. These coins mark the real
beginning of proper coinage in the sub-continent. The most significant contribution of
these coins is their standard weight and high technique of die-cutting process. Besides,
these coins also display for the first time the portrait of the rulers identified with an
inscription and a cult object whether in the form of an image of the deity ad its attribute.
All the Greek coins this region display one or another Greek deity on the obverse or more
frequently on the reverse of the coin. The other side is usually occupied by the portrait of
the ruler or his predecessors or even some animal or bird; such as bull, elephant, horse,
leopard, panther, boar, Bactrian camel, and ox among animals and cock, owl & eagle
among the birds.

From the coins of Demetrios and later onward, the Greek legends on the reverse are
rendered in local Prakrit language and Kharoshthi script inscribed on the sides occupied
by the figure of the deity. The deities appearing on these coins are invariably Greek ones
or their attitudes. Beside silver and copper coins the rare metals like gold, nickel and lead
were also used by various kings. The gold was scarcely used by a fewer kings for
instance Diodotos only because of the higher value of the metal. However, Nickel was
used by Euthydemos-II and Agathokles ad lead metal by Strato-I with Strato-II. As
regard deities the figures of Apollo, Artemis, Athea, Dioskuroi, Herakles, Nike, Posiedo
and Zeus appear on the coins of one king Philoxeos and Hekate only on silver coins of
one king namely Helokles with Laodike. Besides, Apollo appears on the nickel coins of
Euthydemos-II and o lead coins of Strato-I with Strato-II whereas Dionysos appear only
on a nickel coin of Agathokles.
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However, in addition to the figures of Greek deities a few local deities human beings,
animals, birds, some specimens of aquatic life and some other objects of regions
significance also appear on the coins of some of the kings. These mostly represent
atibuites of certain Greek deities, for instance, tripod-lebes of Apollo appears on the coins
of Euthydemos-II, Apollodotos, Strato-I, Menander, Dionysios, Zoilos, Hippostratos and
Strato-I with Strato-II; palms and piloi of Dioskuroi bothers appear on the coins of
Eukratides, Atialkidas ad Archebios; aegis and buckler with Gorgon’s head on it i.e the
attributes of Athena can be seen on the coins of Demetrios, Polyxenos, Menander,
Antimachos Nikepheros; bow, club, lion’s skin ad ivy of Herakles are found on the coins
of Strato-I with Agathokleia, Menander, Zoilos and Theophilos; cornucopia of Demeter
on the coins of Theophilos; anchor and trident of Poseidon on the coins of Nikias; quiver
of Artemis on the coins of Strato-I and winged-thunderbolt of Zeus on the coins of
Demetrios etc. The figure of Apollo is also said to have close connection with beasts
especially elephant, horse ad bull. However, Zeus is always shown on the Greek coins as
a well built make of mature age. Whether seated or standing position he is shown with
undraped bust and a diademed or radiant head. The wings at his anklets, thunderbolt,
aegis, palm ad wreath, scepter and a spear are his usual accompaniments. At few coins a
small statue of Nike or Hekate appears on one of his outstretched arms. It is found that
Zeus appears on the gold and silver coins for the Bactria and Indus Greeks coins fright
from the first to the last king of the dynasty.

6.4 Scytho-Parthian Coins

In about 90 BCE the Scythians overthrew the Bactrian Greeks. The leader of the tribe
conquered the Punjab and Taxila and established a new rule in the region. The later rules
extended the territory by annexing the areas across the Indus to Gandhara. The famous
rulers of the Scythians were Mause, Azes-I (Ca. 38 BCE), Rajuvula, Azilises (Ca. 10
BCE), and Azes-II (Ca. 5 CE). During the reign of Azes-II, the imperial currency which
had hitherto been maintained on a remarkably high lever, suffered a sudden and
surprising eclipse. Not only was the silver replace by billon or potin, but there
corresponding deterioration in the design and execution of the coins. Not long after 19
CE, the power of the Scythians was broken by the Parthians under Gondopharnes. By
about 2nd century CE, the empire was comprised on almost the whole of present Pakistan,
Seistan and southern Afghanistan.

During the Indo-Scythians period, a new kind of the coins of these two dynasties were
very popular in circulation in various parts of the subcontinent and parts of central and
northern South Asia; Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. These dynasties were Saka and The
Pahlavas.After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been
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considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character,
between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.

The Parthian coinage was produced within the domains of the Parthian Empire (247 BCE
– 224 CE). The coins struck by the Parthians were mainly made of silver, with the main
currencies being the drachm and tetradrachm. The tetradrachm, which generally weighed
around 16 g, was only minted in Seleucia, first conquered by the Parthians in 141 BC.
Design-wise, Parthian coinage was based on Seleucid and Achaemenid satrapal coinage.
Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be
called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a
"biga" (two-horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi
drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an
elephant's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus" (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse
are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of
Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of
the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the
Indo-Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman" type, and it
reappears on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE.

According to Cunningham there were three distinct dynasties of Scythians whose names
have been preserved to us on their coins; one proceeding from Vonones and his
lieutenant, Spalphores and Spalagadames, holding the west of the Indus, a second from
Maues and Azes in the Punjab, and a third in Sindh to which the great satrap Nahapana
belonged. The coins of three prominent kings Maues, Azes and Azilise are found chiefly.
The dynasties of Maues and Vonones coined extensively in silver and copper. There are
joint types both in silver and copper of Azes and Azilise. Azes struck coins bearing his
own name in Greek on the obverse and that of Azilise in Kharoshthi on the reverse. Like
the Bactrian kinds, Scythians did not strike gold coins.

6.5 Kushan Coins

In about the middle of the first century CE the Kushans conquered the territories of the
present day Pakistan. Much of what little information we have of Kushan political history
derives from coins. The language of inscriptions is typically the Bactrian language,
written in a script derived from Greek. Many coins show the tamga symbols as a kind of
monogram for the ruler. There were several regional mints, and the evidence from coins
suggests that much of the empire was semi-independent.

This political change brought the region into contact with the Roman Empire. The
contribution of the Kushan emperors to the coinage was that they used gold in place of

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silver for their currency. The primary reason for this change was no doubt the extreme
debasement of the silver currency which had taken place under Azes-II and his Parthians
successors and which had made it impossible to continue to use a silver standard.
Besides, it was also to compete with Roman traders that the early Kushan emperors
started striking gold coins on the Roman standard.

The first Kushan emperor, Kujula Kadphises-I issued copper coins bearing the king’s
head in imitation of Augustus. In spite of the imitation, however, these are mainly
Oriental in character and not merely slavish copies of Roman models. The coins of
Kujula’s successor Wima Kadphises are so radically different from those of his father
that had there not been other evidence, on the basis of coins alone his direct succession
would have been deemed doubtful. The coins of Wima portray his powerful and
accomplished image while those of his father are barbarous. He issued copper coins in
continuation of the earlier tradition but his most notable contribution is the introduction
of extensive gold coins for the first time. The gold coins of three denominations were
issued by his; double-dinara, dinara and quarter dinara. Wima is portrayed on the
obverse of the coins as an elderly man with a heavy body in various postures such as;
seated on a couch, seated cross-legged, seated at a jharokha (window), riding an elephant,
driving in a biga, standing sacrificing at an alter. On some coins Wima is shown floating
through or rising from the clouds and a flame is shown issuing from his shoulders. On the
reverse of the coins of Wima, Siva with his long trident and accompanied by his bull is
invariably seen. Certain copper coins bear on one side a bust facing right and on the other a
horseman holding a whip, like the one seen on the coins of Azes.

The most celebrated emperor of the Kushan dynasty was Kanishka. It is generally
accepted that his rule over the areas of present Pakistan started sometimes in the second
quarter of the second century CE. Kanishka’s outstanding fame is due to his patronage of
Buddhism. His coins are distinct in many respects from those of early Kushan emperors.
He introduced the Iranian title, Shaonanoshao “King of Kings” in place of the Greek
form ‘Basileos Basileon’. On the reverse side of his extensive gold and copper coinage is
portrayed a whole pantheon of gods and goddesses, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist.
Among these are depicted the Greek gods, Helios, Herakles, Selene; the Hindu god, Siva;
the Iranian deities, Athro, “Fire”, Oado, the wind god, and Nana and Buddha himself.
This multitude of gods and goddesses was perhaps intended to conciliate the religious
sentiments of the people of different faiths over whom the ruled. A standing figure of the
king appears on the obverse of all these coins.

Kanishka reigned for 23 years and was followed by Vasashka Huvishka, Kanishka-II and
Vasudeva Vassaskha the son of Kansihka, perhaps died young as no coins stuck by him
are known. Huvishka however issued coins in abundance. His gold does not bear the full
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standing figure; it is either half length or merely the head. On one coin he is seated cross-
legged; on another, he is riding an elephant. His copper coins are more varied. Vasudeva
closely imitated Kahsinka’s standing figure type on his gold coins. The currency of this
period furnishes a valuable clue to the economy and culture of this period.

Kanishka's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100–200 CE was of two
types: one had the usual "standing king" obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is
sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka's copper coinage which
was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka's copper, there was always one of the
numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed as; riding on an elephant,
reclining on a couch, seated cross-legged, or seated with arms raised. Huvishka portrayed
his profile bust on his gold coins generally facing left and rarely t the right, wearing
garments decked with jewels and a high or flat-topped ornamental headgear. He normally
holds an imperial scepter or club in his right hand, in his left hand he holds on some
coins, an ankusa (goad) and on some others he has a spear that rests on his shoulder. The
copper coins bearing the name Huvishka are of several types such as; king reclining on a
couch, king seated frontally, profile of king seated on a cushion holding a club in the
right hand. All the Iranian deities baring Orlagno, seen on the coins of Kanishka are also
seen on the coins of Huvishka. The Huvishka’s coins also have a few non-Iranian deities.
He retained Siva god on the coins. After Huvishka, Vasudeva adopted the obverse device
of Kanshka; a king standing in profile scarifying at the alter but the king is seen holding a
trident in place of the spear held by Kansihka in his left hand. The reverse devices were
reduced to three deities, Oesho (Siva), Nana and Vasudeva.

In the coinage of the Kushan Empire the main coins issued were gold, weighing 7.9
grams, and base metal issues of various weights between 12 g and 1.5 g. Little silver
coinage was issued, but in later periods the gold used was debased with silver.

The coin designs during this period, usually broadly follow the styles of the preceding Greco-
Bactrian rulers in using Hellenistic styles of image, with a deity on one side and the king on the
other. Kings may be shown as a profile head, a standing figure, typically officiating at a fire
altar in Zoroastrian style, or mounted on a horse. The artistry of the dies is generally lower than
the exceptionally high standards of the best coins of Greco-Bactrian rulers. Continuing
influence from Roman coins can be seen in designs of the late 1st and 2nd century CE, and also
in mint practices evidenced on the coins, as well as a gradual reduction in the value of the metal
in base metal coins, so that they become virtual tokens.

The coinage of the Kushans Empire, later on was copied as far as the Kushano-Sasanians
in the west, and the kingdom of Samatata in Bengal to the east. Towards the end of
Kushan rule, the first coinage of the Gupta Empire was also derived from the coinage of

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the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the
conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest. The imagery on Gupta coins then became more
local in both style and subject matter compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and
Persian styles were mostly followed. The standard coin type of Samudragupta, the first Gupta
ruler to issue coins, is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the
sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of
the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of
the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry.

6.6 Huna Coins

The Hunas also called as Ye-tha or Hepthalites, were nomads living in the borders of
China. Tey were migrated from their homeland and moved westwards and formed two
main streams; one turned towards the Volga figuring prominently in Roman history. The
other branch established itself first on the Oxus and in the 5th century it pushed towards
Persia and India. The Hinas of this branch crossed the Hindukush occupied Gandhara
and marched towards the territories of the Gupta empire. But their progress was halted by
Skanda Gupta.

The Hunas succeeded in building up a vast empire in Persia. With their enhanced power the
Hunas moved again towards India towards the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century
under the leadership of Toramana and conquered a large part of western India and Malwa. His
son Mihirakula extended empire towards northern India and the capital was established at
Sakala (Sialkot). He seized Kashmir and held it till his death in 528 CE.

However, in 565 CE the Huna hold on Transoxania was broken by the Sassanid king
Choasroes-I with the assistance of the Turks and this was perhaps a death blow to Huna
power in India. After 6th century little is known in ancient India about the Hephthalites
and what happened to them is unclear. Some historians suggest that the remaining
Hephtalites were assimilated into the population of northwest India and Pakistan.
However, the last Hephthalites king Yudhisthira ruled until about 670 CE when he was
replaced by the Turk Shahi dynasty.

The Huna invaders reproduced the coinage of the territories which they conquered. They
borrowed the Sassanian type in Afghanistan. These Huna coins may conveniently be called
Hephthalo-Sassanid. Their notable feature being that the king wears a head dress adorned with a
buffalo head and wings on either side. These coins seem to be re-struck. The reverse showing a
fire-alter with attendants is found almost obliterated. But this partial or total effacement is the
result of the use of an unusual striking technique. The best known and finely executed silver and
copper coins of the Hunas are those which bear the name in Pahlvi.

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The Hinas issued the Later Kushana-type coins in Kashmir and the silver Gupta-type
coins elsewhere. They issued their coins only in silver and copper whether they issued
any gold coins is however not yet known. Toramana and Mihirakula both issued silver
coins of the Sassanian bust-type showing a coarse impression of the bust of the king to
the right on the obverse. On the reverse appears the Sassanian fire-alter with its two
attendants. Toramana also issued silver coins of two other types. One followed the
Sassanian tradition for its reverse and had the fire-alter with the two attendants and
adopted a new obverse showing a horseman. The legend on these coins is Sahi Jabula or
Sahi Janabula. The other type closely followed the Gupta silver coins of the eastern
region with the difference that the king’s head is turned to the left. The reverse retains the
fantailed peacock and the legend is almost the same with only the change of name.

There are a large number of copper coins of the Kidara Kushan type, found mainly in
Kashmir where the king is sanding with the legend Sri Toramana on the obverse and
crudely executed Ardoksho, holding a lotus with the legend Kidara on the reverse. The
copper coins of Mihirakula are of three types, first the large copper coins portray the king
riding a horse on the obverse and Lakshmi on the reverse and this appears to have been
copied from the Gupta horseman type. The second type follows the coins of the Later
Kushanas whereas the third is the Sassanian type with the king’s bust on the obverse and
a humped bull on the reverse. However, some of these coins appear to be counter struck.

There have found some unusual type of gold coins towards the east in the Chhatisgarh
region of Madhya Pradesh in the adjoining areas of Orissa. These coins are very thin in
fabric and repousse in technique and weigh about 19-20 grains. These coins were during
the later part of the 5th and early part of the 6th centuries CE. These coins relate to two
dynasties. The earliest belong to the Nala dynasty, which flourished in south Kosala
towards the end of the 5th century. The rulers who issued these coins are Varaharaja,
Bhavadattaraja, and Arthapatiraja. The coins bear within a circle of dots a couchant bull.
Below the bull is the name of the issuer in the box-headed Brahmi of the south. The later
coins bear a Garuda with on stretched wings and belong to Prasannamatra,
Mahendraditya and Kramaditya. While Prasannamatra is the well known ruler of the
Sarabhapuriya, dynasty, the other two are un-known.

6.7 Hindu Shahi Coins

The “Turk Shahi” dynasty of Kabul which boasted descent from the Kushana king
Kanishka was supplanted by a dynasty of Hindu Shahia and they are called as “Shahi”.
Kabul was the earliest capital of the Hindu Shahi after they expelled the Turk Shahi dynasty. At
the beginning their territory extended from Kabul to Chenab River, Punjab. The last Turk Shahi
ruler, Lagaturman, is said to have been imprisoned by his Brahman minister, Kallar and it was
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the later who became the founder of the dynasty of the Hindu Shahis, Kaller was succeeded by
Branhman kings Samand, Kamala, Bhim, Jaypal and their descendants. The Hindu Shahi
dynasty succeeded from about the third quarter of the 9th century to the first third quarter of 11th
century when they were finally reduced by the Ghaznavids.

The Hindu Shahis held sway not only over the Kabul Valley (Afghanistan), but also at
Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan), during the early medieval period in the subcontinent. A
large amount of details about the rulers have been gathered from chronicles, coins and
stone inscriptions which are the only sourcesin history. The kingdom was known as the
Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE to 670 CE, when the capitals were located in
Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund,for its new capital.

Earlier, when the Abbasids led by Caliph Al-Ma'mun defeated the Turk Shahi Kingdom
in 815 CE, the Turkic Shah had to convert to Islam and had to pay on annual basis
1.500.000 Dirhams and also slaves to the Abbasids. These Kabul Shahis went through a
political disaster due to the defeats and annual payments. In 850 CE the unpopular Kabul
Shah Lagaturman was disposed of his position by his minister called Kallar. This gave
way to another Kabul Shahi dynasty. This new dynasty was called "Hindu Shahi" by the
Arabs, and Shahi kingdom possessed the Kabul Valley and Gandhara.

In 870 CE, King Kallar lost the city of Kabul. He was displaced from there by the local
Saffarid dynasty which was ruled by Emir Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar. Due to the ongoing
conquests of the local Saffarids and Samanids, he moved his capital in 870 to
Udabhandapura (Also called Waihund or Hund), located on the banks of the Indus. The
loss of Kabul remained short as in 879 CE the Hindu Shahi captured the city back. This
victory remained short too due to Samanid expansion in the region which eventually led
to the final Shahi rule in Kabul around 900 CE. The Hindu Shahi remained strong in
Gandhara and other parts of the Punjab.

The Kabul Shahis ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara (Pakistan and Afghanistan) from
the decline of the Buddhist Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century CE.
The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the earlier Buddhist Shahis and the later
Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE,
after which Hinduism gained primacy in the region.

The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom
against the Ghaznavids in the modern-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region.
Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital
city of Ghazni both in the reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which
initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles. Sebuk Tigin, however,
defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.Later, Jayapala defaulted on the
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payment and took to the battlefield once more. Jayapala, however, lost control of the
entire region between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.

The Shahi issued coins in their own distinctive devices, weight and fabric in silver and
copper as well. The most common type has a horseman with a banner or lance in the right
hand and reins in the left of the rider on one side and a recumbent bull with saddle-cloth
and a Sarada legend in the other. Another important type probably a supplementary
series shows an elephant on the obverse and a lion on the reverse. The bull and horseman
type was first introduced by Spalapati and was continued by several rulers after him.
Samantadeva changed the legend, but he did not alter the main pattern. These coins are
found in various forms of execution and fabric and remained current long after the end of
the Hindu Shahi dynasty, to influence the coinage of the subsequent periods. Later on
during the 12th and 13th centuries a number of dynasties and rulers issued coins of this
type in silver and billon. They not only copied the type but also retained the legend and
added their names on the reverse. However, the enigmatic problem of the coinage of the
Shahi is that most of the legends do not correspond with the names of the rulers. Besides,
the most famous among the Shahi rulers have no coins to their credit. It is also assumed
that no coins were issued after Bhimadeva for well known political and economic
reasons. The Shahi rulers were not very conscious of the royal prerogative of issuing
coins and left the mints in private hands. The mints operated in response to the trading
needs of business and not to the will of the rulers. Further, the gradual reduction in
weight of the Shahi coins can be attributed to the private mints. As regard the method of
manufacturing coins, the actual method in the time of Shahi rulers is not recorded but it
was probably no different from what we find in other parts of regions.

According to Abdur Rehman, in 1844 Reinaud published detailed researches which

included Albiruni’s passage on the Shahi dynasties. This brought the famous list of the
Shahi kings into the limelight. For the first time the names of Kallar, Samand, Kamalu
and Bhim, the predecessors of the ‘Palas” became to known. Further the fact that Kallar
the Brahman minister of the last Turk Shahi rulers was the founder of the Hindu Shahi
dynasty. Thereafter, clear distinction was made between the Brahman and the Pala
dynasties. For the names of the rulers belonging to the former ended in –deva and those
of the latter in –pala. Macdowall considers the two principal series of the Shahi coins; the
Sapapati and the Samanta series as successive and not contemporaneous. He assigns the
former to the period of the Turk Shahi and the latter to that of the Hindu Shahi. Further
he within the series has attempted to find issues (rulers) marked by different weight
standards and stages of type deterioration. The issuance of coins was successive and it
was revealed that the same assigned to the individual rulers of these dynasties. Thus for
the first time an attempt was made to assign coins from the known series not only to the
‘Palas’ and the ‘Devas’ but also to their predecessors, i.e. the Turk Shahis.
339
As regard geographical distribution of the Hindu Shahi coins it is understood that the coins of
Samanta are common in Kabul and are even more plentiful in the Panjab and Gandhara. The
coins of Bhima are found in Afghanistan but seldom in the Sub-continent. Similarly the coins of
Vakka are common in the Punjab and Gandhara and are also found in Kabul. Similarly
Khudarayaka coins are found both in Afghanistan and Gandhara. The Sahi coins are also found
in mixed hoards in Eastern Europe, Russia and other parts of the Sub-continent.

The weights of the Shahi coins have not been recorded in every case. From the known
evidence, however, it seems that the weights varied considerably from reign to reign and
even within one reign. But all the coins do not seem to have been issued simultaneously
and therefore do not give a consistent pattern of weights which could be used to build up
such a hypothesis. Moreover, of the five hypothetical denominations postulated by Gopal,
the coins of the first three are virtually indistinguishable from each other either by size or
device and therefore their classification could not have served any useful purpose.

The coins of Sri Samantadeva having the ‘bull and horseman’ series is commonly
identified with Samand of Albiruni’s list. But there are difficulties in regarding Samand
as the sole issuer of the whole series. The coins bearing this name had a wide diffusion in
northern India and were issued by many rulers contemporary with the latter part of the
Hindu Shahi rule and also in the post-Hindu Shahi period. Some of these rulers prefixed
an epithet to the name of Sri Samantadeva, of which the real significance is still obscure.
The Tomara rulers Sallaksanapala (978-1008 CE) and Anangapala (1049-79 CE) seem to
have issued coins in this late period without prefixing any epithet to the main legend. The
Gahadavala coins of Madanapala (1080-1115 CE) have the word Madhava and those of
the Cahamana rulers of Sakambari Somesvaradeva (1162-66 CE) and Prithviraja (1162-
92 CE) have Asawari before Sri Samantadeva. Similarly Sri Pipala of some unknown
dynasty used the prefix Kutamana. But these later types are thick and dumpier in fabric
and their figures of the bull and the horseman are more stylized. They can be easily
distinguished from the types of the period of the Hindu Shahis.

The precise date of the origin of the Samanta series is not known. Assuming however that
the series started in the reign of Samand, when it succeeded and replaced the earlier
Spalapati series, it seems that a large number of Samanta’s coins were produced
posthumously in the time of his successors, who used his name on the coins instead of
their own names.

The Samanta coins belonging to the period of the Hindu Shahis are found in silver, billon
and copper. The silver and billon coins have couchant bull on the obverse and horseman
on the reverse. The figure of the horseman is generally stylized. But in some better
examples he is shown wearing a conical cap, which is marked by a ribbon or turban at the

340
base. The two ends of the turban hang down to the right and left of the head. The banner
held by the horseman in his right hand shows two streamers.

The silver denomination of Samanta finally degenerated into billon with weights ranging
between 3.1 gms (48 gr) and 3.7 gms (51 gr). The billon coins show a silver content of 25 to
30 per cent which marks a sharp reduction as compared to the 61 to 67 per cent of the silver
dirhams. Significantly there is no indication of any progressive deterioration in the coinage to
bridge this gap. This, however, becomes meaningful when considered in the light of the
record of Awfi who says that this debased currency came under attack in the time of the
Ghaznavid sultan Masud III (1099 CE), long after the extinction of the Shahi regime. As no
such sharp reduction in the silver content could have occurred during the Shahi period
presumably because of continues state checks, there is a definite link between the fall of the
Shahis and the sudden drop in the silver content of the coins. Apparently this could have
happened only towards the end of the rule of the Hindu Shahis.

The Khudarayaka’s coins are known only in silver and follow the general pattern of the
bull and horseman series of the silver of Samanta. The figures of the bull and the
horseman retain their plastic form, which compares with variety of Samanta’s silver. The
Khudarayaka’s coins bear the Sarada letter ma in the field to the left of the horseman and
weigh between 3.3 gms (52 gr) and 2.5 gms (40 gr) with a point of concentration between
2.9 gms (46 gr) and 2.8 gms (44 gr). Typologically the coins must be placed early in the
Samanta series.

The precise identification of Khudarayaka (ksudra rajaka = small raja or Samanta) has
not been finally settled. Alexander Cunningham associated him with Kamalu, the
successor of Samand in Albiruni’s list. However, Macdowall on the contrary maintains
that ‘Khudavayaka’ of the coins may well be ya’qub, the Muslim conqueror of Kabul.
Macdowall’s attribution is, however, based on the hypothetical reading of the device seen
above the horse’s head as the Arabic word ‘adl. But the device in question is not uniform
on all the known coins and is clearly a remnant of the Baktrain legend. Moreover, similar
signs resembling Arabic letters can also be seen on the coins of Bhima and Samanta who
in no case can be taken to represent Ya qub.

Vakkadeva’s coins are known only in copper. The obverse of these coins shows a
caparisoned elephant walking to left with legend Sri Vakkadeva on the top. The reverse
contains an open mouthed lion with raised front paw and curved tail. Typologically the
coins may be placed after the end of the ‘elephant and lion’ series of Samanta. The
weight of these coins varies between 3.5 gms (55 gr) and 0.96 gms (14 gr), a fact which
indicates that they represent two different denominations.

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The coins of Sri Bhimadeva are generally identified with Bhim of Albiruni. The
identification has been accepted on all hands and is supported by the numismatic and
geographical context of Bhima’s coins. Bhima issued coins in gold, silver and copper.

It is evident that the motifs of the goddess Laksmi and king-on-throne do not fit into the
general pattern of the Hindu Shahi coins. The attribution of this coin to Bhima therefore
solely rests on the reading of the obverse legend. But unfortunately the letter bhi, in the
name Bhima, is obliterated and can only be conjecturally restored. The reverse legend is
even more confused and difficult to read.

The silver coins of Bhima are not very many. The obverse of these coins shows a
couchant bull and the legend Sri Bhimadeva in neat Sarada letters and the reverse a
horseman and the remnants of the corrupt Bactrain legend which in the present examples
looks like a flat-topped hook and the Arabic numerals 117. The part of this legend above
the horse’s head takes different nondescript forms. In the field to the left of the horseman
is the much disfigured letter bhi. The animals in some cases still retain a plasticity and
roundness of features comparable to the earliest coins of Samanta’s silver money. The
weights of these coins vary between 3.2 gms (50 gr) and 3.1 gms (48 gr). The copper
denomination of Bhima similarly fallows the ‘elephant and lion’ type of Samanta and
Vakkadeva. But the animals in these examples lose depth of figure and plasticity of
features. The coins between 1.9 gms (30 gr) and 1.5 gms (24 gr).

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No.1. What do know about the origin of ancient coinage inthe South
Asia? Discuss
Q. No.2. Discuss Punch Marked Coins of the Sub-contient and highlight its
scope and importance.
Q. No.3. Why do we consider Indo-Greeks coins as a source of history in the
South Asia?
Q. No.4. Discuss the various features of Scytho-Parthian coins, how it
contribute to the history of the region? Discuss.
Q. No.5. What is the importance of Kushan period coins? Discuss its range and
geographical extention in the Sub-continent.
Q. No.6. What do you know about Huna coins? How it elaborate the history of
the region? Discuss.
Q. No.7. Hindu-Shahi period coins are always consider as basis/foundation for the
history of North-Wester region of the sub-continent? Discuss.

342
 Bibliography

Agrawala, V.S (1953) Ancient coins as known to Panini, Journal of the

NumismaticSociety of India No. 15, India.

Allan, John. (1936). Catalogue of the Coins of Ancient India in the British Museum,
London.

Benerjee, G.N., (1929) Hellenism in Ancient India, Calcutta.

Biswas, Atreyi (1973) The political history of Hunas in India on the Period from 650 to
325 BC New Delhi, Munshiram Maoharlal, India.

Chettopadhyay, B., (1977) Coins and Icons: A Study of Myths and Symbols in Indian
Numismatic Art, Calcutta.

Cunningham, Alexander (1963) Coins of ancient India from the Earliest Times Down to
the Seventh Century AD (reprint), Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, India.

Dani, A. H (1991) Bactrian and Indus Greeks, A Romantic Story from their Coins,
Lahore Museum, Lahore.

Dani, A. H (1991) Bactrian and Indus Greeks-A Romantic Story from their Coins, Lahore
Museum, Lahore.

Dani, A.H (1962) TheEvolution of the Punch-Marked Coinage in Indo-Pakistan, Museum

Journal of Pakistan, Karachi

Dani, A.H. (1956) Indian Punch Marked Coins- A New Approach, Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Pakistan.

Dar, S. R (1991) Deities on Bactrian and Indus Greek Coins, in Bactrian and Indus
Greeks, A Romantic Story from their Coins, Lahore Museum, Lahore.

Dobbins, K. Walton, (1980) A Schema of Indo-Baktrain Coinage, Numismatics Note and

Monographs, The Numismatic Society of India, Banares.

Gardner, P., (1971) The Coins of the Greek & Scythic Kings of Bacteria and India in the
British Museum, London: Reprint, New Delhi.

343
Gupta, P. L (2004) Coins –India, Land and the People, Reprint, National Book Trust,
India.

Gupta, P.L., (1971) Coins, 2nd Edition, Delhi

Hazan, Fernand (Editor), (1970) A Dictionary of Ancient Greek Civilization, Methuen &
Co. London.

Jassop, Martin (1980) Coins: An illustrated Survey from 650 BC to the Present Day,
London.

Kerengi, C., (1951) The God of the Greeks, (Editor, Joseph Campbell), London

Michael Mitchiner, (1975) Indo-Greek and Indo Scythian Coinage, Vol. I: The Early
Indo-Greeks & Their Antecedents. Hawkins Publications, London

Narain, A.K, (1955) The Coin-Type of the Indo-Greek Kings: The Numismatic Society
of India, Bombay.

Patrick, Richard, (1972) Greek Mythology, Octopus Books, London

Rahman, Abdur (1979) The last two Dynasties of Sahis, Islamabad.

Singh, Shatrughna Sharan, (1984) Early Coins of North India: An Iconographic Study,
Janaki Prakashan, Patna.

Tam, W.W., (1951) Greeks in Bactria and India, Cambridge

Walsh, E.H.C (1939) Punch-Marked Coins from Taxila, Dehli and Calcutta, India.

Whitehead R.B., (1914) Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Lahore: Vol. I, Indo-
Greeks Coins, Reprint. Argonaut Inc., Publishers, Chicago: MCMLXIX (1969).

Wilson, H.H., (1841) Ariana Antiqua, London.

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UNIT. 7

MUSLIM ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE

SUB-CONTINENT

Written by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

Reviewed by: Dr. Tahir Saeed

345
 CONTENTS
Introduction 347

Objectives 348

7. Muslim Art and Architecture in the Sub-Continent 349

7.1 Early Medieval History 349

7.2 Mughal Period 356
7.3 Regional Style of Muslim Architecture 360
7.4 Muslim Calligraphy 368
7.5 Muslim Paintings 372
7.6 Muslim Minor Arts and Crafts 381
7.7 Muslim Period Coins 385

Self Assestment Quections 391

Bibliography 392

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Introduction

In this unit author has emphasized how the tradition of Islam reached in the
regions of the Sub-continent both from the north and the south route of invasions.
In 711 CE, an Arab naval expedition under the command of Muhammad bin
Qasim arrived at the sea port of Banbhore, Sindh to suppress piracy on Arab
shipping and ended up by establishing control over the Sub-continent as far
north as Multan. Most of the local rulers remained in power but now paid tributes
to the caliph of Baghdad.

Similarly in the 11th century, the Turkish rulers of Afghanistan began the Islamic
conquest of Indian the Sub-continent from the northwest. Mahmood of Ghazni
(979-1030 CE), led a series of raids against the Rajput kingdoms and the wealthy
Hindu temples. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan became
integral parts of the Ghaznavid Empire, which had its capital at Ghazni in
Afghanistan. The Ghaznavids developed Lahore as their centre of Islamic culture
in the Punjab, and mass conversions to Islam began at this time.

The Ghaznavid kingdom was shattered near the end of the next century by the
Ghorids, the Turkish Muslim rulers of Ghor in Afghanistan. Muhammad of Ghor
swept down the Indus into India, defeated the Rajput confederacy there in 1192
CE and captured Delhi in the following year. This marked the beginning of the
Sultanat Period, which lasted for over 300 years, with five dynasties of Muslim
Sultans succeeding one another in Delhi. The Mongol, Genghiz Khan, harassed
the Delhi sultans during the 13th century CE, never succeeding in overthrowing
them. Tamerlane, the great Turkish conqueror who had his capital at Samarkand,
enter India soon after in 1398-9 CE and sacked Delhi.

In short, the real Islamic movements of the regions were completed in two phases
and from two different directions. The first phase is represented by the Arab’s
invasion of Sindh when Muhammad bin Qasim, was dispatched to Sindh to
punish those pirates who have plundered some vessels laden with valuable
presents sent by the ruler of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) for the Khalifa. He reached
Debul (identified as Banbhore) and took it by storm and Raja Dahir the ruler of
Sindh fled away.

347
The second phase is marked by the invasions of the Ghaznavids on the North-
West Frontier of Pakistan. It was through these north-western passes that many
Muslim invaders, traders, artists, poets and soldiers with their Central Asian
heritage pierced into the Indian Sub-continent. Towards the end of the 10th
century C.E, the Ghaznavid kingdom was passed on to Sabuktigin, who defeated
Jaipal, the Hindu Shahi ruler and incorporated Peshawar into his kingdom.

Objectives:After reading this unit, students will be able tounderstand the

following points;
 to stimulate student’s interest in the early Islamic and medieval
history of the Sub-continent.
 to create awareness among the readers about Mughal period art
and architecture
 to trace the history of regional style of Muslim period art and
architecture of the Sub-continent.
 to examine analytically the sources of Muslim period’scalligraphy.
 to understand historical background Muslim Paintings
 to know Muslim minor arts & crafts and coins

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7. Muslim Art and Architecture in the Sub-Continent
7.1 Early Medieval History

It was within a hundred years of the advent of Islam that the rule of its followers
stretched from the Indus in the east through North Africa and Suain to the shores
of the Atlantic in the west, absorbing the Persian Empire of the Sassanians and the
Roman provinces round the eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean. At
this time the southern region of Pakistan was also annexed to the dominions of
Islam. Later, the Islamic influence extended further to the other parts of Pakistan
and since then it has primarily been a unit of Muslim culture.

In fact the Muslim art emerged from the selective fusion of Arab, Syrian,
Byzantine, Sassanian-Persian and later Turkish, Mongol-Chinese and Indian
traditions. Its background basically was the desert and the oasis. Its spatial sense
was expressed in infinity systematically subdivided and the sense of time
determined by the swiftness of horse and the endlessness of God. As such, a new
complex of artistic forms was developed using the older techniques of the
preceding art styles, but in accordance with a new scale of values.

The tectonics of Muslim architecture was in the beginning, therefore, limited to

the primary forms, though delightful shapes and geometrical decorations on the
wall surfaces were frequently employed. The decorative art was further
embellished with script and arabesque ornamentation and inter-twined. These
geometric, floral and calligraphic motifs were reproduced in endless combinations
with taste and vigour. The representation of the human figure was, however,
prohibited in the early period, though under the Sassanian and Turkish influences
later on, it was only excluded from public places. The industrial art was functional
but the ceramic wares possessed designs and colours not even surpassed by
Chinese pottery and porcelain.

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In Pakistan, the Muslim era was formally inaugurated by Muhammad bin Qasim
when he conquered the lower Indus Valley in 711-12. Then early in the eleventh
century Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna annexed the Punjab, but it was not until the
arrival of Sultan Muizzuddin and his Governor Qutb-uddin Aibak in 1192 that the
Muslim rule was established in a large portion of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent.
In 1206 Qutb-uddin Aibak founded the first dynasty of the Sultans of Delhi and
settled down here, thereby creating conditions for the growth of Muslim culture
under local influences. The Khaljis and the Tughlaq Sultans extended their rule
down to Madurai in South India, but, in the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Indo-
Pak sub-continent was divided into a number of warring principalities under the
local Muslim rulers. Later in the 16th century, the Muslim rule was again
consolidated under the Mughal emperors. The 18th century, however, saw the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire which was completely replaced by the
British in 1857.

The earliest remains of Muslim art and culture have been exposed at Banbhore
situated about 60 kilometer north-east of Karachi. Here, the first Muslims to
appear on the scene were Arabs and as an evidence of that a number of copper
coins of the tenth Umayyad Caliph, Hisham bin Abdul Malik (724 to 734), have
been found. Along with these coins from the early levels has been unearthed a
type of pottery which was made in Syria during the Umayyad period. It is glazed
white, thin textured and moulded in relief with Kufic inscriptions and floral-cum-
geometric patterns. Glazed pottery vessels recovered from the same levels show
Persian influence. However, special significance in this class of pottery is the
heavy textured blue-green glazed storage jars.

The Persian influence appears even more predominant during the later periods
and a large number of glazed pottery-ware discovered from the upper levels
closely resembles the Persian prototypes of the 10th-13th centuries CE. Unglazed
350
polychrome with cream, black and red colours is another significant type of
pottery found from the later layers. It has geometric designs with representations
of birds and animals. Glass articles show a high quality of craftsmanship and
display the technique of glass-making in vogue in Syria in the early Muslim
period. The Arab culture, language and literature were introduced and
breakthrough in these areas. During the second and third Centuries of Hijra, these
influences were strengthened when Arab independent Emirates were established
here with capitals at Multan and Al-Mansurah.

The structural remains exposed at Banbhore so far, include the citadel defenses,
gates, residential buildings and a mosque. The architectural style is simple and
locally available stone has been generally used in the construction though baked
bricks are also to be seen here and there. The mosque which dates back to 109
A.H. (772 CE) establishing itself as the earliest mosque in the Indo-Pakistan sub-
continent, is not much different in plan from the early mosques built by the
Muslims at Kufa and Wasit without a niche pointing to “Kaba” which was
introduced later on. It consists of an open court surrounded by roofed arcades.
Under the medieval Muslim dynasties of the sub-continent the chaste style of
Muslim architecture was highly influenced by the local traditional arts. But the
fusion of Muslim and local forms and ornaments was so perfect that it did not
impair the purely Muslim impression. The imposing mausoleums of the saints
Bahauddin Zakarya and Shams Tabrez at Multan are the excellent examples of
this period.

The beckon of Islamic culture came from Central Asia to this part of the
Subcontinent which was initiated through the military excursions of Sebuktegin,
and later by his son and successor Mahmood of Ghazna in the later decades of the
10th and the early decades of the 11th Century CE. Sultan Mahmood introduced

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characteristic features of Central Asian architecture in the land of today's Pakistan
and is said to have erected a mosque and a victory tower at Lahore.

The Islamic rule and culture in the Subcontinent, however, gained a permanent
footing after Shahab-ud-Din Ghuri defeated Pirthvi Raj and captured the throne at
Delhi in 1193. The stream of history since then flowed uninterrupted through the
successive rule of the Central Asian Turks, the Khaljis, the Tughluqs, Sayyids and
the Lodis. This was a very important period of the socio-cultural, religious-
spiritual as well as political history of Pakistan, all permeated with Central Asian
character and traditions.

Through the religious and secular buildings of this period anew and distinct style
of architecture was introduced and practiced. It was based on the characteristic
features of Central Asian art of buildings. The naked brick architecture, as it is
commonly known, its specimens are mainly brick construction having marvelous
cut-brick decoration. The earliest known outstanding specimens are like the tomb
of Muhammad b. Harun at Bela (Balochistan), the Mausoleum of Khalid Walid at
Kabirwala (Multan) and the tomb of Sadan Shah at Muzaffargarh. Later on brick
decoration was replaced with faience or faience mosaic revetment, and wooden
embellishment. These specimens are mostly funerary memorials erected over the
graves of the saintly personages.

In Pakistan, we have a number of such memorials spread over almost every place
in the country. The climax of this style is however, significantly represented by
the famous mausoleum of Shah Rukn-i-Alam at Multan which has been
acclaimed as the most splendid memorial ever erected in honour of the dead. The
specimens of the later period are present at Uchchh, Dipalpur, Multan, Sitpur,
Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, Kot Mithan, Jalalpur Pir
Wala and many other places.

352
The land of Sind has, in this connection, its own distinguished identity. During the
long period of history, its large parts were ruled by local dynasts of Sumras,
Sammas, Tarkhans, Arghuns and Talpurs. These rulers have left an imprint on the
socio-cultural history of Sind; they issued coins, built palaces and other religious
and secular buildings, patronized arts and literature. The masterpieces of the art of
buildings belonging to these periods are Makli Hill Grave yard, Chokundi,
Hanidan and Mausoleums of Talpurs at Hyderabad.

In fact the first major Islamic kingdom in Indo-Pakistan subcontinent was the
Delhi Sultanate, which led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture,
combining Indian and Islamic features of art and architecture. The rule of the
Mughal Empire, when Mughal architecture evolved, is regarded as the apex of
Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj Mahal being the high point of their
contribution. The Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and Sikh styles
as well. The earliest examples of Indo-Islamic architecture were constructed
during this period by the Delhi Sultanates, most famously the Qutb Minar
complex, which consists of Qutb Minar, a brick minaret commissioned by Qutub-
ud-Din Aibak, as well as other monuments built by successive Delhi Sultans.
Similarly, Alai Minar, a minaret twice the size of Qutb Minar was commissioned
by Alauddin Khilji but never completed. The other examples include the
Tughlaqabad Fort and Hauz Khas Complex during the early medieval period.

The early Muslim medieval architecture is in fact the architecture of the Indian
subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. The development
of this architecture began with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of the
Ghurid dynasty in 1193. Thereafter succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi
Sultanate, represented by a series of Central Asian dynasties that consolidated a
large part of India, and later by the Mughal Empire during the 15th century. These

353
dynasties introduced Persian, Turk and Islamic art and architecture styles into the
subcontinent.

The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques
and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously
built in the sub-continent. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large
domes, and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features were hardly used
in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. These types of
building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and
completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple
architecture. The Muslim architecture initially adapted the skills of a workforce
trained in earlier Indian traditions to their own designs. As we see that most of the
Islamic world, where brick tended to predominates, but sub-continent had highly
skilled builders to producing stone masonry of extremely high quality of
architecture.

The best-preserved examples from the days of the early years of Islam in South Asia
are of a mosque at Banbhore and the city of al-Mansura, in Sindh. The start of the
Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb al-Din Aibak introduced a large Islamic state to
India, using Central Asian styles. The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun
under Muhammad of Ghor, by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and
later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was the first structure representing the
Iranian style, but the arches are still corbelled in the traditional Indian style. Besides,
the Qutb Minar, (victory tower), which is about 73 meters high.

The Tomb of Iltutmish was constructed in 1236, its dome, the squinches again
corbelled, is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having
an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition. The early
mosque, which begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer,

354
Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes.
The bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and white marble,
introduce what was to become a common feature of Muslim architecture,
substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed
arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe arch effect,
and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized
"spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds.

The marvelous tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to 1324) in Multan is a

large octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that
remains much closer to the styles of Iran and Afghanistan. This was the earliest
major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), built during the
unsustainable expansion of its massive territory. It was built for a Sufi saint rather
than a sultan. The tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d.
1325) is more ascetic, but impressive. It is completely lacks carved texts, and sits in a
compound with high walls and battlements. The Tughlaqs left many buildings, and a
standardized dynastic style. Sultan, Firuz Shah (r. 1351-88) is said to have designed
buildings himself, and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty, his
Firoz Shah Palace Complex (started 1354) is at Hisar, Haryana.

By this time Islamic architecture in sub-continent had adopted some features of

earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high plinth and often mouldings
around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls. After the death
of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. The
monumental buildings constructed were mostly the tombs. The impressive Lodi
Gardens in Delhi decorated with fountains, charbagh gardens, ponds, tombs and
mosques were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. Besides, the architecture of other
regional Muslim states was often more imposing and impressing.

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7.2 Mughal Period

The early decades of the 16th century witnessed political change in the
Subcontinent and brought a new reigning power to the scene. The progenitor of
the Moghul Empire, was Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530). He was
succeeded by Humayun (1530-1554) Akbar (1554-1604), Jahangir (1605-1627),
Shahjahan (1628-1658), Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and others. The rule of this
imperial power lasted for well over three hundred years when it declined and fell.
It was in 1857 that the last Moghul emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by
the British East India Company who inaugurated the British rule.

These imperial patrons of art and culture patronized not only architecture but almost
all art forms such as: paintings, calligraphy, coinage, armoury, and other minor arts.
They established imperial libraries and studios to create best specimens of these arts.
The coins of this period too are pieces of art for their purification, designing and
variety. The art of book reached its height which combined miniature paintings as
well. Their objects of daily use were in fact objects de-art which were made of gold,
silver and other precious and semi precious metals and stones. A large number of
these arts, illustrated manuscripts of classical Persian works, albums of painting and
calligraphy, gold and silver coins now form proud possessions of museums and art
galleries throughout the world.

The Mughal Empire from 1526 to 1857 left a mark on Indian architecture that was
a mix of Islamic, Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Central Asian and native Indian
architecture. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of
buildings and courtyards. Akbar made a major contribution to Mughal
architecture. He systematically designed forts and towns in similar symmetrical
styles that blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of a fort Akbar
designed at Agra exhibits the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants, and birds.
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The Mughal Emperors whose ideas of culture were strongly coloured by their
Timurid ancestors and Safavid contemporaries, introduced further refinement in
the architectural features during the 16th and 17th century. The tomb of Jahangir,
Palaces in the Old Fort of Lahore, the Badshahi Mosque and various other
monuments of this period are remarkable for their rich interiors, decorative
designs and the use of bulbous double domes, octagonal pavilions and beautiful
gardens. The material normally used by the Mughals in the construction, apart
from marble, was red sand stone. In the later Mughal period, brick core was
covered first with a mosaic of special cut monochrome tiles in bright blue, white,
yellow and green encaustic colours and later with square tiles on which a much
richer decoration, predominantly green, sometimes also pink or marine blue had
been painted, were used. The tile decoration though primarily introduced under
the Persian influence, also comprised many local elements which may be seen
most pronounced on the north and west walls of the Lahore Fort. Features of the
paramount court style of the Moghuls also infiltrated into the provinces and we
find many examples of tile decoration with local variations in Multan and the
Sindh region of Pakistan.

However, during the Mughal era design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture

were fused with and often produced playful forms of the local art. Lahore,
occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits a multiplicity of important
buildings from the empire, among them the most significant and splendid
specimen of Muslim architecture are; Badshahi mosque, the Lahore Fort with the
famous Alamgiri Gate, the Wazir Khan Mosque, as well as numerous other
mosques and mausoleums. The Shahjahan Mosque at Thatta, Sindh was built
under, and probably largely by Shah Jahan, but strongly reflects Central Asian
Islamic style, as the emperor had recently been campaigning near Samarkand.

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In fact the Mughals introduced a much refined and sophisticated socio-cultural
pattern in the society. Babur, a product of Samarqand and Farghana, paid his
attention towards laying out gardens at several places of his newly conquered
territory .History reveals that one such garden was laid in the Salt Range area and
was named as Bagh-i-Safa. Only traces of this vanquished garden are left now.
No other building of his, or for that matter, of his successor Humayun is known to
exist now in Pakistan, except the ruined Baradari at Lahore erected by Kamran
Mirza within a vast enclosed garden. However, Akbar, the real architect of the
Moghul Empire, built a number of buildings in Lahore of which the fortifications
of the fort with impressive gate-ways, and the palaces within itare remarkable
specimens of an architectural style which is termed as an admixture of the Hindu-
Jaina and Iranian characteristics. His son and successor Jahangir added a few
more buildings within and without the fort.

The architectural accomplishments for instance, the Maryam Zamani Masjid and
the tomb of Anarkali, both at Lahore, are significant examples of majestic but
robust architecture. While the latter is an embodiment of majesty and grandiose
representing a link between the Lodi, Suri and the Mughal architectural
characterizes, the former presents a unique feat of colour presentation of fresco
art. Incidentally, here in this mosque we meet for the first time in Pakistan the
earliest example of the double dome.

The city of Lahore and Thatta are no doubt the two celebrated historic cities where
the most sumptuous representation of Islamic architecture of the grand Moghuls is
found in such abundance. The sumptuous palaces inthe Lahore Fort, the Shalamar,
the mausoleums of Jahangir, Nurjehan and Asif Khan, the Badshahi Mosque, an at
Lahore, and a galaxy of funerary memorials, the Dabgaran Mosque, the Shah Jahan
Mosque at Thatta and Makli, and a number of religious and secular monuments
spread over the various parts of Sind are some of the best specimens of the art of
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building created during the period which show the height of tasteful patronage and
the skill and proficiency of the master-artists and artisans.

The most famous examples of the Mughal architecture are the series of imperial
mausolea, which started with the pivotal Tomb of Humayun, but are best known
for the Taj Mahal. It is known for features including monumental buildings with
large, bulbous onion domes, surrounded by gardens on all four sides, and delicate
ornamentation work, including pachin kari decorative work and jali-latticed
screens. The Red Fort at Agra (1565–74) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri
(1569–74) are among the architectural achievements of the Mughal period as is
the Taj Mahal, in Agra which was built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal by
Shah Jahan (1628–58). The marvelous work includes the employing of the double
dome, the recessed archway and tile work of plant ornaments which is one of the
wonders of the world.

The Mughal architecture however influenced indigenous Rajput styles of

architecture. The Rajput Architecture represents different types of buildings, which
may broadly be classed as secular or religious. The secular buildings are of various
scales. These include temples, forts, step well, gardens, and palaces. The forts were
specially built for defense and military purposes. The Mughal architecture has
however, a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes,
slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate
ornamentation, usually surrounded by gardens on all four sides.

Akbar and Jahangir Period (1556–1627)

The earliest example in Pakistan is the Lahore Fort, which had existed at least since the
11th century but was completely rebuilt by various Mughal Emperors. The Tomb of
Anarkali, Hiran Minar and Begum Shahi Mosque also date back to this period.

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Shah Jahan Period (1628–1658)

The Tomb of Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, was completed in 1637
during the reign of his son and successor Shah Jahan. The Emperor had forbidden
the construction of a dome over his tomb, and thus the roof is simple and free of
any embellishments. It stands amidst a garden which also houses the Tomb of Nur
Jahan, Tomb of Asif Khan and Akbari Sarai, the one of the most well-preserved
caravanserais. The Mughal architecture reached its zenith in the 17th century
during the reign of Shah Jahan. During this time, several additions were made to
the Lahore Fort. Other masterpieces of this time include the Wazir Khan Mosque,
Dai Anga Mosque, Tomb of Dai Anga, Shalimar Gardens and Shahi Hammam in
Lahore. The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta reflects a heavy Persian influence.

Aurangzeb Period (1658–1707)

The Badshahi Mosque in Lahore was built during the reign of Aurangzeb in 1673.
It is made out of red sandstone with three marble domes, very similar to the Jama
Masjid of Delhi. It remains one of the largest mosques in the world.

However, with the decline and collapse of the Mughal empire, the Muslim society
in the subcontinent also received a real set back, never to regain the lost glory
.The petty states and chiefdoms at many places of the areas which are now
Pakistan, were only a shadow of its past grandeur, which have never been able to
view with its past. The rule of the Sikhs and the earlier phase of the British
ascendancy brought a death knell to this Islamic culture.

7.3 Regional Style of Muslim Architecture

Muslim architecture is represented mainly in the shape of standing monuments

and archaeological heritage sites which constitute:-

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 i. The Mosque architecture
ii. The Madrasa architecture
iii. Tombs and Mausolea
iv. Cities and Towns
v. Victory Towers
vi. Forts and Fortresses
vii. Gardens
viii. Serai (Inn)
ix. Baolis (Step well)

Alongside the architecture which developed in Delhi and prominent centers such
as at Agra, Lahore and Allahabad, a variety of regional styles was also developed
in regional kingdoms like the Bengal, Gujarat, Deccan, Jaunpur and Kashmir
Sultanates. By the Mughal period, generally agreed to represent the peak of the
style, aspects of Islamic style began to influence architecture made for Hindus.
This was especially the case in palace architecture. However, with the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs such as in Lucknow,
Hyderabad and Mysore continued to commission and patronize the construction
of Mughal-style architecture in the princely states.

The significant regional styles developed in the independent sultanates formed

when the Tughlaq Empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until
most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. The sultanates of
the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal and Kashmir are some examples. Besides,
the architecture of the Malwa and Jaunpur sultanates has also left some significant
buildings. The notable buildings of the Bahmani and Deccan sultanates in the
Deccan include the Charminar, Makkah Masjid, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Madrasa
Mahmud Gawan and Gol Gumbaz.

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The style of the Bengal Sultanate mostly used brick, with characteristic features
being indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and
complex terracotta ornamentation which were with blended. One feature in the
Sultanate was the relative absence of minarets. Many small and medium-sized
medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were
constructed throughout the region. The largest mosque in the subcontinent was the
14th century Adina Mosque. Built of stone, it featured a monumental ribbed
barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the
subcontinent. The mosque was modelled on the imperial Sasanian style of Persia.
The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial
style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and
18th centuries.

The Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan broke away from the Tughlaqs in 1347, and
ruled from Gulbarga, Karnataka and then Bidar until overrun by the Mughals in
1527. The main mosque (1367) in the large Gulbarga Fort or citadel is unusual in
having no courtyard. There are a total of 75 domes, all small and shallow and
small except for a large one above the mihrab and four lesser ones at the corners.
The large interior has a central hypostyle space and wide aisles with "transverse"
arches springing from unusually low down (illustrated). This distinctive feature is
found in other Bahmanid buildings, and probably reflects Iranian influence, which
is seen in other features such as a four-iwan plan and glazed tiles, some actually
imported from Iran, used elsewhere. The architect of the mosque is said to have
been Persian.

The Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (begun 1460s) is a large madrasa "of wholly
Iranian design" in Bidar founded by a chief minister, with parts decorated in
glazed tiles imported by sea from Iran. Outside the city, the Ashtur tombs are a
group of eight large domed royal tombs. These have domes which are slightly
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pulled in at the base, predating the onion domes of Mughal architecture. The Qutb
Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad, not absorbed by the Mughal until 1687, greatly
developed the city and its surrounding region, building many mosques such as the
Makkah Masjid, Khairtabad Mosque, Hayat Bakshi Mosque and Toli Mosque, as
well as the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Charminar, Char Kaman
and Taramati Baradari.

The architecture of Bengal has a long and rich history, blending indigenous
elements from the Indian subcontinent, with influences from different parts of the
world. Bengali architecture includes ancient urban architecture, religious
architecture, rural vernacular architecture, colonial townhouses and country
houses, and modern urban styles. The bungalow style is a notable architectural
export of Bengal. The corner towers of Bengali religious buildings were
replicated in medieval Southeast Asia. Bengali curved roofs, suitable for the very
heavy rains, were adopted into a distinct local style of Indo-Islamic architecture,
and used decoratively elsewhere in the north India in Mughal architecture.

However, Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and traditional Bengali
architecture mostly uses brick and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood,
bamboo and thatch styles of local vernacular architecture for houses. Decorative
carved or moulded plaques of terracotta (the same material as the brick) are a
special feature. The brick is extremely durable and disused ancient buildings were
often used as a convenient source of materials by local people, often being
stripped to their foundations over the centuries.

The Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) normally used brick as the primary

construction material of large buildings, as pre-Islamic buildings had done. The
stone had to be imported to most of Bengal, whereas clay for bricks was plentiful.
But stone was used for columns and prominent details. The early 15th century

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Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, Malda or Adina, is often taken to be the earliest
surviving square single-domed Islamic building in Bengal, the standard form of
smaller mosques and mausoleums. But there is a small mosque at Molla Simla,
Hooghly district that is possibly from 1375, earlier than the mausoleum. The
Eklakhi Mausoleum is large and has several features that were to become
common in the Bengal style, including a slightly curved cornice, large round
decorative buttresses at the corners, and decoration in carved terracotta brick.

The Choto Sona Mosque (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal,
but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village
house roofs made of vegetable thatch. However, such roofs feature even more
strongly is seen in later Bengal Hindu temple architecture, with types such as the
do-chala, jor-bangla, and char-chala. For larger mosques, Bengali architects
multiplied the numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of
three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and
now in Bangladesh.

The Adina Mosque (1374–75) is very large, which is unusual in Bengal, with a
barrel vaulted central hall flanked by hypostyle areas. It is said to be the largest
mosque in the sub-continent, and modeled after the Ayvan-e Kasra of Ctesiphon,
Iraq, as well as the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus. The heavy rainfall in Bengal
necessitated large roofed spaces, and the nine-domed mosque, which allowed a
large area to be covered, was more popular there than anywhere else.

Under the Gujarat Sultanate, independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a
prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty, who built
lavishly, particularly in the capital, Ahmedabad. The sultanate commissioned
mosques such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at Champaner,
Jami Masjid at Khambhat, Qutbuddin Mosque, Rani Rupamati Mosque, Sarkhej

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Roza, Sidi Bashir Mosque, Kevada Mosque, Sidi Sayyed Mosque, Nagina
Mosque and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as Teen Darwaza,
Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir Step well in Ahmedabad.

The Gujarat style of the 15th century is especially notable for its inventive and
elegant use of minarets. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly
rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs
push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was
in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the Jama Mosque,
Ahmedabad, which fell down in an earthquake in 1819. This carving draws on the
traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in
the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.

During the year 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the Shah Mir dynasty
established a sultanate encompassing the region of Kashmir (consisting of
modern-day Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and
Aksai Chin), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the
hybridization of culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of
Kashmir. In the capital at Srinagar, Sikandar Shah Mir constructed the Jamia
Masjid, a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements of
Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden Khanqah-e-Moulah mosque.

Also in Srinagar are the Aali Masjid and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. The two
14th-century wooden mosques in Gilgit-Baltistan are the Chaqchan Mosque in
Khaplu (1370) and the Amburiq Mosque in Shigar. Both have stone-built cores
with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an
adaptation of traditional regional styles.

In Hyderabad, the Asaf Jahi dynasty became exceedingly wealthy and was one of
the richest royal families in the world by the mid-20th century. The Nizam
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commissioned construction of various public works and buildings in their state
(often in Indo-Saracenic and Mughal style) such as the Telangana High Court,
City College, Public Gardens, (formerly Bagh-e-Aaam), Jubilee Hall, Asafia
Library, The Assembly building, Niloufer Hospital, the Osmania Arts College and
Osmania Medical College, as well as palaces like Hyderabad House and
Chowmahalla Palace.

The Deccan sultanates were five dynasties that ruled late medieval kingdoms,
namely, Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar in south-western
India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan Plateau. Their
architecture was a regional variant of Indo-Islamic architecture, heavily
influenced by the styles of the Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal architecture, but
sometimes also directly from Persia and Central Asia.

The rulers of five Deccan sultanates had a number of cultural contributions to

their credit in the fields of art, music, literature and architecture. Deccan
sultanates have constructed many grand and impregnable forts. Bidar and
Golconda forts are classic example of military planning of Deccan sultanates.
Apart from forts, they have constructed many tombs, mosques and madrasas. Gol
Gumbaz (tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah), was the second largest dome in the
world. Bidar is famous for Bidar Fort, Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, the Bahamani
tombs at Ashtur and the Barid Shahi tombs.

Bidar Fort is one of the grandest forts which has about ten kilometer long wall
made of huge stone blocks of reddish stone. The fort contains many palaces and
two large mosques, the Jami Masjid and the Solha Khumba Masjid. The Ashtur
tomb complex contains 12 tombs of Bahmani rulers out of which the tomb of
Ahmad Shah I Wali has a large dome. Madrasa of Mahmud Gawana is one of the

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most beautiful Madrasa created by the Deccan sultanate. The tomb of Ali Barid
Shah I contains s Persian charbagh garden.

The most remarkable monuments in Bijapur are the Gol Gumbaz and Ibrahim
Rouza. Gol Gumbaz is the tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah and it contains the
second largest dome in the world constructed before modern age. The external
diameter of the hemispherical dome is 44 m. Ibrahim Rouza is the tomb for
Ibrahim Adil Shah II and it is one of the most beautiful monuments in Bijapur.
Other important architectural works of this period in Bijapur are the Chini Mahal,
Jal Mandir, Sat Manzil, Gagan Mahal, Anand Mahal and the Asar Mahal (1646).

The most remarkable achievement of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is construction of

Golkonda fort. It is one of the most impregnable forts. It is also famous for its
acoustic features and water management. The Jami Masjid (1518) built by Quli
Qutb Mulk is a notable mosque in Golkonda. The tombs of Qutb Shahis are a
mausoleum complex, a royal necropolis of 30 tombs of the royal family. These
were erected from 1543 to 1672. Char Minar, in the heart of Hyderabad, was
completed in 1591. It has four minarets of 56 m. height. The construction of the
Makkah Masjid was started in 1617 during the reign of Muhammad Qutb Shah
but completed only in 1693. Gulbarga was the initial capital of Bahamani
sultanate. It has Shah Bazar Masjid, Gulbarga Fort and Great Mosque,in the Fort
and the Haft Gumbad complex.

The Makli Necropolis at Thatta, Sindh which includes tombs of various rulers,
noblemen and Sufi saints, was built between the 14th and 18th centuries. It
showcases a wide variety of architecture, including Indo-Islamic, Persian, Hindu
and Rajput and Gujarati influences. The Chaukhandi Tombs near Karachi are
similar in style.

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7.4 Muslim Calligraphy

During 12th Century BCE, the phonesians had given birth to a revolutionary era in
the world of writing by introduction and adopting of alphabets. The Aramis is
further refined and expanded it which gave rise to many of shoots including the
modern Hebrew, Arabic, Khoroshiti, Brahmi and the (old Persian) Pahlavi script.
At that time the criteria for development of a civilization, was its script. In this
perspective, by tradition, Iran had a strong legacy of cultural, intellectual and
literary heritage. After the dominance of Islam and the end of the Sassanian reign
in Iran, the ancient Pahlavi script also ceased to exist and the Arabic script was
adopted for writing Pahlavi language.

Along with the Arabic Language, the Arabic script also quickly became popular
and quickly found its place in Iran and therefore the Arabic script not only
encompassed the whole scenario of life in Iran but efforts began for its
improvement. All the evolutionary stages of the Arabic script were quickly
crossed due to the nature of the local complexion and the high degrees of taste in
Iran. Therefore by the fourth century, six different styles of the script had been
invented which were given the name of "Khutut-e-Shashgana" i.e the "Six styles
of Writing" These styles were the accomplishment of Hasan bin Husain Ali Farsi,
commonly known as Ibn-e-Muqlah.

The first effort for correction in the Arabic script was made by Khawaja Abdul
Ali Back who invented "‫ “گ‬,‫ “چ‬,‫ پ‬and "‫"ژ‬, while simultaneously making
improvements in the "Taliq" style. By invention of new letters, on the one hand
where Arabic letters harmonized with Persian sounds, it also added to the beauty
of Taliq.

The continuous improvements in Taliq, even led to a misconception among some

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researcher and they started referring Khawja Abdul Ali as the inventor of the
Taliq style. The name of Maulana Darvesh is also very important in connection
with Taliq. A part from him Khawaja Abdullah Sarfi, Mullah Mohy-ud-din
Shirazi, Mullah Marvarid have also been renowned Abdulla Ash Parharvi, Mullah
Abu bakr, Mullah Shiekh Mahmood, Hafiz Hafeez and Khawaja Abdullah figures
in Taliq. Taliq for personal use and Naskh for transcribing of religious books also
came specific in Iran, while Sulus was used for decorative purposes. The other
styles were also visible at some places.

In the beginning of the Muslim era, the Arabic script was written in “Kufic”
characters. It had three distinctive styles: a rounded cursive, elongated uprights,
and rectilinear connectives. It was the script of the Caliphate and was used for
writing the Holy Quran up to c. 1000 and for other inscriptions until the 15th
century. “Naskh,” a rounded script of rather level ductus, was the characteristic
writing of the Seljuq period and since then it has been in use with a variety of
decorative styles. “Nastaliq” is the most completely Persian of the forms with a
drooping ductus, strongly repetitive curvature and almost complete elimination of
straight lines. It evolved gradually in the late 14th century and has been used
mostly in the writing of Persian works.

Before the introduction of printing techniques, all the literary and other works
were handwritten and great interest was taken in calligraphy. But the
extraordinary attention, with which the Muslims turned calligraphy into an art,
may be accounted to the reason that the representation of living things was
forbidden by their religion and they had to confine the outlet of their artistry
almost exclusively to calligraphy, both for writing the books and decorating their
buildings. Like other parts of the Muslim world, this art also flourished in
Pakistan from the earliest period of its conquest by the Muslims, a fact which is

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corroborated by the discoveries of a number of inscriptions at Banbhore dating
back to the begging of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of Hijra.

Since then calligraphy has been the favourite art of the Muslims in this sub-
continent. It, however, attained the height of its development under the Mughal
patronage. It formed an important factor even in the training of royal princes.
Emperor Aurangzeb himself was an excellent scribe and the specimens of the
Holy Quran transcribed by him are well known. The manuscript copy of “Diwan
Prince Dara Shikoh”, which is in the National Museum of Pakistan, is an
excellent piece of calligraphy.

The illumination of manuscript developed side by side with calligraphy in all the
Muslim countries. At first, the illuminations were largely in gold with tricks of
brown, red, blue and green. In the 14th and early 15th centuries delicate black or
black and gold drawings in margins assumed a characteristic minute scale.
However, Pink, violet, orange and blue greens were added in the later periods.

The manuscripts and rich miniature books were generally bound in leather, the
edges being protected by a flap. The normal decoration of stamping with beaded
edges, medallions in the centre and unobtrusive script in the corners lasted up to
the 15th century. In the later periods it was replaced by opulent stamped gilding
with arabesques and decorative figure groups and occasionally lacquer work in
the Chinese manner.

After the acceptance of Islam, the Persians also adopted the Arabic script. At that
time Kufic style was in practice in Arabic script. When Kufic found its way in
Iran, greater attention was paid to its vertical portions, rather than its horizontal
and flat angularities. This resulted in a comparatively different Kufic style in Iran
and so much attention was devoted to its decorative aspect, that when a word
transformed into a sentence, an unfelt symmetry doubled its beauty. These were
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early formations and the Quranic copies of that period, written on leather and their
resemblance with decorative styles of a much later period bears testimony to the
taste and skill of the Iranians.

The Suljuki period from the beginning of 5th century Hijrah till the end of the 6th
century Hijrah, also proved very beneficial for calligraphy. In this period Kufic
seems to reach the height of its glory. The Kufic was a favorite art of the
ancestors. Therefore Babar learned it himself and was given the title of "Haft
Qalam". When Babar came to India, he not only brought along with him, painters,
architects, poets, writers and historians, but Khawaja Abd-al Samad, Mir Syed
Ali, Sheikh Zain Khawani also accompanied him as calligraphers. Humainyun
also tried to patronize the art of calligraphy in the way that Babar had laid its
foundation, but he did not live that long.

Apart from Abdul Haee, the renowned calligrapher of the Humaiyun's period,
Khawja Sultan Ali was also a part of Humaiyun's court, who was later given the
title of "Afzal Khan" by Akbar. The period of Akbar is in fact, the golden period
of the Fine Arts. Here, calligraphy crossed the evolutionary stages in Asia. Akbar
was very fond of painting, and therefore new dimensions of decorative
calligraphy appeared and expressed themselves in painting.

At that time the trend of expressing poetry through painting was evolving.
Therefore, many books appeared with decorative calligraphy and painting, in
which experts of art portrayed their skill. Many artistic works of such painting
based calligraphy are even found today in many libraries across the world,
especially in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA.

Many calligraphers belonged to the Mughal period which include Muhammad

Husain Kashmiri, Khawaja Abd-ul-Samad, Vaswant, Maulana Abdul Aziz,
Khawja Muhammad Sharif, Abdur Rasheed Valmi, Amanat Khan Shirazi, Mirza
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Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khanan, Mir Masoom Qandhari, Maulana Maqsood Harvi,
Tamkeen Kabuli, Ahmad Husain Chishti, Ali Ahmad Har Kanna, Mirza Muhammad
Husain Noor Allah, Mir Abdullah Tabrezi, Khusro Shahzadah, Sultan Parvez
Shahzadah, Muhammad Din Ishaq, Ahmad Ali Arshad, Abdul Bazi Madar, Arif Yaqut
Raqam, Mir Muhammad Kashi, Muhammad Saleh Kashmiri, Syed Ali Khan Husaini
and many other eminent calligraphers. The art of calligraphy continued to develop,
even after the establishment of Pakistan and many calligraphers achieved world fame,
however all this was done on an individual level.

7.5 Muslim Paintings

Many texts refer to wall paintings during the early Muslm period in the sub-
continent. It appears it have been a Ghaznavid import by the early Sultans in
Delhi. Later references are from such cross-cultural works. They describe wall
paintings with subjects from the Indian epics. The Sultanate paintings (16th
century) pre-Mughal or non-Mughal paintings for Muslim curs or the Muslim
community is in most cases readily identifiable by the Indian figures in Indian
garb portrayed in an Indian manner along with salient features from Timurid
painting. However, the first notable surviving Sultanate paintings illustrate a
Ni’mat Nama produced in Mandu in the first year of the 16th century for Ghiyas-
us-din Khalji, whose 15000 seraglio were trained in all the useful arts.

During the Mughal rule, the art of miniature painting was introduced when
Emperor Humayun brought along with him Mir Sayid Ali and Abd al-Samad, the
two painters of the Persian court of Shah Tahmasp-I. Later on, during the rule of
Akbar the Great they were responsible to train a number of Muslim and Hindu
artists. The result was that the Persian delicacy of detail and linear grace
combined with the characteristic Indian palette of varied greens, glowing reds,

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oranges, and the fusion into a single style of the indigenous taste for scenery and
figures produced a number of remarkable manuscripts and album paintings.

With the passage of time, the number of local artists grew considerably at the
Mughal court and master painters like Daswanth and Basawan illustrated the
famous romance of Hamza, Razm-Nama etc. But much of their finest work was
produced in the shape of isolated miniature paintings for allbums depicting
portraits, incidents of court life, beautiful animals and flowers. This was executed
in a style basically Safavid-Persian, but indigenous in most of its detail. During
the reign of Emperor Jahangir, the naturalistic tendency gained the upper hand.
The careful studies of animals, birds, flowers, and trees etc., executed at this time
are some of the most exquisite examples of the Mughal art.

However, with Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, this art reached its
perfection. The stage of experiments was over and the paintings represented a
harmonious and sometimes even gorgeous depiction of court ceremonies, social
parties and palace life. It was noble, representative and refined but lacking the
vitality of Akbar’s period or the keen interest in life of Jahangir’s time. Under
Aurangzeb (1658-1707), the art of painting did not receive much encouragement
but with Farrukhsiyar (1713-1718) and Muhammad Shah (1719-1748), painting
again became a favorite art at the court.

The decadence of the Mughal Empire saw the dispersal of the artists, who were
induced more and more to find a secure existence in the service of local Nawabs
and Rajas, who had by then established their independent states in various parts of
the sub-continent. The imitation of the Imperial Mughal style, however, continued
for another century though it did not achieve more than clumsy copying of scenes
and figures without proportions, and expression in dull colours. Amongst the
various local schools of painting which thus came into existence, the Hyderabad

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School produced some fie work in the early 18th century under the impact of the
late Deccani painting.

Similarly, originally defined as a small painting in an illuminated scroll or book,

miniature paintings were popular in the scholarly centers of Europe, Persia, and
Asia in the 13th and 14th centuries, where their small scale and great detail made
jewel like additions to the written pages. The main function of the miniature was
to visually explain or extend the written text, helping make it more
understandable; over time, the practice of miniature painting became a method of
storytelling in itself, with rich details woven into the small spaces.

Influenced by Persian artists, South Asia was no exception to this large-scale love
of tiny pictures. The Mughal emperors introduced and popularized the Mughal
style of Indian painting which emerged, developed and took shape during the
period of the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The war scenes, courtly life, and
palace ceremonies were the usual subjects for a miniature. Later, intricate
miniatures of animals and flowers were also painted.

The Mughals, perhaps more than any other Islamic dynasty, made their love of
the arts and their aesthetics, a central part of their identity as rulers. The second
Mughal emperor, Humayun believed that artists "were the delight of the entire
world" and lured several Persian masters to his court from Persia and Central
Asia. When he was abruptly deposed by an Afghan rebel, he sought political
asylum at the court of the Shah of Iran. The Shah, who had just undergone a
conversion to a strict form of Islam, lost interest in figural painting and dismissed
the painters of his renowned atelier. Humayun, a lover of the arts, took advantage
of the situation and hired some of the Shah's recently unemployed painters, most
notably Mir Sayyid Ali and returned with them to India. This began the era of one

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of the most celebrated art forms of the Indian subcontinent namely Mughal
miniature art.

The imperial Mughal painting rose with remarkable rapidity in the mid-sixteenth
century. In its initial phases it showed some indebtedness to the Safavid school of
Persian painting but rapidly moved away from Persian ideals. Probably the
earliest example of Mughal painting is the illustrated folktale "Tuti-nameh"- Tales
of a Parrot. Mughal painting was essentially a court art; it developed under the
patronage of the ruling Mughal emperors and began to decline when the rulers
lost interest. The subjects treated were generally secular, consisting of illustrations
to historical works and Persian and Indian literature, portraits of the emperor and
his court, studies of natural life, and genre scenes, paintings of unprecedented
vitality, brilliant coloration, and impossibly precise detail.

Phases of Mughal Miniature Art in the Sub-Continent

Mughal art in India is divided broadly into four phases, three of these phases
being those of the proper Mughal art, that is, the art created at the official atelier
of Mughal court by its court artists under direction and supervision of the Mughal
emperors themselves, the fourth phase being that of the provincial Mughal art.
Although initiated by empower Humayun, the reigns of three of the great
Mughals, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, define practically the first three phases
of Mughal art.

Akbar expanded a prior royal atelier by employing in it over a hundred best skilled
painters. Illustrating classics of both Indian and Persian origins and Hindu and
Islamic traditions was the prime thrust of Akbar's art. Jahangir added to it nature
study, art of portrayal, especially the female portraits and the stylistic sophistication.
Shah Jahan loved renditions of individualized things. Lavish embellishment, courtly
grandeur and a little over-sophistication marked the art of his era.
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Each of these phases apparently had its own thrust, preferences and options,
themes and, to some extent, stylistic features. To Akbar, an illiterate, a miniature
was a book inscribed in lines and colors. To Jahangir, a painting manifested the
aestheticism inherent in a man. To Shah Jahan, it was a mirror palace and there he
was in every glass-piece. To the provincial Nawabs, a painting was as sensuous a
thing as was a nautch-girl. However, despite such points of departure, there are
threads that bind, at least the three phases of the proper Mughal art, into a uniform
art style, the more important of them till being its realistic approach to the
depicted theme, or the realism. As such, the Mughal art is the mirror wherein one
discovers not so much the Mughal world as the world of Mughal days, the world
of nature, the world of commercial activities, the world of social courtesies,
merriment, pastime, warfare and what not.

Akbar’s period (1556-1605)

Practically, the art of Mughal miniature painting begins with Akbar, although two
miniatures, the Portrait of a Young Scholar (1549-1556) and Prince Akbar
Hunting a 'Nilgae' (1555-1560), in characteristic Persian style, or at least in a style
much different from the subsequent style of Akbar's court, confirm the existence
of some art activity prevailing at the court of Akbar's father Humayun.

In the early 1580s, the greatest Persian painter Farrukh Husain made the decision
to leave his homeland and his appointment as court painter at the Saffavid court in
Isfahan and make his way into the dominions of the Great Mughal Emperor
Akbar. By 1585 Akbar had ennobled him for his services to painting, giving him
land, an honored position at court and changing his name to Farrukh Beg - (Lord
Farrukh). He was also honored with a prominent mention in the official biography
of Akbar as one of the two greatest artists in a court that took its art very
seriously. As the emperor's biographer, Abu'l Fazl, wrote, quoting Akbar himself:

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"More a hundred painters have become famous masters of the art, while the
number of those who approach perfection, or those who are middling, is very
large ... It would take too long to describe the excellence of each. My intention is
'to pluck a flower from every meadow, an ear from every sheaf."

Akbar gave State patronage to art of Miniature painting by hiring more than 200
artists to his court. Thus began the tradition of State sponsored Ateliers in the Mughal
Empire. The earliest and most important undertaking of the artists was a series of
large miniatures of the "Dastan-e-Amir Hamzeh", undertaken during Akbar's reign,
which, when completed, numbered some 1,400 illustrations of an unusually large size
(22 by 28 inches [56 by 71 cm]). Of the 200 or so that have survived, the largest
number are in the Austrian Museum of Applied Art in Vienna.

Whatever the stylistic changes, the art of Akbar's era continues this spirit of being
realistic in its approach. Akbar ruled for almost five decades. He was near
fourteen, when he ascended the throne of the Mughal Empire. Art, therefore, had
at Akbar's court tenure of some forty-five years. Akbar was illiterate and wished
to know a book not by its linguistics but by the pictorial representation of its
theme. Thus for him, a painting was a book. He therefore, preferred illustrative
painting serializing a theme, whatever its kind, a book of tales, legends, history,
religion, theology, astrology and so on. He did not approve fanciful renditions, or
even much of random depictions. He could accept legends, romances, ghost tales,
even superstitions but only when they reached his atelier through an authentic
channel, literary, traditional or even folk.

The early works of Akbar's atelier, such as "Hamzanama", the story of Amir
Hamza, "Tutinama", the tales of a parrot, "Duval Rani Khizr Khan", the Persian
romance of Duval Rani and Khizr Khan, "Gulistan", the Rose-garden of Sadi,
"Anvar-i-Suhayli" and "Tarikh-Alfi", or the history of a thousand years, are

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stylistically different from its later works. But, as regards their perception they
show an amazing uniformity. "Timurnama", "Chingiznama", "Baburnama" and
"Akbarnama" are histories composed as biographies and autobiographies.

In the "Ain-i-Akbari" Abul Fazl tells us about Akbar's love for painting and his
regard for his painters. Some of his artists were "Mansabdars" and occupied high
offices of State. In 1573 when Akbar, accompanied by twenty-seven officers, led
a lightening expedition to Ahmedabad, there were also three painters in the royal
entourage. If a distinguished visitor came to the court he was taken around the
atelier by the Emperor himself. According to the testimony of Jahangir, Akbar
treated the Persian master Abdus Samad with great respect. Such was the
background against which Mughal painting came into being and which provided
the stimulus for further development in the following reign.

Jahangir's period (1605 - 1627)

Jahangir's love for the art of painting was no less, and for realism it was more.
Under him, Akbar's energetic naturalism was refined into a calmer and intensely
realistic style capable of revealing not only the outer appearance but also its
unique inner spirit. Actually, as a rebel prince he set up his independent studio at
Ahhahabad much before he ascended the Muhal throne under the Persian painters
Aqa Riza and his son Abu Hasan. He had equal a prince, he set up his
independent studio at Allahabad much before he ascended the Mughal throne
under the Persian for both, the simple version of his father's court art and the
precise, flat and highly style of Persian art, which Aqa Riza and his son practiced.
After he ascended as the Emperor, he inspired his artists to develop their own
individual styles, traits and talent and each to have a specialized area.

Jahangir was a man with a developed aesthetic sense. He loved painting and
possessed a descriptive sense. He was endowed with an inquiring mind. He was a
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connoisseur of miniature art and greatly prided himself on his connoisseurship.
The paintings of his period well symbolize his character.

Jahangir preferred court scenes, portraits, and animal studies, which were
assembled in albums, many of them with richly decorated margins. The style
shows technical advancement in the fine brushwork; the compositions are less
crowded, colors are more subdued, and movement is much less dynamic. The
artist of the Jahangir period exhibited a sensitive understanding of human nature
and an interest in the psychological subtleties of portraiture. Noted painters of the
period were Abu al-Hasan, called the "Wonder of the Age" Abu Hasan
specialized in the court scenes and official portraits; Bishandas, was praised for
his portraiture; and Ustad Mansur, excelled in animal studies. He favored elegant,
small works with fewer illustrations worked singly by an artist.

Abu'l Hasan seems to have been a particular favorite of Jahangir. "I have always
considered it my duty to give him much patronage," wrote the emperor in his
autobiography, the "Jahangirnama", "and from his youth until now I have
patronized him so that his work has reached the level it has." Whenever
Jahangir went out, a team of his skilled artists accompanied him. A bird with the
beauty of its feathers, or by its sportive frisking, or an unusual object, an animal,
or even a flower would catch his attention and one of is talented artists would
reproduce it on his canvas for their master. Jahangir's art, thus, presents the most
authentic reproductions of natural history and to scholars studying birds and
animals it is yet the most reliable data of the animal world of those days.

He also allowed the artists to depict Humans. He allowed his wife Nurjahan to be
portrayed and brought 'sufis', saints and divines to the walls of the chambers of
the household. To this period belongs the practice of mounting miniatures with

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gorgeous "Hashiyahs" (border decoration on the mount). These hashiyahs became
even more elaborate in the reign of Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan's period (1628 - 1658)

Instead of the art of painting, architecture was Shah Jahan's fascination. However,
it is strange that not even a single painting of his time depicts the Taj Mahal. Shah
Jahan continued with the court atelier and Mughals' cult of realism. Well-
embellished portraits with exact likeness of the portrayed figures were more
favored. On one of his portraits Shah Jahan not only put down his signatures but
also put a remark acclaiming that the portrait represented his likeness in perfect
exactness.

The emphasis was now on court scenes, scenes of outing, portrayal including
female portraits and other personalized things and occasions, but the approach
was the same 'realistic'. Art in Shah Jahan's era depicted the lavish life style of the
people lived. Genre scenes such as musical parties, lovers on a terrace, or ascetics
gathered around a fire became frequent, and the trend continued in the reign of
Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Despite a brief revival during the reign of Muhammad
Shah (1719-48), Mughal painting continued to decline, and creative activity
ceased during the reign of Shah Alam II (1759-1806).

After Aurangzeb, the history of Mughal painting, like the history of the Mughal
Empire, is one of decompose. Though up to the time of Muhammad Shah (1720-
1748) Mughal painting, as far as technique is concerned, retained something of its
former glory, the moral decay of the court, reflected in the manners and customs
of a sensuous aristocracy resulted in the adoption of harem themes. Music parties,
dancing parties, drinking scenes, and love scenes, became the order of the day.

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However, whatever traces of Mughal glory had remained, disappeared with
Alamgir II (1754-1759). The battle of Panipat acted as the drop-curtain on the
great drama. Shah Alam (1759-1806), the successor of Alamgir II, was an
emperor only in name. When we come to the period of Shah Alam we find that
the artists still had in their possession the tracings (charbas) of the old miniatures
handed down from generation to generation, and with their help they prepared
new copies, which have deceived more than one connoisseur. To make the copies
complete, even the royal seals were stamped on such paintings. It is likely that
several of these copies were prepared for Shah Alam himself, such as the
magnificent portrait of Jahangir in close imitation of an earlier portrait of that
Emperor by the artist Bichittar. Murshidabad, Lucknow, and Hyderabad, the
former capitals of the Mughal Subahs (provinces) became the centers of
independent states. In these capitals the late Mughal style flourished, but bereft of
any progressive spirit it came to an end by the closing years of the 18th century.

7.6 Muslim Minor Arts and Crafts

When Islam began dramatic career which in its western course, was destined to
plant a new form of art in cities overlooking the Atlantic, it set out from regions
where art was in a primitive state. In fact Islamic art has derived its spiritual
complexion from Arabia. However, its material texture was fashioned elsewhere,
in lands where art was a vital force. The minor arts and crafts of the Muslim
culture are however, of great beauty and interest. The carved wooden doors,
panels, furnishings, lacquer work on pen boxes with exquisite floral decoration,
astrolabes, gold inlaid steel weapons and implements, embroidered garments,
carpets, glazed tile work, porcelain, decorated ceramics, earthenware utensils,
rugs, traditional costumes with geometrical patterns and designs, embroidery

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work, glass work, leather work, decorated inlay work and gold jewellery are only
a few of the many examples which were patronized by the Muslims.

In many ways of decorating metal besides raising patterns in relief or engraving

these were practiced by Muslim skilled craftsmen. They excelled in the art of
inlaying designs not only in the gold and silver but equally in bronze or brass. In
the finest and most ancient kind the patterns were incised in the metal round and
the grooves filled in with gold or silver, both sometimes being used on the same
object. The brilliance of the design was often highlighted by filling other
interstices with a black mastic composition and in some cases this was the sole
method of enrichment. Hence Muslim inlay metal work reached perfection and
persistent in great excellence of many centuries.

In the 16th century Persian craftsmen carried carpet weaving to heights ever
attained before or since producing with miraculous skill designs unpalralled in
beauty. The European craftsmen learned how to weave pile carpets from the
Muslims using at first the traditional oriental sleight of hand, but in later time
purely mechanical means. Upon the machine made carpets and rugs now almost
universally in use, designs borrowed from Islamic originals are common. Muslims
produced many beautiful objects made partly or wholly of ivory, a substance
which they decorated with carved, inlaid, or painted ornaments. The ivory caskets
painted, carved or pierced were used as jewel cases, perfume or sweetmeat boxes
and for other similar purposes. They were often as the inscriptions testify made
especially as gifts. The earlier are amongst the most valuable records of Islamic
art in its beginning. Another innovation inspired by Muslim work was a new
method of decorating leather book covers.

The lacquer art is yet another sophisticated hand work of Muslim art work which
is applied on wooden pieces with fascinating colous by skilled artists. The lacquer

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art is made on selected customized pieces of a refined wood. The wooden pieces
are shaped into different designs and sizes on lathe machine though traditional
iron tools. Then the layers of lacquer are applied on wooden pieces, usually in
three or four colors. The layers are sequentially coated completely on each other
which are articulately removed by artisan with the help of sharp knife in a way
that all colurs become prominent with a design on it.

The stone carvings was also developed by Muslim artisans which produced a
large number of specimens by engravings the stone slabs for uses in the tombs,
graves and other places or different decoration purposes. The graves and tombs at
Makli Hills Monuments, Thaatta and Chaukhandi Tombs, Karachi are some of the
best examples of the stone carvings. The artisans first refine the stone with a
chisel and hammer. Then a sketch is drawn on this stone and then carved with the
help of a chisel and hammer. The finishing touches are given with sandpaper.
Besides, the marble work also got attention of the artisans and craftsmen who
created master pieces of art work which are embellished in the Islamic period
monuments especially in the Lahore Fort, Shalmar Gardens and other buildings of
Islamic era.

Among the regional handicrafts, the art of painting and the blue pottery is very
famous. In blue painting the clay is the basic element which is taken especially
from the rivers. After grinding and staining this clay it is moistened in water for
three days, after this it is softened by crushing with hands, then this clay is
extended to the surface of smooth ground and with iron tools cut into tiles or
pieces because this clay shrinks on dehydration. On drying, the tiles or pots are
cut into required size. Then they are carved with various tools. A panel can be
made by joining tiles for big designs. The glazed tiles have been extensively used
in the tombs and graves of Muslims. The wood work and carvings is another
important art which was developed in the different areas of sub-continent
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especially the area of Chiniot is very famous in Pakistan. The best specimen
found in a large number of both religious and secular buildings, tombs and other
prominent architectural heritage of Muslim period located in the different areas of
the country.

The ornamentation of buildings is an integral part of the traditional architectural

monumental buildings. This craftsmanship is evidenced in the buildings of
Sultanate period and further in those of the later periods. These examples are
marked with the uses of cut and molded bricks and the buildings were
embellished with fresco work, wall paintings, mirror work, tile work, and
lacquered wooden ceilings, intricate wooden jallis, carved wooden doors, and
stucco tracery were some of the crafts used for the purpose. The extant funerary
structures and mosques of the Sultanate period best exemplify the decorative
building arts which are prevalent from at least the 11th and 12th centuries in the
different areas such as Multan and Lahore and other areas of Pakistan.

The art of wall painting has its roots in antiquity. However, it is well known that
during the Mughal period fresco painting achieved its zenith in it design,
technique and skill as can be seem form the Mughal monuments in Lahore
especially at Lahore Fort, Mariam Zamani Mosque, Shalimar Gardens and many
others buildings.

The arts and crafts are the expression of the diverse and colorful traditions of the
sub-cultural groups inhabiting the vast regions which gives each its distinct
identity while providing objects which still continue to be of use to the
communities. Besides, these creations are rightly known as the traditional crafts
as they uphold the age old techniques and designs employed by the artisans in the
creation of these unique items and objects. The origin of the textile craft for
instance, lies in antiquity. The textile weaving of the prehistoric times became the

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basis of all the later development in the textile of the South Asian region or sub-
continent. The Muslim of subcontinent turned the textile crafts into a timeless art
form. Mughal’s were great patron of textile arts and its development. Various
paintings belonging to the Mughal period show exquisite textiles being worn by the
Mughal royalty and courtiers. The ornate and rich textiles displayed in the colorful
miniature paintings indicate that the textile craft had devolved into an art form.

7.7 Muslim Period Coins

The Arab conquest of Sind in 711-12 CE by Muhammad bin Qasim, inaugurates
the Muslim era in ancient Pakistan. The date also marks the influx of Arab
currency into sub-continent. During this and later period, the Khilafat coin found
their way into various towns and cities of Pakistan. The coins are now found
buried in the remains of ancient towns and places, once frequented by Muslim
population. The archaeological Excavations at Banbhore, for instance, have
uncovered a large number of such foreign coins. Among these, the most important
is a gold coin of the Abbaside Caliph, Abu Jufar Harun al-Wasiq Billah, who
ruled in Baghdad from 227 A. H. to 232 A. H. (842-847 CE). It was minted in
Egypt in 229 A.H. (844 CE). There are other coins of these Arab Caliphs in silver
and copper, which have been found in a large quantity during the excavation.
There were, however, certain Arab governors and petty chieftains in Sindh
and Punjab who struck coins in their name.

The earliest known currency of the Muslim rulers minted at various places in the
sub-continent, starts with that of Sultan Mahmud at Ghazna, who annexed the
Punjab, with his fast-growing empire in 1021. He struck silver coins from the
Lahore mint called Mahmudpur. These coins bear an Arabic Inscription and the
name of the Sultan on the reverse, and the Sanskrit version of the Kalima on the
obverse. His billion coins contain an Arabic inscription on the obverse and the
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famous Rajput bull on the reverse. The later Ghaznavid kings used the same
mint to strike coins of the 'Bull and Horseman type.

In 1187, Muhammad bin Sam of Ghaur deposed Khusrau Malik, the last of the
Ghaznavide princes, and occupied Lahore. Later in 1192, he subdued Prithvi
Raj of Ajmer at the second battle of Panjpat and founded the first Muslim
dynasty in the sub-continent. He numerous coins are of billion and usually
exhibit the Gandhara device of the 'Bull and Horse-man'. His gold coins are the
imitations of the Hindu Kings of Qannuj which bear the image of Lakshmi, the
goddess of wealth In the Hindu pantheon.

Iltutmish (1211-36), the third king of the Turkish Sultan of Delhi issued a large
number of coins of many varieties. The earliest issues bear a portrait of the Sultan on
hone back, surrounded by a marginal inscription on the obverse, while the reverse
consists of inscription in Arabic. The latest however possesses the inscription on
both sides. The name of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir appears on obverse in
recognition of the diploma of investiture from the Caliph. The reverse continued to
carry the Sultan's name and title. On the circular margins are the names of the mint
and the date in Arabic. He introduced a 90-rati silver coin called 'tanka’ which
became the standard denomination of the Delhi Sultanate and was followed,
occasionally with modifications, by succeeding Sultans.

The famous coins called Dehliwals with the humped bull and the king's name in
Nagri characters on the resent and the Chauhan horseman on the obverse, were
minted copiously by almost every Sultan until the reign of Alauddin Masud
(1241-46) who discontinued striking this type.

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The coins struck in billon by the early Sultans are uniform in size and weight.
Billon coins of the "Bull and Horseman" type were also struck by other foreign
Invaders who attacked the areas of ancient West Pakistan during the 13th century
CE. These Sultans had a large establishment of mints.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq, (1325-51), the most celebrated king of the Tughlaq
dynasty, was the lint Muslim ruler who revolutionized the coinage of the sub-
continent. He paid serious attention towards the reform of his coinage and
established several mints at various cities of his kingdom. His experiments with
his coinage, particularly his 'forced currency', give him a prominent place among
the greatest moneyers of history. He has been called as "the prince of moneyers."

In addition to his normal currency, Muhammad bin Tughlaq struck some special
coins. The commemorative coins were in memory of his father, while the
Khilafat issues were in honour of the investiture he had received from the
Abbaside Caliph. But, his most remarkable venture was the introduction of the
'forced currency'. The coins were struck in copper and brass but their face value
was that of silver and gold. These beautifully executed coins bear several
religious formulas from the Holy Quran and the Traditions. The innovation of the
Emperor, however, could not succeed as he had arranged no check upon the
authenticity of the currency. People, therefore, started imitating and producing it
in mass. The house of every Hindu turned into a mint where thousands of such
forgeries were made. After some time, therefore, the emperor had to withdraw
the currency.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued coins of more than twenty-five varieties in

copper and billon. The inscriptions on some of these coins mention their various
denominations. He struck a new coin of 140 rails and called it 'Adli’. This
remained the standard denomination throughout his reign. He also divided the
tanka into several parts, and issued coins of different denominations according to
this division. They were called Du- Kani, Shash-Kant, Hash-kani, Dwazda-kani,
Shanzda-kani, etc. Kani was also called a Jital.

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The coinage of the succeeding kings of the Tughlaq dynasty has little of special
interest. The gold coins of Firuz Shah Tughlaq are fairly common, but the other
later kings issued mainly copper and billon; their gold coins are extremely rare.

The pieces minted by the members of the Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526) Bahlul,
Sikandar, and Ibrahim, bear close resemblance to the issues of Sharqi kings of
Jaunpur which bear the legend on the obverse; "The caliph, the commander of
the faithful, may his Khilafat be perpetuated." The reverse gives the name of the
king. Bahlul Lodhi issued a large billon coin which was named 'Bahluli.

In 1526, the last Lodhi king Ibrahim was defeated by Babur who founded the
dynasty of the great Mughals. The coins of Babur and Humayun, specially the
silver Shah-rukhis follow the Timurid devices and were struck at Lahore, Delhi,
Agra and Kabul. On the obverse of these coins is the Kalma with the names of
the four orthodox caliphs and their attributes in the margins. On the reverse is the
king's name, in the area, together with various titles, name of mint and date.

Sher Shah, the founder of the Suri dynasty, who defeated Humayun in 1540 and
ruled the country for about five years, is credited with the honour of introducing
a reformed currency. He abolished the inconvenient billon coinage of mixed
metal, and struck well-executed pieces in gold, silver and copper, with a fixed
standard of weight. His silver rupees have a standard weight of 178 grains, while
copper dam weighs 330 grains. He also standardized the sub-division of the
rupees and the dam. These coins, especially silver pieces, bear the usual Arabic
inscriptions as well as the name of the king in Nagri script. Genuine gold coins of the
Suri kings are very rare, but the fine quality rupees are found abundantly. Sher Shah
also established a number of new mints at various places in his kingdom.

With Akbar's accession in 1556 a new era of the coinage began in the sub-
continent. In 1577 the emperor reorganized the imperial mints. Up to that time,
mints were under the control of petty officers called Chaudhari (a headman).
Akhar established a separate department for purpose and appointed a Mint
Master at the capital to control the minting or coins. The first Master of Mint was
Khawaja Abdus Samad, an eminent painter and calligrapher. The five principal
provincial mints were placed under the management of one of the highest
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imperial officers. Raja Today Mall was responsible for the Bengal Mint, while
Muzaffar Khan was entrusted with the mint at Lahore.

The excellent pieces issued by the various mints throughout the empire are really
masterpieces of numismatic art. The early issues of his reign closely follow the
model and scheme of Sher Shah's coins. The Kalimah and the companions'
names appear on the obverse, while on the reverse is the name of the Emperor
and his titles. Squares, circles, lozenges and other geometric patterns were
employed to decorate the legends on the coins. Both gold and silver bear the
same inscriptions though there is some variation in their arrangement. The mint
name and, sometimes, the date appear on: the reverse.

The llahi coins of Akbar are the most interesting series which depict the religious
and social changes in Akbar's policy. He used the coinage to express his views
about the "Divine Religion". These new coins bear entirely new legends. The
inscription was in the first instance, 'Allahu Akbar' but was soon changed to
Allahu Akbar Jalla Jalaloha'. These Ilahi coins bear dates according to Akbar's
majestic era with Persian solar months. The Ilahi coins issued from Lahore were
some of the finest of the Mughal series.

Some of the pieces issued by Akbar represent beautiful specimens of numismatic

art. Besides the finest calligraphic inscriptions, they depict figures of birds, like
ducks and hawks. The gold Muhr, depicting the hawk, was issued from Asirgarh
to commemorate its conquest and accession to the Mughal Empire. Akbar also
started the innovation of using the Persian couplets on his coins which indicate
his name or the mint and date.

Besides the gold Muhrs and silver rupees, there was the dam, paisa or fulus in
copper, weighing normally 323 grains. One silver rupee had forty copper fulus. The
dam or fulus was divided into twenty-five jitals, but it was only for account purpose;
no coin of such name existed during the Mughal period. The value of a rupee in
English money was at that time estimated to about two shillings and six pence.

Jahangir (1605-1627) maintained on the whole his father’s mint system. His gold
and silver coins are the most ornate of all the Mughal series. He used Persian

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couplets so frequently on his coins that forty-seven different couplets of his reign
have been recorded. He was so fond of these poetic innovations that during the
fifty-sixth year of his reign, he used new couplet every month on the coins. This
was specially so with the coins issued from Lahore and Agra. His deep and
abiding affection for his beautiful Queen Nur Jahan is also evident from his
coins, which he struck in his later days. The coins mainly issued from Lahore,
Agra and Surat, bear the name of the Queen along with that of Jahangir in the
usual Persian couplets.

Jahangir's most celebrated Muhrs arc those which bear his portrait. The portrait
Muhrs depict the Emperor sitting cross-legged on his throne with a wine-cup in his
hand. The most remarkable of these is the piece bearing the full faced portrait of
Akbar with the inscription of ‘Allahu Akbar' on the obverse and a representation of
the Sun on the reverse,. The particular piece was issued in the first year of Jahangir's
reign. In the thirteenth year, he issued the beautiful series of zodiac Muhrs on which
pictorial representations of the zodiac symbols were substituted for the name of the
month. The zodiac symbols were also used for rupees.

Shah Jahan, (1628-1657) however, abstained from copying his father's

innovations and issued coins with Kalimah, the names of the Caliphs and other
usual devices. His copious currency is regarded as monotonous but not without
artistic merit. The coins were decorated with endless variations, in which
squares, circles, lozenges form borders enclosing the Kalimah on the obverse and
the Emperor's name on the reverse.
The coins of Aurangeb (1658-1707) and his successors have, with a few
exceptions, no novelty except that the Emperor discontinued inclusion of the
Kalimah on his coins and dates were given in Hijri era. During later period,
pretentious personal titles were frequently shown on the coins. However, a very
few commemorative coins were also issued.

In the words of Ahmaad Nabi Khan, the coinage of the Mughal emperors has
been regarded as the finest among the series struck in the sub-continent. Further
that according to V.A. Smith, the learned author of ‘Akber the Great Mughal',
mentions that 'the Mughal coinage was far superior and more beautiful than that
of Queen Elizabeth or of other con-temporary sovereigns of Europe. Another

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numismatist, C.J. Brown remarks on the Mughal coinage in these words
"considering it as the output of a single dynasty, which maintained the high
standard and purity of gold and silver for three hundred years, considering also
its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some of its series, the
influence it exhibits on contemporary and subsequent coinages, and the
importance of its standard coin—the rupee—in the commerce of today, the
Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as one of the great coinages of the
world".

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No.1. What do you know about Muslim period Art and Architecture in

the Sub-continent?

Q. No.2. Discuss the early medieval history of the Sub-continent in detail.

Q. No.3. Why Mughal period is considered as golden era for architecute

developement?

Q. No.4. What are the cheristiric features of regional style of Muslim architecture

in the Sub-continent? Discuss.

Q. No.5. Discuss the cheristiric features of Muslim calligraphyand highlight its

origin and developemtn in the Sub-continent.

Q. No.6. Evaluate the source of Muslim’s period Paintings with sepical reference

of Mughal period paintings.

Q. No.7. Discuss Muslim perminor arts and crafts of the Sub-continent.

Q. No.8. Highlight the importance of Muslim period coins in history of Sub-conitnent.

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 Bibliography

Arnold, Thomas (Sir) (1928) Painting in Islam, A study of the place of pictorial
Art in Muslim Culture, Oxford.

Arnold, Thomas (Sir) (2001), First Published in 1931, The Islamic Art and
Architecture, Goodword Books, New Delhi.

Beach, Milo (1987) Early Mughal Painting, Harvard University Press, USA

Brown, Percy (1985) Indian Architecture, (Islamic Period), Reprint, Bombay

Ebba Koch (1991), Mughal Architecture-An outline of its History and

Development (1576-1858) Prestal, Munich.

Khan, Ahmed Nabi (1993) Islamic Architectural Heritage of Pakistan, South

Asia and Central Asia, Department of Archaeology and Museums, Karachi.

Krishnadasa, Rai (1955) Mughal Miniatures, India.

Mumtaz, Kamal Khan (1985), Architecture in Pakistan, A Mimar Book,

Singapore.

Noon Wal-Qalam (2017) National History and Literary Heritage Divison,

Islamabad.

Rizvi, A.A (1980) The Legacy of architecture in World of Islam, ed. Bernard
Lewis, Thames and Hudson, London

Saeed, Tahir & Merani, M.A (2000) A Rare Collection of Mughal Miniature
Paintings in National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi, in Ancient Sindh, No. 6,
Shah Abdul Latif University, Kharipur.

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UNIT. 8

CULTURAL HERITAGE & MUSEUMS IN

PAKISTAN

Written by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

Reviewed by: Dr. Saeed Arif

393
 CONTENTS
Introduction 395

Objectives 396

8. Cultural Heritage & Museums in Pakistan 397

8.1 Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif, Swat 399
8.2 Dir Museum Chakdara 400
8.3 Peshawar Museum 400
8.4 Taxila Museum 401
8.5 Lahore Museum 402
8.6 Haprappa Museum 403
8.7 Moenjodaro Museum 404
8.8 National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi 405
Self Assessment Questions 406

Bibliography 407

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Introduction
Pakistan has been the cradle of cultural diffusion and had been a center of ancient
civilizations, the cultural heritage of the country has been recognized by the
UNESCO, and its prime duty of the department of Pakistan Studies to conduct
field survey, cultural tours, scientific documentations and archeological
excavations at potential sites of different phases of glorious past of the country.
We considered that conducting research on cultural heritage and archeological
wealth of the country is necessary for boost of tourism and to promote a soft
image of Pakistan.

Pakistan is one of the few fortunate countries of world which has a rich cultural
heritage. However, despite the best efforts of the scholars to document the rich
ancient heritage of of Pakistan, surviving in the form of archeological sites, pre-
historic, protohistoric, and historic period monuments. In Pakistan Hindu,
Buddhist, Muslims, British period monuments, shrines and memorials had not
received the desired attention in the past.

Cultural heritage sites like ancient rock shelter, rock carvings, Hindu temples, and
Buddhist stupas, Mughal’s period Boali, Sarais, Mosques and Forts are particular
interest and their scientific investigation is likely to shed new light on some key
questions of prehistory and historic periods of this region. The research will also
highlight the origin and spread of agriculture evolution of the society, the nature
and the origin of the early communities and their cultural relations with Central
Asia and Persian world in the ancient times.

Cultural relics or cultural heritage of a country are the virtual foundations for
advancement in corporate life a nation. As achievements acquired after prolonged
struggle with nature and environment, they manifest the store of creative
intelligence, initiative, perseverance, and integrity that have gone into making of a
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particular national character. Admittedly, this land has been an important
primeval stage for the grand and grim drama of man’s first endeavor, his integral
rise, his phenomenal fall, and the great resilience which kept the stream of human
life in action in spite of all obstructions and intermittent lapses. Pakistan is a
melting pot of ancient cultures and civilizations. It is a land of many splendors,
each conqueror, traveler and sage has left behind an imprint, adding a step to the
cultural evolution of this region. Apart from the physical environment of
Pakistan’s territory, the people of this country have inherited history of about two
million years old going back to the Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age. The
earliest stone tools found in the Potohar region near Islamabad Capital Territory
belong to an ancient primitive stage in human development and culture are
displayed in different museums of the country.

Objectives: After thorough study of this unit the students will be able to
understand the following objectives;

 to understand basic concept & potential of cultural heritage of their

country
 to describe Museum and identify its functions in Pakistani society
 to study something about Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif, Swat
 to learn about Chakdara Museum, Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
 to explain the historical background of Peshawar Museum Peshawar
 to elucidate the history of Taxila Museum and its relics
 to know about Lahore Museum and its antiquites potentials
 to gain the knowledge about Haprappa Museum and its different garllies
 to acquire the scope and value of Moenjodaro Museum
 to obtain the importance & significe of National Museum of Pakistan,
Karachi

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8. Cultural Heritage & Museums in Pakistan
Museums are repositories of a nations’ cultural heritage and serve as centres of
visual instructions for the people and research laboratories for the scholars. At a
museum the general public and visitors both from home and abroad can gain
understanding and appreciation of the rich fabric of the past which has gone into
the making of the nations present.

The history of Museums in south-Asia goes back to the 18th century. The first
museum collection was founded as long ago as 1786 only forty years after the
inception of British Museum in London. In that year the Asiatic Society of Bengal
decided that the many curiosities it had accumulated should be suitably housed in
Calcutta but it was not until 1814 that a proper museum was established. The
Government later paid to the Asiatic Society one and half lack of rupees for
constructing a new museum building. It was in 1875 that the new museum was
ready for occupation. In the territory now forming Pakistan Victoria Museum,
Karachi was established in 1851 by Sir Bartle Frere, the then Commissioner of
Sindh, in the Frere Hall. At the eve of independence of Pakistan, it was under the
administrative control of Karachi Municipal Corporation. It was 17th April, 1950
that the National Museum of Pakistan was inaugurated in Frere Hall building
replacing the defunct Victoria Museum.

It was not until 1864 that a provincial museum was opened in Lahore which was
followed by Peshawar Museum in 1907 and Lahore Fort Museum in 1928. Later
on three archaeological museums were created on excavated sites on pursuance of
the policy of the Government to keep the small and movable antiquities,
recovered from the ancient sites in close association with the remains to which
they belonged so that they may be studied in their natural surroundings. These
three museums were at Taxila, Moenjodaro and Harappa. This practice was

397
followed which gave birth to Swat Museum, and Banbhore Museum. The Mac
Mohan Museum, Quetta was established in 1906 but it was severely damaged in
great earthquake of 1935. The Museum at Taxila was excellent planned and
equipped but at the remote sites of Harappa and Moenjodaro the collections were
only partially displayed and arranged. However, these museums have been now
re-organized and equipped with modern concepts of museology. Later on, Allama
Iqbal Museum, Lahore, Wazir Mansion, Karachi, Quaid-i-Azam House Museum,
Karachi were also established by the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Government of Pakistan.

Functions of Museums

The International Council of Museums defines a Museum as “a permanent institution

in the service of society and of its development, open to the public, which acquires,
conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage
of humanity and its environment, for the purpose of education, study and enjoyment”.
Museums have been regarded as places where objects of scientific, artistic or
historical importance are housed, taken care of and made available for public
viewing. Museums in Pakistan vary from those housing large collections in major
cities covering many categories such as fine arts, crafts, archaeology, anthropology
ethnology, history, cultural history, military history, science, technology, natural
history and numismatics, to vary small museums covering either a particular location
in a general way or a particular subject. There are house museums, personality
museums, site museums, general museums, science museums etc. in the service of
societies for the purpose to educate them. Thus Museology is science of museums
which manage all the related activities with the museum studies including travelling
exhibitions both at home and abroad.

The modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter and

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introduced for instance, many interactive exhibits, which give the public an
opportunity to make choices and engage in varied and productive activities. With
the advancement of new IT technology there are growing numbers of virtual
exhibits like tele-exhibitions, web versions of exhibits showing images and
playing recorded sound, 3D imaging, QR Code, Digital Documentation of
artifacts exhibited in the museums or art galleries, Virtual Tours etc.

A brief introduction of some important museums of Pakistan is given as under:-

8.1 Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif, Swat

Swat Museum is one of the largest site museums in Pakistan which was
established by Mian Gul Jehanzeb, the then Wali-e-Swat, to house his private
collection and the material excavated by the Italian Archaeological Mission
working at Swat in 1959. It was formally inaugurated on November 10, 1963 by
Field Marshall Ayub Khan, the President of Pakistan at that time. The new
display of the museum was reorganized in 1992 with the technical assistance of
Japan. The Gandhāran collection of the museum which comprised on 3180
objects are manly came from the sites of Butkara-I, Saidu Sharif, Panr, Udegram,
Nimogram and other prehistoric and proto historic objects from Loebanr,
Aligrama and Butkara-III, Swat. Butkara-I, the most important site in Swat is
located close to the Swat Museum. Sir Aurel Stein the first Curator of Peshawar
Museum was the pioneer to record the site which was fist excavated by the Italian
Archeological Mission during 1956-62.The five periods of the stupa was dated to
the 3rd century BCE and the last was dated from 7th to 10th century CE.

Most of the artifacts displayed in the museum belong to the settlement sites and
the Buddhist monasteries of the Swat region which include specimens of the
Buddhist Art of Gandhara, daily use items recovered during the course of
archaeological excavations conducted by the Department of Archaeology, Italian
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Archaeological Mission and collection of sculptures donated by the Wali-e-Swat.
One gallery of the museum has also been dedicated to the marvelous ethnological
material of the Swat Valley.

The museum has a gift shop, a small reference library, an auditorium with audio-
visual facilities for general visitors and students.

8.2 Dir Museum, Chakdara:

The Department of Archaeology, Peshawar University excavated various
archaeological sites in Dir during 1966-69 and to house the collection this
museum was established. The museum remained a state museum till 1969 when
the state was merged with NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). Dir Museum has a
total collection of 2161 objects, with more than 1444 Gandhāran objects. The
collection includes the themes of Buddha’s pre-birth and life stories, miracles,
worship of symbols, relic caskets and individual standing Buddha sculptures. The
Gandharān art pieces in the Dir Museum mainly came from the sites of Andan
Dheri, Chat Pat, Baghrajal, Bumbolai, Jabagai, Shalizar, Ramora, Tribanda,
Macho, Amluk Darra, Damkot, Bajaur and Talash, Dir, Malakand, Balambat,
Timargarha, Shamlai Graves, Inayat Qila, Shah Dheri Damkot, Gumbatuna,
Jandol, Matkani and Shalkandi.

8.3 Peshawar Museum:

Peshawar Museum was built in 1906 in the memory of Queen Victoria and it was
organized in November 1907 to house the Gandharan sculptures excavated from
the major Gandhāran sites of shah-ji-ki-Dheri, Peshawar, Sehr-i-Behlol, and
Takht-i-Bahi in the Mardan District. Later on antiquities from Jamal Garhi and
other sites excavated by the British scholars were also added to the collection.

The main collection of Peshawar Museum is 15156 which includes Gandhāran

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sculptures, coins, manuscripts, copies of Holy Quran, inscriptions, weapons,
dresses, jewellery, Mughal and later period paintings, ethnological objects, local
and Persian handicrafts etc.

It has one of the best collections of Gandhāran Art in the world, consisting of
5498 (954 on display and 4544 in reserve) antiquities of Buddhist stone sculptures
and panels, architectural elements, stucco sculptures, terracotta figurines, relic
caskets and toiletry trays etc. The selected collection is exhibited in the main hall ,
eastern and western galleries on the ground floor and on the first floor as well.
The subject matter of Gandhara art in the main hall included Buddha’s pre-birth
and life stories, miracles, worship of symbols, relic caskets individual standing
Buddha sculptures.

8.4 Taxila Museum:

Taxila Museum is located 35 km north-west of Islamabad on the Grand Trunk

Road to Peshawar.It was Sir Alexander Cunningham who identified the remains
of the Greek city of Taxila at Shah Dheri and conducted archaeological
excavations, which yielded rich material of stone, stucco and terracotta sculptures.
Construction of the museum started in 1918. Its foundation stone was laid by
Lord Chemsford, viceroy of India. Construction was concluded in 1928 and the
museum was opened for public by Sir Habibullah then the minister for Education.
The rich and varied collection consists of the Gandhāran antiquities that
principally came from the sites of Bhir Mound, Sirkap, Sirsukh and the
monasteries and stupas of Dharmarajika, Julaian and Mohra Muradu. The material
was mainly collected over a period of about 20 years (1913-34). The total
Gandhāran collection in the museum (reserve and display) is about 6000 pieces.

Sir John Marshall, who was going to be retired from the post of Director General
of Archaeological survey of India in 1928, could not complete its original plan.
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The government of Pakistan constructed the northern gallery in 1998. There are
4000 objects displayed, including stone, stucco, terracotta, silver, gold, iron and
semiprecious stones. Mainly the display consists of objects from the period 600
BCE to 500 CE. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cults are well represented through
these objects discovered from three ancient cities and more than two dozen
Buddhist stupas and monasteries and Greek temples. It is famous for remains
of the Buddhist Art of Gandhara.

UNESCO has inscribed entire remains of Taxila Valley on the World Heritage list
in 1980. Taxila Museum has been renovated by the Department of Archaeology
and Museums in 2002 and all necessary public facilities i.e. gift shop, snake bar,
reference library, washrooms, rest areas, drinking water etc. have been provided.

8.5 Lahore Museum:

Lahore Museum is the oldest and largest museum of Pakistan. The British, after
the annexation of Punjab, realized the importance of cultural and economic
potentials, and established the museum in the historic building of Wazir Khan.
The first Punjab Exhibition was arranged in 1864 which was later on converted
into a permanent display. The district museum collection was also transferred to
it and it soon assumed ample importance, which was designated as “Jubilee
Museum” though housed in a temporary building. The foundation stone of the
present building was laid on Friday 3, 1890 by Prince Albert Victor, to mark the
golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The entire collection of the Jubilee Museum
was transferred it in 1894. This museum is known for the unique and splendid
collection of Gandhāran art, spearheaded by the fasting Siddhartha, miracle of
Sravasti, Buddhapada (foot print of Buddha), Sikri Stupa and statue of Greek
goddess Athena. The total Gandhāran collection of the museum is 1932, out of
which 1604 are in reserve stores and 328 on display. The archaeological
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excavations at Sikri, near the famous ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Jamal Garhi was
carried out by Captain Deane which brought to light some Graeco-Buddhist
sculptures of extreme interest.

8.6 Haprappa Museum

The site of Harappa is located about 27 kilometers south-west of Sahiwal city. It
is considered the second largest city of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The first mention of the site of Harappa is found in the travel account of Mr.
Charles Masson, a British military deserter, who visited the site of Harappa in
1826 for the first time. After that, Alexander Cunningham, a famous
Archaeologist paid visit to the site twice in 1853 and 1856.
After a long period, the Harappa site was declared as protected in 1920 under
Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 but unfortunately before the area was
declared protected; the mounds of Harappa had long been the source of brick
hunters to use as ballast for about 160 kilometers of Lahore - Multan Railway
track as well as a ready means of bricks for building houses for the local people of
modern Harappa town. The laying of Railway line and the activities of local brick
robbers destroyed most of the brick-structure of the ancient remains.
After the protection, archaeological excavations were started and many archaeologists
excavated the site to understand the mysteries of the Indus Valley Civilization”

A small site museum was established at Harappa site in 1926 to exhibit the
objects recovered during the course of excavations at Harappa. Recent building of
the museum was constructed in 1967 for proper display on scientific lines. The
present display is very impressive from educational point of view. The objects
include Steatite Seals, Copper tablets, Seals, Ceramics, Stone tools, Sculptures,
Weights, copper artifacts, Jewelry, figurines, toys and human skeletons. Besides,

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the artifacts from Moenjodaro,Kot diji, and Amri have been displayed to show the
similarity and diversity of Harappan Culture.

8.7 Moenjodaro Museum

Archaeological Museum, Moenjodaro is situated at some 27 km from Larkana in
the Province of Sindh. A large number of Antiquities discovered from the
Archaeological Remains of Moenjodaro are houses in this museum. The museum
was opened on 20th January, 1967.The present two storied museum building
located near the Archaeological Rest House is laid out in a beautiful charming
garden. Before the present building the antiquities were displayed in a small
building constructed before the emergence of Pakistan in 1925. At the ground
floor of building are displayed different models, relief maps, large objects and a
number of enlargements of Indus seals. After ascending the staircase one can
reach the displayed galleries at the first floor. Here is a large mural painting
measuring 9.30 X 340 meters jointly made by Pakistan and Italian Artists,
depicting the everyday life in Moenjodaro some 5000 year ago.

There are twenty showcases in all which exhibits the artifacts of different types and
nature. Some showcases are however reserved for the display of dioramas and objects
discovered from Kot-Diji and Amri. The showcases of museum are specially designed
for providing the natural light in them from the top, without the need of electric light.
This new technique which was a novel experiment in the history of museums in
Pakistan has since been adopted in many other site museums.

A variety of pottery both plain and painted is displayed in the museum which
ranges from huge storage jars to small household utensils. Here are also displayed
terracotta figurines of mother goddess, male and female heads in stone and replica
of King Priest and Dancing Girl. A number of Indus Seals, weights and measures,
terracotta toys, jewellery item, faience and variety of shell objects including shell
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bangles are also exhibited. One last showcase is reserved for display of modern
objects like model of a bullock cart, pottery, animal figurines etc. for comparison
with those objects discovered from Moenjodaro which gibes a clear indication
that there has been continuity in the traditional art even the lapse of 50 centuries.

8.8 National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi

The Victoria Museum, first museum of Pakistan was established in 1851 in
Karachi by Sir Bartle Frere. The National Museum of Pakistan was inaugurated in
April, 1950 in a hired building of the Municipal Corporation. In 1970 the new
building was constructed in Burns Garden where nearby still stands the building
of the defunct Victoria Museum.

The National Museum of Pakistan was first established at Frere Hall in 1951. The
present building of the National Museum of Pakistan is located at Burns Garden,
Karachi which was completed in 1971. The basic objective of establishing
National Museum was to collect, preserve, study, and exhibit the records of the
cultural history of Pakistan and to promote a learned insight into the personality
of its people. The museum 11 Galleries which present specimens of art objects
belonging to different stages of the history of Pakistan i.e. Indus
Civilization artifacts, Gandhara Civilization Sculptures, Islamic Art, Miniature
Paintings, Ancient Coins and Manuscripts documenting Pakistan's Political
History, manuscripts. There is also an interesting Ethnological Gallery which
represents different ethnic groups living in the four provinces of Pakistan. The
Quranic gallery has recent been renovated.

Museum offers education services like guided Tours, Illustrated Lectures,

Documentary Film shows, - Quiz programmes for school & college students, To
facilitate the students visiting the Museum, provides Transport for educational purpose.

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Every year National Museum holds around a dozen exhibitions on National Days
and other occasions. The Museum premises also have an auditorium with 250
seating capacity. Museum has its own modeling section and conservation
laboratory. Necessary public facilities like Reference Library, Souvenir Shop,
Rest House, Snack Bar and public toilets have been provided in the museum
premises.

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No.1. Define the cultural heritage of Pakistan and highlight it scope and
importance.
Q. No.2. What do you know about Museums in Pakistan? Evaluate their
educational services for Pistani community.
Q. No.3. What is the importance of Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif,
Swat? Discuss.
Q. No.4. Discuss the importance ofChakdara Museum, Dir.
Q. No.5. Peshawar Museum is famous Gandhara Art of Pakistan, why it is
so?
Q. No.6. Discuss the antiquites of Taxila Museum, when this museum was
established?
Q. No.7. Highlight the services of Lahore Museum. Disccuss its various
garllies and its relics.
Q. No.8. Why we called it Haprappa Museum? Discuss its historical
beckgruond.
Q. No.9. Why the Moenjodaro Museum is an attractive place for the foreign
scholars?
Q. No.10. Discuss the potential of the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi.

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 Bibliography

Alam, Humera (1998) Gandhara Sculptures in Lahore Museum, Lahore Museum,

Lahore

Brown, Percy (1994) History of Lahore Museum, Lahore Museum Bulletin,

Vol.1-2, Lahore Museum, Lahore.

Cultural Heritage of Pakistan (1966) Department of Archaeology and Museum,

Karachi.

Dar, Saifur Rehman (1988) Lahore Museum Treasures, Lahore, Museum, Lahore.

Dar, Saifur Rehman (2006) Historical Routes through Gandhara (Pakistan) 200

BC -200 AD. Lahore.

Gandhara Sculpture in the National Museum of Pakistan, (1956), Department of

Archaeology, Karachi.

Hargreaves, H.(1986). Gandharan Sculptures, Peshawar Museum, (re-print)

Mayur Publications, India.

Khan, Makin (1997) Archaeological Museum, Saidu Sharif, Swat, A Guide,

Secord Edition, Swat.

Khan, Muhammad Ashraf (1993) Gandhara Sculptures in the Swat Musuem,

Artico Printers, Lahore

407
Khan, Muhammad Bahadur ( 2004), Gandhara Stone Sculptures in Taxila

Museum, Arr Bee Graphics, Peshawar

Masterpieces of Gandhara Art in Pakistan (2004), UNESCO Publication,

Islamabad.

Rehmani, Anjum. (1999). Masterpieces of Lahore Museum,Lahore Museum

Publication, Lahore.

Saeed, Tahir (1998) Moen-jo-daro, Signpost of a civilization, Karachi.

Sehrai, Fidaullah. (1991). The Buddha Story in the Peshawar Museum (First

published 1978, Second 1982) Peshawar.

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UNIT. 9

TOURISM IN PAKISTAN

Written by: Dr. Badshah Sardar

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 411

Objectives 412

9. Tourism in Pakistan 413

9.1 Introduction 413

9.2 Cultural Tourism 414
9.3 Prehistoric Sites 417
9.4 Pre-Muslim Sites and Monuments 420
9.5 Muslim Period Sites and Monuments 424
9.6 Folk Heritage Festivals 430
9.7 Natural Tourism 435
9.8 Natural Tourism of Pakistan 436

Self Assesment Questions 441

Bibliography 442

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Introduction

Pakistan, from Khber to Karachi, is a geographical, historical, cultural, religious

and racial unit. Its all provinces, namely Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, Sindh,
Baluchistan and Gilgitbaltistan including Kashmir are historically,
naturally,religiously and culturally rich and productive. Punjab and Sindh has
plenty of ancient monuments, and Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa having
natural and cultural wealth in abundance. Similarly in Gilgitbaltistan and Kashmir
have a rich cultural heritage and extraordinary tourism potentials.

All these provinces and Kashmir together present a happy blending and an ideal
balancing of Nature’s bounties. Besides these Tribal stocks, religious beliefs,
eating habits, dessing patterns, are all identical. Few nations are so fortunate as to
have such a happy blending of the desert and the arable, mountains and strong and
powerful homogeneity as prevails in the length and breadth of Pakistan. Few
nations in the world have so many common ingredients of nationhood as Pakistan.
This is not merely rhetoric but this study bears a testimony to this fact. If the
reader still has an iota of doubt on any point which needs further clarification, he
is advised to traverse through the length and breadth of this beautiful country,
meet its people; see their way of life and their culture; for seeing believes.
This unit is neither a travelogue nor a traveller’s tale nor a tourist guide, yet it
unfolds candidly what is most alluring in this admirable country. Journey through
Pakistan, therefore, is incomplete without knowing its people and their regional
customs and dance, sculpture and architecture, language and literature, history
and calendar; in short, their cultural patterns and way of life. While though
Wester, style food is available in all the larger cities of Pakistan, the visitor will
miss a new experience, if he leaves the country without sampling delicious
Pakistani food. In order to have a real ‘feel’ of Pakistan, rub your shoulders with
the folks, go for the folklore, listen the folk songs- the folk music, see the folk
dances, participate in the festivities and the festivals, and remember the land you
visited by purchasing a handicraft as a souvenir.

Paistan is famous fior its handicrafts. Exquisite hand-made articles are available at
moderate prives. There is an endless variety. Delicate silver trinkets, finely carved
wooden tables, trays, screens and other articles, colourful camel – skin lamps,
beautiful objects of ivory, fragile pottery, embroided purses, brassware of every
description, bamboo decorations, cane and conch shell products, glass bangles,
gold and silver ornaments, hand embroidered shawls, luxurious rugs and carpets
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and hundreds of other decorative handicrafts can be bougth as souvenirs. Things
purchased as a membto would always remind you of this beautiful country.

The people of Pakistan, without any consideration of their respective religious

faith, linguistic group or ethnic stock, are proud of this land of singing rivers and
dancing rivulets, of rugged mountains, of snow capped peaks, of plains and of
fields and their produce, of the mineral wealth, of the natural resources and many
more things beyond the horizon of their imagination. And of its Islamic spirit,
and robust patriotism, of the study guardians of Norther West Frontier, and of the
simple farmers of the fertile wheat fields of Punjab the land of five rivers, of the
innocent peasants working ceaselessly from dawn to dusk in the field of cotton
and rice, of Indus Valley Civilization, of camels and cadilecs, of deserts and
fertile fields, of plains and mountains, of beautiful beaches and the deep blue sea.

The Muslims, from the earliest days, left their landmarks in the field of
architecture as they built cities and citadels, forts and palaces, mosques and
mardrassahs, tombs and mausoleums, and introduced the laing out of gardens in
this South Asian land. The plans of both secular and sacred buildings were those
that had been standardized in the tradition of Islamic architecture. For instance,
the architecture of the mosques is grand and simple, at once attractive and awe-
inspiring, ordered and restrained, marked by symmetry and proportion, with open
spaces and abundance of light in accord with the Islamic conception of man’s
relationship to God as opposed to the Hindu traition of sacred architecture which
is florid in character, profusely decorative, with closed and dark cells and nilches
and mysterious labyrinthines passages.

Objectives: After going through this unit, the students will be able to
understand the following;

 to know little bet aboutcultural tourism of Pakistan

 to recognize Pre-historic sites and scop and importance of Pakistan
 to understand Pre-Muslim sites and monuments and its features
 to make known the students about history of early Mughal period art &
architecture
 to identify Muslim period sites of Pakistan
 to study folk heritage festivals of Pakistan
 to learn about natural tourism in Pakistan

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9. Tourism in Pakistan

9.1 Introduction

Cultural tourism is the subset of tourism concerned with a country or region's

culture, specifically the lifestyle of the people in those geographical areas, the
history of those people, their art, architecture, religion and other elements that
helped shape their way of life. Cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas,
particularly historic or large cities and their cultural facilities such as museums
and theatres. It can also include tourism in rural areas showcasing the traditions of
indigenous cultural communities, and their values and lifestyle. It is generally
agreed that cultural tourists spend substantially more than standard tourists do.
This form of tourism is also becoming generally more popular throughout the
world, and a recent report has highlighted the role that cultural tourism can play in
regional development in different world regions.

Cultural tourism is big business nowadays. The economy of a large number of

counties depends on the tourism and its related areas. Although tourism, in one
form or another, has always been linked to learning, the fact is that since the
1970s, when UNESCO produced the Convention on World Cultural and Natural
Heritage together with proposals to conserve and promote it, cultural tourism has
experienced huge growth throughout the world, but especially in Europe.

Pakistan is one of the few fortunate countries of the world which has great
potential of cultural tourism. We can increase the number of visitors to our own
country, if basic facilities with infrastructure are provided. At first stage facilities
like provision of approach path leading to the sites/ facilities of guides, provision
of amenities and services should be provided at all World Heritage Sites. This can
help to develop socio-economic condition of Pakistan.

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However, the revenue contribution from tourism sector of Pakistan is only 2%.
According to the World Economic Forum’s Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
Index, Pakistan is ranked 122ndin the list of 140 countries and the ratio of tourists
in our country is lowest among the Asian countries. Travel & Tourism is an
important economic activity in most countries around the world. As well as its
direct economic impact, the industry has significant indirect and induced impacts.
According to the report of Country Rankings, the real growth during the year
2018 was 5.9 % as compare to India 7.6 % whereas for total contribution to GDP
was 5.8 % as compare to India 7.5 % during the same year. Similarly, total
contribution to employment was 2.6% as compare to India 3.0 % growth.

9.2 Cultural Tourism

A cultural historian Raymond Williams (1921–1988) says that the difficulty in

defining the word ‘Culture’ is located on its “intricate historical development” in
European languages and on the fact that despite its long history the term is
relatively new in the English language. The word derives from the Latin word
which had a wide range of meanings that corresponded to different domains in
life for instance: agricultural (to cultivate), domestic (to inhabit), religious (to
honor a deity through worship), and social (to protect). Williams pointed to the
eventual divergences of these original meanings, such as the derivation of the
term colony, from the meaning of cultura “to inhabit,” or cult, from the meaning
“to honor through worship.” Hence culture and cultura still echo the original main
meaning of cultivation. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot (1885–1965), in his 1949
book ‘Notes Towards the Definition of Culture’, observed that the term
“cultivation” applies as much to “the work of the bacteriologist or the
agriculturalist” as “to the improvement of the human mind and spirit,” although
he concludes that the primary location of culture is religion. By the mid-

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eighteenth century the term appears in both French and English in its proto-
modern form, and in German it appears as a borrowing from the French first as
Cultur (in the eighteenth century) and then as Kultur (in the nineteenth century) as
almost synonymous with “civilization.”

The German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) observed that
the slippery nature of the two terms denoted the slippery understanding of
“culture” and “civilization” and the frequent conflation of the two. Herder
separated the notion of “civilization” from the notion of “culture” and developed
the theory of “cultures” in the plural, refuting the Universalist theories of a unified
development of humanity. The anthropological development of the theory of
culture rests precisely on this notion of “culture-in-the-plural,” the
acknowledgment that specific cultures existed in different times and places.

"Culture is one of the driving forces for the growth of tourism." This was stated
by the Secretary-General of the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), during
the third conference on cultural tourism organized by the UNWTO and UNESCO;
and one statistic backs it up - cultural tourism in the world represents nearly 37%
of the total for the sector.

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization, cultural tourism is

“movements of persons for essentially cultural motivations such as study tours,
performing arts and cultural tours, travel to festivals and other cultural events,
visits to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore or art and
pilgrimages.” Cultural tourism has been defined as 'the movement of persons to
cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention
to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs'. These
cultural needs can include the solidification of one's own cultural identity, by
observing the exotic "other".

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There are many benefits of cultural tourism such as; the conservation of cultural and
artistic heritage, local prosperity for non-traditional tourist destinations and the
establishment of links between different cultures and civilizations, further like the
impact on the economy and jobs. The money spent by cultural travelers has a very
positive repercussion, both at financial level and in the creation of jobs in sectors such
as the hotel and catering industry, trade and culture. Cultural tourism is almost as
diverse as culture itself in that it can embrace practically any activity connected with, or
peculiar to, a country, area, city or town: especially like art, cinema, language, sport,
religion, architecture, gastronomy, nature or any kind of folklore.

Cultural tourism is a type of special interest tourism involving leisure travel for
the purpose of viewing or experiencing the distinctive character of a place, its
peoples, and its products or productions. A wide range of destinations and cultural
activities fall under the umbrella heading of cultural tourism such as; visits to
Heritage Sites, tours of historic cities, architectural sites, and battlefields; study
and visit to museums, tours of ethnic neighborhoods, travel to local music
festivals and cultural performances; visits to indigenous villages or distinctive
cultural landscapes (e.g. observing farming practices in Asian rice fields).
Although cultural tourists’ motives vary, some common themes include the desire
to experience an “authentic” cultural landscape, interest in other cultures, and an
interest in scenery that fosters an engagement with the past. Since anthropologists
and sociologists first turned their attention to tourism in the 1970s, there have
been a variety of attempts to classify particular types of tourism. Some scholars,
such as Valene Smith (1989), have proposed more refined subdivisions to the
broader category of cultural tourism, including ethnic tourism to (of indigenous
peoples), historical tourism (focused on the glories of the past, museums,
monuments, and ruins), and, in a separate category, cultural tourism, to see
“vestiges of a vanishing lifestyle that lies within human memory” and involves

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folklore performances, festivals”. While some scholars embrace these taxonomic
distinctions, others simply utilize the broader umbrella term cultural tourism.
Recognizing that most tourists engage in a variety of activities on any given trip
(ranging from sampling local delicacies to touring picturesque villages), more
social scientific attention has been directed away from refining taxonomies and
toward better understanding the socio-cultural transformations that are part and
parcel of cultural tourism.

9.3 Prehistoric Sites

Apart from the physical environment of Pakistan’s territory, the people of this
country are heirs to a two million years old socio-political background going back
to the Old Stone Age. The earliest stone tools found in the Potohar region of
Pakistan belong to an ancient primitive stage in human development and culture.
The Stone Age is divided into three periods namely Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age),
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). As the name
suggests, the technology of implement in these periods were primarily based on
stone. Economically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods represents the
hunting and gathering stage in human history, while the Neolithic represents the
stage of food production i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry.

The oldest known tools, comprising of cores and flakes have been found from the
Siwalik hills of Potohar region at Rewat is of a distinctive local (Chellean)
Culture is of great interest, it links Potohar region of Pakistan with a vast complex
of such early centers of human activity, stretching from France and Spain through
the Mediterranean, also south and east Africa, Palestine and Syria, across to
Pakistan and then on as far as north –eastern China.

The next stage in Stone Age technology is known as the Acheulean Culture,

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broadly speaking, commenced around 400, 000 BC. The Middle Paleolithic began
around 100, 000 BC. The Acheulean Culture represents an evolution from the
previous one (Chellean) towards more elegant and refined technique in
preparation of stone implements. In Pakistan the stone implements of this culture
have been found by Dr. Noethling (1899) at Kout-Modahi, and Dr. Abdue-Rauf
Khan (1980) at Bela in Balochistan.

Human life at this stage was, of course, highly primitive. Man hardly differed in
outward appearance from the brute creation. People in the Old Stone Age lived in
small groups, without any fixed abode, subsisting on hunting and gathering wild
fruits, nuts etc. Edible roots were grubbed out with crude stone tools. As known
from various localities of the world, that towards the end of the Acheulean
Culture, fire came into general use, and people of the Old Stone Age began to
clothe themselves with animal furs (pelts).

The next phase in human life in Pakistan is the upper Paleolithic period, extending
from approximately 40, 000 to 12, 000 BC. Though hunting and gathering fruits
and other edibles remained the chief forms of upper Paleolithic man’s economic
activity, he also learnt how to fish and finally may even have begun to tame dogs
and other beasts.

Where no natural caves or shelters were to be found, he made tents out of skin
and even elaborate semi-underground dwellings. Unfortunately no stone
implements of this period has so far been discovered or found in Pakistan.
However, caves and rock shelter paintings and engravings made by upper
Paleolithic and Mesolithic period’s people are found in the Suleman Range and
Zhob Valley of Balochistan, which shows the dawn of human ingenuity. The
people of upper Paleolithic period were free to explore avenues of feeling and self
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expression which foreshadowed unmistakably the achievements of civilized
man. It is indeed no coincidence that the original centers of food production and
urban civilization in the mature Bronze Age grew up precisely within the
territories of these upper Paleolithic people.

Much remains to be done before the study of Stone Age man heritage in Pakistan
can be regarded as complete. However, we have enough evidence to establish
Pakistan’s right to rank as one of the cradles of human civilization.

Great steps forward, which enabled man to break through the barrier between
barbarism and civilization, occurred with the onset of the Neolithic or New Stone
Age. The mode of life and general outlook of the folk of the New Stone Age was
radically different from that of their Paleolithic and Mesolithic forebears. Stone-
using agricultural communities “Neolithic” were established in Balochistan
plateau, in Pakistan by 8th millennium (Mehrgarh) and spread to the fertile Indus
valley. In this Neolithic period five new practices played a vital part:

3 Settled agriculture.
4 Domestication of Animal.
5 Manufacture of pottery.
6 Tool-making by grinding and polishing technique.
7 Sewing, weaving and textile manufacture.
Naturally the fully-fledged Neolithic cultures of Pakistan did not spring in to
existence in a few brief generations. They were the result of a process of
evolution from the Mesolithic stage, lasting in the region from about 8th
millennium which lastly culminated and appeared around 2500 BCE as Indus
Civilization in the greater Indus valley.

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 Pre-historic sites

S# Name of the Site / cultural Object or material

1 Chellean stone tools sites, Potohar Region, Punjab

2 Acheulean sites, Khut Mudai and Bela, Balochistan

3 Caves/rock shelters of Upper Palaeolithic period with paintings and

engravings, Balochistan.

4 Mesolithic tools, Sind

5 Mehrgarh Site, Balochistan

6 Mehrgarh artefacts, Balochistan

7 Dabar Kot, Balochistan

8 Anjira, Rana Gundai, Periano Gundai, Balochistan

9 Amri, Pandi Wahi, Kohtras, Kot Diji, Sindh

10 Sarae Khola, Jalilpur, Hakra, Pubjab

11 Gahedgai, Lewan, Gumla, Rehman Dheri, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

12 Archaeological remains of Moenjodaro, Sindh

13 Archaeological remains of Harappa, Punjab

9.4 Pre-Muslim Sites and Monuments

The Achaemenian period of Persia established their sovereignty during 6th

century BCE over most of the lands comprising present day Pakistan. The

Macedonian invasion led by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE is likewise a great

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event in the history which served as a vehicle in the process of cultural interaction

between East and West civilizations. Buddhism reached Gandhara (northern part

of Pakistan) in the 3rd Century BCE during the reign of Asoka the Great of the

Mauryan dynasty and flourished under the royal patronage of the successive

ruling dynasties of Indo-Greeks, Scythians, and Parthians. It reached its climax in

the 2nd Century CE under the Kushans.

Gandhara was the ancient name of the tract of country on the west bank of the

Indus River which comprises the Peshawar valley and the modern Swat, Buner

and Bajaur. It was a country with rich, well-watered valleys, clear-cut hills and a

pleasant climate. Situated on the borderland between India and Western Asia, it

belonged as much and as little to the one as to the other. In the sixth and fifth

centuries BCE. it formed part of the Achaemenid Empireof Persia. In the fourth it

was occupied for a brief period by the armies of Alexander the Great. Thereafter

it was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, but after a century of local rule the

West again asserted itself, and in the second century BCE. Greek dynasts took the

place of Indian. Then in the early first century BCE., the victorious Sakas or

Scythians, entered who were followed, after yet another century, by the Parthians
and Kushans. However, even then the tale of foreign conquest was not ended. In

the third century CE, Gandhara again reverted to Persia, now under Sasanid
sovereigns, and was again re-conquered by the Kidara Kushans in the fourth.

Finally, the death-blow, to its prosperity was given by the Ephthalites or White
Huns, who swept over the country about CE., 465, carrying fire and sword

wherever they went and destroying the Buddhist monasteries. With such a history

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behind them it is not surprising that the people of Gandhara were thoroughly

cosmopolitan in their culture and their out-look. The common speech of the

people was an Indian Prakrit, but the script they used for the writing of this

vernacular was Kharoshthi a modified form of the Aramaic of Western Asia,

which had been adopted for official use throughout the Persian Empire during

Achaemenid times.

Nevertheless, it is true to say that Gandhara took its everyday speech from India

and its writing from the West. This intimate fusion of widely divergent elements

was equally apparent in the religious life of the people. As each successive

conqueror added his quota to the local galaxy of deities and creeds, the number

and variety went on growing. The impetus given to Buddhists by the Mauryan

Emperor, Asoka, and the artistic impulses emanating from the Bactrian Greeks in

Central Asia led to the fruition of the Gandhara Art under the patronage of the

Kushanas and their successors. The period from 1st Century A.D. to 4th Century
CE., is a remarkable period in the history of Pakistan when the sculptural art

becomes a hand maiden to spiritual zeal. Initially, the medium of sculptural art
appears to have been the grey schist in Taxila, Peshawar, Mardan, Malakand, Dir,

Swat and Buner regions, but then other kinds of locally available stones like
phyllite, soapstone, green schist, chlorite, etc. were also used for carving

sculptures alongwith the more plastic stucco to fulfill the insatiable demand of
Buddhist devotees who filled the innumerable monasteries and stupas thickly

dotting the whole Gandharan country of that time.

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While Graeco-Roman impulse was responsible for initiation and development of

Gandhara art, the local talent made it what it looked like the representation of the

true society of the elite and the religious monks who roamed about with an aura of

spiritual dignity. Besides sculptures, the architecture of Gandhara also has a

marked characteristic of its own composition in nature and scope lending towards

Ionic and Doric style of Classical Greeks. The city plan of Sirkap in Taxila, the

remains of religious establishments Stupas and Monasteries at Jaulian, Mohra

Moradu, Dharmarajika etc. around Taxila, and those at Takht-i-Bahi, Jamal Garhi,

Sehri Bahlol in Mardan district, are remarkable ensemble of the dissemination and

blending of foreign and local traditions of the art of building. Besides, Butkara,

Panr, Udegram, Nimogram, Chat Pat, Andan Dheri, Saidu Stupa, Shingardar

Stupa, Thokardara Stupa, to name only a few, are some of the famous sites in

Swat and Dir area which provide ample evidence of the extent of this religious

cultural phenomenon.

Decline of the Buddhist Art of Gandhara started with Sasanid and Hun invasions
which resulted in mass destruction of the cities and religious establishments of the
area. The society and its norm were annihilated, while the art and architecture
adversely affected when monumental buildings, both religious as well as secular,
were put to fire. The havoc was faced throughout the areas which are now
Pakistan. The Chinese Pilgrim Hun-Tsang’s account of the ruined monasteries,
stupas and other secular buildings mentions what he saw everywhere in the region
is an awesome but accurate description of the horrible desolation of these once
flourishing centers. However, the Buddhist faith was not wiped out completely
from these areas. We come across its manifestation at many places especially in
today’s Sind and in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
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 Archaeological sites of pre-Muslim period

S# Name of the Site

1 Takht Bhai and Sehre Behlol remains

2 Jamal Garhi remains

3 Shahbazgarhi Rock Edicts

4 Buddhist Sites in Swat; Butkara-I, Butkara-II, Panr, Saidu Stupa, Udegram,

Nimogram, Chat Pat, Andan Dheri, Tokardara Stupa

5 Rock Edicts Mansehra

6 Mankiala Stupa

7 Archaeological Sites of Taxila; Bhir Mound, Sirkap, Sirsukh, Dharmarajika

Stupa, Kalawan, Giri, MohraMoradu, Jaulian, Jandial.

8 Shah-ji-ki Dheri, Peshawar

9 Charsadda, near Peshawar

10 Shingardara Stupa,Swat

9.5 Muslim Period Sites and Monuments

The first impulse of Islam was actually felt in the north-western regions of the
Subcontinent almost immediately after its stabilization in the Arabian Peninsula
under the caliphate of the first and second pious Caliphs. However, its real impact
of far-reaching effect was felt a little later when the Sindh was attacked and
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reduced by a young Arab General, Muhammad ibn-al-Qasim in (711-12 CE).
Muhammad ibn-al-Qasim reduced the land upto Multan and Dipalpur. This was the
time that the Arab rule was established here and the areas became part of the fast
growing Umayyed Caliphate. With this political change, the socio-religious pattern of
the local society was also changed. Soon Arab culture, language and literature was
introduced and penetrated in these areas. Later during the second and third Centuries of
Hijra, these influences were strengthened when Arab independent Emirates were
established here with capitals at Multan and Al-Mansurah.

The next wave of Islamic culture which came from Central Asia to this part of the
Subcontinent was initiated through the military excursions of Sebuktegin, and
later by his son and successor Mahmood of Ghazna in the later decades of the 10th
and the early decades of the 11th Century CE., Sultan Mahmood introduced
characteristic features of Central Asian architecture in the land of today's Pakistan
and is said to have erected a mosque and a victory tower at Lahore.

The Islamic rule and culture in the Subcontinent, however, gained a permanent
footing after Shahab-ud-Din Ghuri defeated Pirthvi Raj and captured the throne at
Delhi in 1193. The stream of history since then flowed uninterrupted through the
successive rule of the Central Asian Turks, the Khaljis, the Tughluqs, Sayyids and
the Lodis. This was a very important period of the socio-cultural, religio-spiritual
as well as political history of Pakistan, all imbued with Central Asian traits and
traditions.

Through the religious and secular buildings of this period a new a distinct style of
architecture was introduced and perpetuated. It was based on the characteristic
features of Central Asian art of building. Called fondly by the architectural
historians the naked brick architecture, its specimens are mainly brick
construction having cut-brick decoration. The earliest known outstanding
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specimens are the tomb of Muhammad b. Harun at Bela (Balochistan), the
Mausoleum of Khalid Walid at Kabirwala (Multan) and the tomb of Sadan Shah
at Muzaffargarh. Later on brick decoration was replaced with faience or faience
mosaic revetment, and wooden embellishment. These specimens are mostly
funerary memorials erected over the graves of the saintly personages. In Pakistan,
we have a number of such memorials spread over almost every place. The climax
of this style is represented by the famous mausoleum of Rukn-i-Alam at Multan
which has been acclaimed as the most splendid memorial ever erected in honour
of the dead. The specimens of the later date are extant at Uch Shereif, Dipalpur,
Multan, Sitpur, Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, kot Mithan,
Jalalpur Pir Wala and elsewhere.

The land of Sind has, in this connection, its own distinguished identity. During the
long period of history, its large parts were ruled by local dynasts of Sumras,
Sammas, Tarkhans, Arghuns and Talpurs. These rulers have left an imprint on the
socio-cultural history of Sind; they issued coins, built palaces and other religious
and secular buildings, patronized arts and literature. The masterpieces of the art of
buildings belonging to these periods are Makli Hill Grave yard, Chokundi,
Hanidan and Mausoleums of Talpurs at Hyderabad.

The beginning decades of the sixteenth century witnessed yet another political
change in the Subcontinent, and brought a new reigning power to the scene. The
progenitor of this dynasty the Moghul Empire, was Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad
Babur (1526-1530). He was succeeded by Humayun (1530-1554) Akbar (1554-
1604), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shahjahan (1628-1658), Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
and others. The rule of this imperial power lasted for well over three hundred
years when it declined and fell. It was in 1857 that the last Moghul emperor

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Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by the British East India Company who
inaugurated the British rule.

The Imperial Mughals introduced a much refined and sophisticated socio-cultural

pattern in the society. Babur, a product of Samarqand and Farghana, paid his
attention towards laying out gardens at several places of his newly conquered
territory .History reveals that one such garden was laid in the Salt Range area and
was named as Bagh-i-Safa. Only traces of this vanquished garden are left now.
No other building of his, or for that matter, of his successor Humayun is known to
exist now in Pakistan, except the ruined Baradari at Lahore erected by Kamran
Mirza within a vast enclosed garden. However, Akbar, the real architect of the
Moghul Empire, built a number of buildings in Lahore of which the fortifications
of the fort with impressive gate-ways, and the palaces within it are remarkable
specimens of an architectural style which is termed as an admixture of the Hindu-
Jaina and Iranian characteristics. His son and successor Jahangir added a few
more buildings within and without the fort.

Of the architectural accomplishments, the Maryam Zamani Masjid and the tomb
of Anarkali, both at Lahore, are significant examples of majestic but robust
architecture. While the latter is an embodiment of majesty and grandiose
representing a link between the Lodi, Suri and the Moghul architectural
characterizes, the former presents a unique feat of colour presentation of fresco
art. Incidentally, here in this mosque we meet for the first time in Pakistan the
earliest example of the double dome.

Indeed Lahore and Thatta are the two celebrated historic cities where the most
sumptuous representation of Islamic architecture of the grand Mughals is found in

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such abundance. The sumptuous palaces in the Lahore Fort, the Shalamar, the
mausoleums of Jahangir, Nurjehan and Asif Khan, the Badshahi Mosque, at
Lahore, and a galaxy of funerary memorials, the Dabgaran Mosque, the Shah
Jahan Mosque at Thatta and Makli, and a number of religious and secular
monuments spread over the various parts of Sind are some of the best specimens
of the art of building created during the period which show the height of tasteful
patronage and the skill and proficiency of the master-artists and artisans.

These imperial patrons of art and culture patronized almost all art forms:
paintings, calligraphy, coinage, armoury, and other minor arts. They established
imperial libraries and studios to create best specimens of these arts. The coins of
this period too are pieces of art for their purification, designing and variety. The
art of book reached its height which combined miniature paintings as well. Their
objects of daily use were in fact objects de-art which were made of gold, silver
and other precious and semi precious metals and stones. Numerous pieces of these
arts, illustrated manuscripts of classical Persian works, albums of painting and
calligraphy, gold and silver coins now form proud possessions of museums and
art galleries throughout the world.

With the decline and fall of the Moghul empire, the Muslim society in the
subcontinent also received a real set back, never to regain the lost glory .The petty
states and chiefdoms at many places of the areas which are now Pakistan, were
only a shadow of its past grandeur, which have never been able to view with its
past. The rule of the Sikhs and the earlier phase of the British ascendancy brought
a death knell to this Islamic culture.

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 Muslim period sites and monuments

S# Name of the Site/Monument

1 Tomb of General Muhammad Ibn-e-Haroon, Las Bela, Balochistan
2 Fort of Azad Khan, Kharan
3 Mir Chakar Fort, Sibi, Balochistan
4 Graveyard including four Tombs at Lal Mohra Sherif, Dera Ismail
Khan
5 Tomb of Hazrat Shaheed Ahmed Mujadid Baralvi, Balakot
6 Gor Khatree monuments, Peshawar
7 Udegram Castle and Mosque, Swat
8 Tomb of Ghulam Shah Kalhora, Hyderabad
9 Tomb of Ghulam Nabi Khan Kalhora, Hyderabad
10 Nasar Ji Mosque, Hyderabad
11 One enclosure containing Tombs of Talpur Mirs, Hyderabad
12 Chaukandi Tombs, Near Karachi
13 Mohtta palace (Qasr-e-Fatima), Karachi
14 Tomb of Nur Muhammad Kalhora, Hyderabad
15 Shrine Known as Satyan-jo-Than, Rohri
16 Kot Diji Fort, Kot Diji, near Sukkhar
17 Makli Hill Graveyard, Thatta
18 Shahjahani Mosque, Thatta
19 Lala Rukhs Tomb, Hasan Abdal, Attock
20 Attock Monuments, Attock near Indus Bridge
21 Uch Sharif Monuments, Uch Sharif, Multan
22 Tomb of Abdul Nabi, Kotli Maqbra Gujranwala
23 Rohtas Fort, Jhelum

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 24 Ruins of Nandna Fort, Jhelum
25 Tomb of Khalid Walid, Kabirwala, Khaniwala
26 Tomb of Ali Mardan, Lahore
27 Dai Anga Tomb, Lahore
28 Shalamar Garden, Lahore
29 Lahore Fort, Lahore
30 Shahdara Monuments, Lahore
31 Choburji Monument, Lahore
32 Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore
33 Hiran Minar, Sheikhupura
34 Shah Rukan-e-Alam and other tombs, Multan
35 Gates and other monuments inside the walled city of Lahore
36 Marium Zamani Mosque, Lahore

9.6 Folk Heritage Festivals

Pakistan is blessed with immense cultural diversity. The tangible cultural heritage
of Gandhara and Indus valley Civilization are in fact complemented by
magnificent intangible cultural heritage as well. This intangible cultural heritage
of Pakistan comprises on; social practices, expressions, traditional knowledge and
skills, oral traditions performing arts, social practices and folk heritage festivals.
Each province of our country has its own unique cultural traditions. The
indigenous knowledge, traditions, developed over centuries through interaction of
human beings with their environment which is now cherished cultural heritage of
Pakistan. There are a number of Folk Heritage Festivals which are celebrated
enthusiastically and devotedly in Pakistan.

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i. Shandur Polo Mela

Shandur Polo festival is one of the most famous festivals in Pakistan. This festival
is held in the month of July every year on Shandur Top in Ghizer District of Gilgit
Baltistan. The Polo match is played between the teams of Chitral district and
Gilgit –Balstistan on the world’s highest ground. This festival also includes folk
music, folk dances and traditional sports.

ii. Nowruz Festival

Nowruz in Pakistan is celebrated as “Alam Afroz” or the “New Day”. During this
festival special ceremonies and prayers are offered while sweets, perfumes, fruits,
and flowers mark the offering of Nowruz. The main attractions include socio-
cultural and religious gatherings. Over the past many years Nowruz festival has
received recognition at different levels including the government. Nowruz is
‘cultural bridge’ between various communities of Pakistan and it provides a
platform for pluralism. It gives message of peace and tolerance in society by
providing an opportunity for rethinking, reviving and rejuvenating the cultural
ethos of the communities associated with it and also creates harmony in the
society.

iii. Chawmos

The Chawmos festival is celebrated from 7-22 December every year by the
Kalasha community to mark end of the year’s field work and welcome the arrival
of New Year. It contains a series of celebrations. Each ceremony in this festival
has its own traditions, foods and songs. It is most exciting among all the festivals,
in which girls dance in cold weather and snowfall and boys play various games in
the festival.

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iv. Sibi Mela

Sibi Mela is a cultural festival that has been organized regularly over the past
centuries. Basically it is a livestock trade venue. The festival is considered as an
extension of Mehrgarh culture where domestication of animals was a practice.
Traditionally in this festival, a large number of livestock breeders gather every
spring at Sibi Town for sale/purchase, competition and display of various breeds
of different animals. The salient feature of this festival is horse and cattle show,
cultural displays, tent pegging, camel races, animal markets and exhibitions, if
handicrafts, tribal dresses and folk dances.

v. Mela Chiraghan

Mela Chiraghan (Festival of Lights) is a three day annual festival to mark the URs
(death anniversary) of the Punjabi poet and Sufi saint Shah Hussain (1538-1599)
who lived in Lahore in the 16th century. It takes place at the shrine of Shah
Hussain in Baghbanpura, Lahore adjacent to Shalamar Gardens. This festival is
used to be the largest festival in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The common
peasants, Mughal rulers, the Punjabi Sikh rulers and even the British officers
during their British Raj used to show up at this festival. Maharaja Ranjit Singh
(1780-1839) had high respect for this Sufi saint Shah Hussain. In the early half of
the 19th century during the Sikh rule, Maharaja Ranjit Singh used to lead a
procession from the Lahore Fort to this festival site.

vi. Eid-ul-Fitr

Eid-ul-Fitr is an important festival celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks

the end of Ramzan, the Islamic holy month of Fasting. This religious festival is
the first and the only day in the month of Shawwal during which Muslims are not
permitted fast. In fact it is the day of getting reward from Almighty Allah. The

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festival falls on first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of Islamic Calendar.
Therefore it is subject to appearance of moon. Before offering the prayer the
Muslims are ordered to pay Sadq-e-Fitr at fixed rate to the eligible poor people so
that they may also celebrate the festival. After offering the prayer people embrace
and wish happy Eid-ul-Ftr to each other.

Eid-ul-Fitr has a particular prayer and generally offered in an open area as it may
be performed only in congregations. At the eve of the festival sweet dishes are
prepared. The festival marks a lot of enjoyment including shopping wearing new
cloths, gift sharing and social gatherings.

vii. Eid-ul-Azha

Eid-ul-Azha also called the “Festival of Sacrifice” is the second of two Islamic
festivals celebrated worldwide each year. It honors the willingness of Hazrat
Ibrahim to sacrifice his son as an act of obedience to the command of Almighty
Allah. But, before Ibrahim could sacrifice his son, Almighty Allah provided a
lamb to sacrifice instead. In commemoration of this, an animal is sacrificed by
Muslims. The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be divided into three
parts. The family retains one third of the share, another one third is given to
relatives, friends and neighbors and other remaining is given to the poor and
needy people.

viii. Eid-Milladun Nabi

Eid-Milladun Nabi is the observance of birthday of the Holy Prophet Hazrat

Muhammad (Peace be upon him) on 12th Rabi-ul-Awwal, the third month of the
Islamic calendar. State and religious organizations, Milad committees and
individual plan a large number of activities comprising processions, seminars,
conferences, discussions and program to mark the annual event. The sacred day

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begins with offering of special prayers in mosques offer upholding and
flourishing of Islam and religious teachings, unity, solidarity, progress and
welfare of the Muslim Ummah. Numerous EidMilladun Nabi (Peace be upon
him) processions take out across the country and Mehfil-e-Milad are held to
celebrate the occasion. All streets and roads as well as bazaars, shopping centres,
and government/private buildings are beautifully decorated and illuminated with
lights colourful banners bearing the celebrations of Eid-Milladun Nabi (PBUH).

ix. Shab-e-Bra’at

Literally Shab-e-Bra’at means the night of salvation or the night of freedom from
the fire of Hell. It occurs in Mid-Shahban between the 14thday of Shaban which is
eighth month of Islamic calendar. Muslim observes it as night of worship and
salvation. Some people spend whole night awake and worship. During this night
teachings of Holy Prophet (PBUH) tell us that Almighty Allah determines the destiny
of all people, including whether a person is to live or die in the coming year.

x. Basant

Basant festival is considered to be a seasonal festival and celebrated to mark the

beginning of spring. In Punjab Basant Panchami has been a long established
tradition of flying kites. Through this festival people welcome the spring by flying
colourful kites, eating sweets dishes and wearing yellow dresses. Historically
Maharaja Ranjit Singh one of the rulers of Punjab held an annual Basant fair and
introduced kite flying as a regular feature of the fair. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and
his wife Moran used to dress in yellow and fly kites on Basant. The association of
kite flying with Basant soon became a Punjabi tradition with the centre in Lahore
which had been remained the regional hub of the festival for a long time.

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9.7 Natural Tourism

Heritage is that which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the

present, and bestowed to future generations. The heritage tourism, which falls
under the purview of cultural tourism is one of the most prominent and
widespread types of tourism. Further it is among the very oldest forms of travel
whose linkages are well attested from the ancient times. In this context the
Natural Heritage consist of physical and biological formations or groups of
formations, geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated
areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants. In
fact it refers to the sum of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna,
ecosystems and geological structures. It forms part of our natural resources. The
1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention established that biological resources,
such as plants, are the common heritage of mankind. This Convention mentions
about the preservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage in these words: "need to
be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole."

Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind. This
includes all valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic
value, scientific interest and cultural value. On Earth, it includes sunlight,
atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, and
animal life. Natural resources can be part of our natural heritage or protected in
nature reserves. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.
Further, Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be
used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is
composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may
exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, as well as any living organism
such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain

435
the resource such as metal ores, rare-earth elements, petroleum, and most forms of
energy.

There are various methods of categorizing natural resources. These include the
source of origin, stage of development, and by their renewability. On the basis of
origin, natural resources may be divided into two types:

i. Biotic — Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and
organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that
can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are
also included in this category because they are formed from decayed
organic matter.
ii. Abiotic – These resources are those that come from non-living, non-
organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh
water, air, rare-earth elements, and heavy metals including ores, such
as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

9.8 Natural Tourism of Pakistan

The northern highlands of Pakistan include lower elevation areas of Potohar and
Azad Jammu and Kashmir regions and higher elevation areas embracing the
foothills of Himalayan, Karakorum and Hindukush mountain ranges. These areas
provide an excellent habitat for wildlife in the form of alpine grazing lands, sub-
alpine scrub and temperate forests.

Some of the wildlife species found in northern mountainous areas and Pothohar
Plateau include the bharal, Eurasian lynx, Himalayan goral, Marco Polo sheep,
marmot (in Deosai National Park) and yellow-throated marten and birds species
of chukar partridge, Eurasian eagle-owl, Himalayan monal and Himalayan snow
cock and amphibian species of Himalayan toad and Muree Hills frog. Threatened

436
species include the snow leopard, Himalayan brown bear, Indian wolf, rhesus
macaque, markhor, Siberian ibex and white-bellied musk deer. Bird species
present are cheering pheasant, peregrine falcon and western tragopan.

The Indus River and its numerous eastern tributaries of Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
Jhelum, Beas are spread across most of Punjab. The plain of the Indus continues
towards and occupies most of western Sindh. The plains have many fluvial
landforms (including bars, flood plains, levees, meanders and oxbows) that
support various natural biomes including tropical and subtropical dry and moist
broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrublands (deserts of Thal and
Cholistan in Punjab, Nara and Thar in Sindh). The banks and stream beds of the
river system also support riparian woodlands that exhibit the tree species of kikar,
mulberry and sheesham. Such geographical land forms accompanied by an
excellent system of monsoon climate provide an excellent ground for diversity of
flora and fauna species. However, the plains are equally attractive to humans for
agricultural goals and development of civilization.

Some of the non-threatened mammal species includes the nilgai, red fox and wild
boar, bird species of Alexandrine parakeet, barn owl, black kite, myna, hoopoe,
Indian peafowl, Indian leopard, red-vented bulbul, rock pigeon, shelduck and
shikra, reptile species of Indian cobra, Indian star tortoise, Sindh krait and yellow
monitor and amphibian species of Indus Valley bullfrog and Indus Valley toad.
However, some of the threatened mammal species include the, axis deer,
blackbuck (in captivity; extinct in wild), hog deer, dholes, Indian pangolin,
Punjab urial and Sindh ibex, bird species of white-backed vulture and reptile
species of black pond turtle and gharial. Grey partridge is one of the few birds that
can be found in the Cholistan desert. Mugger crocodiles inhabit the Deh Akro-II
Desert Wetland Complex, Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, Chotiari Reservoir and
Haleji Lake.
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The Western region of Pakistan is enveloped in Balochistan province, has a
complex geography. In mountainous highlands, habitat varies from conifer forests
of deodar in Waziristan and juniper in Ziarat. Thenumerous mountain ranges
surround the huge lowland plains of Balochistani Plateau, through which a rather
intricate meshwork of seasonal rivers and salt pans is spread. Deserts are also
present, showing xeric shrubland vegetation in the region. Date palms and
ephedra are common flora varieties in the desert. The Balochistan leopard has
been described from this region. Some of the mammal species include the
caracal, Balochistan dormouse, Blanford's fox, dromedary camel, goitered
gazelle, Indian crested porcupine, long-eared hedgehog, markhor, ratel, and
striped hyena, bird species of bearded vulture, houbara bustard and merlin, reptile
species of leopard gecko and saw-scaled viper and amphibian species of
Balochistan toad.

There are a number of protected wetlands (under Ramsar Convention) in Pakistan.

These include Tanda Dam and Thanedar Wala in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Chashma
Barrage, Taunsa Barrage and Uchhali Complex in Punjab, Haleji Lake, Hub Dam
and Kinjhar Lake in Sindh, Miani Hor in Balochistan. The wetlands are a habitat
for migratory birds such as Dalmatian pelicans and demoiselle crane as well as
predatory species of osprey, common kingfisher, fishing cat and leopard cat near
the coast line. Chashma and Taunsa Barrage Dolphin Sanctuary protect the
threatened Indus river dolphins which live in freshwater.

The east half of the coast of Pakistan is located in the south of Sindh province
which features Indus River Delta and coast of Great Rann of Kutch. The largest
saltwater wetland in Pakistan is the Indus River Delta. Unlike many other river
deltas, it consists of clay soil and is very swampy. West coast of Great Rann of
Kutch, east to the Indus River Delta and below Tharparkar desert, is one of the
few places where greater flamingos come to breed. The vegetation of Indus River
438
Delta is mainly represented by various mangrove species and bamboo species.
The Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves are a focused eco region of WWF.
Nearly 95% of the mangroves located in the Indus River Delta are of the species
Avicennia marina.

The west half of the Pakistan coast is in the south of Balochistan province. It is
also called the Makran coast and exhibits protected sites such as Astola Island and
Hingol National Park. The three major mangrove plantations of Balochistan coast
are Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Gwatar Bay. Miani Hor is a swampy lagoon on
the coast in the Lasbela district where the climate is very arid. The sources of
fresh water for Miani Hor are the seasonal river of Porali. The nearest river to the
other lagoon, Kalmat Khor, is the Basol River. Gawatar, the third site, is an open
bay with a mouth almost as wide as its length. Its freshwater source is the Dasht
River, the largest seasonal river of Baluchistan. All three bays support mainly A.
marina species of mangrove.

Along the shores of Astola and Ormara beaches of Balochistan and Hawk'e Bay
and Sandspit beaches of Sindh are nesting sites for five endangered species of sea
turtles. Sea snakes such as yellow-bellied sea snake are also found in the pelagic
zone of the sea. The wetlands of Pakistan are also a home to the mugger crocodile
that prefer freshwater habitat.

The areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and Central Karakorum Park are one of the most
preferred tourist destinations in the world. The Central Karakorum National Park
is a mountain area endowed with rich biodiversity, natural beauty, important
resources and unique cultural and natural heritage. The Park encompasses the
world’s largest glaciers, outside the Polar Regions. It was declared as National
Park in 1993 which today is the largest protected area of Pakistan covering over
10,557.73 sq km and the highest park all over the world. It is characterized by

439
extremes of altitudes that range from 2000 meter above sea level to over 8,000
meter above sea level including K2, the second highest peak in the world.

The Central Karakoram National Park is however, the highest protected area as
well as unique natural heritage of Pakistan. This area belong to an area rich in
history and culture that evolved over time under diverse cultural influences and
traditions which left their mark from the 5th millennium BCE onwards. It covers
over 10,000 kilometers square in the central Karakorum mountain range, notable
for its natural environment and cultural as well as natural heritage. It falls within
four administrative districts of Gigit-Baltistan namely; Ganche, Skardu, Gilgit and
Hunza-Nagar. The area include the world’s largest glaciers systems outside the
Polar Regions and it is characterized by extreme of latitudes that range from 2,000
to over 8,000 meter above sea level, with four peaks over 8000 meters, including
K2 being the second highest peak in the world. The great altitudinal range and the
climatic conditions of the area have carved out distinctive environment and eco
systems with a big variety of flora species ranging from endemic herbs and
chiefly perennial grasses to coniferous forests, several threatened and rare species
of wild animals and birds, mostly endemic to Karakoram. The snow leopard,
Brown bear, Ladakh urial, Astore Markhor Himalayan blue sheep and Himalayan
ibex represent the key mammalian fauna.

The Gigit-Baltistan region has one of the most diverse avifauna of the
mountainous regions of the world. Around 90s pecies of birds are known to occur
in the Central Karakoram Park in 13 families. Their occurrence status varies from
resident to breeder to migratory. Common snow cock, Chukar, rock pigeon, snow
pigeon oriental turtle dove, booted eagle, and common kestrel are among the
common resident birds of the area. Common hoopoe, common cuckoo, common
swift and Eurasian skylark, Spanish sparrow, Himalayan accentor, Eurasian
goldfinch and pine bunting are winter visitors to the area. Some rare birds include
440
Snow partridge, Himalayan Monal, Golden Eagle, Alpine Accentor and Humer’s
Wheatear. Alpine and moraine lakes are important stopovers on the Indus flyway
hence becoming one of the largest migratory birds routes in the world. Both
migratory and resident birds are observable in the area.

Among the landscapes that characterize the territories of the Karakorum, the
glaciers are an essential part. The numerous and vast glaciers cover more than
16,500 square kilometers. The glaciers constitute the largest glacial system
outside the Polar Regions and represent a reserve of water that is vital to all
surrounding areas for which that were defined as “water towers of mankind”.

Self Assessment Questions

Q. No.1. Define the term tourism and highlight the potential of Tourism in
Pakistan.
Q. No.2. What do you know about Prehistoric sites, explain its importance
in the cultural history of Pakistan?
Q. No.3. Discuss Pre-Muslim sites and monuments of Pakista, how it
contribute to the cultural profile of the country? Discuss.
Q. No.4. What do you know about UNESCO cultural heritage sites in
Pakistan? Explain their importance.
Q. No.5. Evaluate the scope and importance of Muslim period monuments
in Pakistan
Q. No.6. Discuss the famous folk heritage festival of Pakistan.
Q. No.7. What do you know about natural tourism? Discuss its types and
potential in Pakistan.

441
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 Department of Pakistan Studies
Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities