Parameters characterizing

water, wastewater, biosolids,

gases
(which are typical matrices for
treatment by Environmental
Engineering tools)

See the lecture outline for readings

 Parameters characterizing
water, wastewater, sludge, gases

1. Physical characteristics of water: taste and odor, color,

turbidity, temperature, total solids
2. Inorganic characteristics of water and wastewater:
Alkalinity, Hardness, Fluoride, Metals, Chloride, Hydrogen,
Sulfide, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Oxygen, pH, Sulphate
3. Organic characteristics of water and wastewater: BOD5 ,
COD, NOD, EDCs: Endocrine Disrupting Compounds,
Methane, Specific organics
4. Biological characteristics of water and wastewater:
Pathogenic organisms’ indicators, specific microorganisms,
helminth ova, spores.

• Yellow highlighting for water characteristics only; characteristics

used for water and other matrices are not highlighted
 Source of water
• Groundwater
• Surface water
– Streams
– Lakes
– Sea
– Springs
• Wastewater
• Glaciers
• Precipitation (rain, snow)
 Water needs
• Drinking water
• Water for domestic usage
• Water for irrigation
• Water for agriculture (drinking water for
animals, washing)
• Water for recreation purpose
• Water for industry
 Water quality standards
• Different standards for:
– Drinking water quality
http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/potable/reglement/guide_interpretation_RQEP.pdf

– Surface water quality

http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/eco_aqua/rivieres/indice/IQBP.pdf
– Groundwater quality
http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/piezo/index.htm
– Quality of effluents discharged from WWTP
http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/eaux-usees/strat-pancan/index.htm
– Irrigation water quality
– Industrial water quality
Characteristics of water

Physical , chemical
 Physical characteristics of water
Taste and Odor

• Source: minerals, salts, end products

from biological reactions, petroleum
based products.
• Measurement: expressed in
Threshold Odor Number (TON)
• TON = (A+B)/A
• A: volume of odorous water (mL)
• B: volume of odor-free water
required to produce a 200 mL
mixture
 Physical characteristics of water
Temperature
• Source: ambient temperature, impact of
cooling water systems, irrigation return,
removal of forests...
• Impacts: high temperature decrease dissolved
oxygen, increase biological activity, accelerates
chemical reactions, affect physical and chemical
properties of water. Changes in water
temperature associated with changing in water
density provoke mixing of stratified layers in
lakes.
• Measurement: thermometers in centigrade.
Max temp. acceptable for drinking water 12oC.
 Physical characteristics of water
Color

• Source: tannins, humic susbstances (leaves, wood),

minerals, contamination by industry, mining, phenolic
compounds (toxic), chlorine (carcinogenic).
• Impact: not aesthetically acceptable, poor treatment,
unsuitable for laundering and beverage, potential
impact on health, etc
• Measurement:
• i) in lab: True Color Units (TCU) where 1 unit is
equivalent to color produced by 1 mg/L of
chloroplatinate ions. Test within 72 hours of collection.
• ii) in the field: employing calibrated glass disks.
 Physical characteristics of water
Solids
• Solids: Total Solids (TS), Volatile Solids
(VS), Suspended Solids(SS), Dissolved
Solids (DS)
• Source: organic (e.g. plant fibres, algal
cells, bacteria) and inorganic particles
(e.g. minerals from erosion), by-products
from industrial and municipal effluents.
• Measurements: i) Total Solids in mg/L
obtained by drying samples in oven at
105oC. Could be find filterable and non-
filterable residues.
 Physical characteristics of water
Turbidity

• Source: erosion of colloidal material,

vegetable fibres, microorganisms.
• Measurement: Nephelometry Turbidity
Units (NTU) indicated by turbidity meter
designed based on scattering principles.
Light intensity at 90o angle from the light
source (some time it is necessary to use
adsorption technique).
 Physical characteristics of water
Transmittance

• Sources: erosion of colloidal material,

vegetable fibres, microorganisms.
• Measurements: Measurement of light
(wives) transmission.
• Necessary parameter for UV treatment.
 Chemical characteristics of water
pH

• pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the

molar concentration of dissolved hydrogen ions
(H+). pH = 7 show neutrality of water, pH<5
acidity of water and pH>9 express base.
• Sources: Sources are different, e.g.
• Dissolved CO2 decreases pH in water.
• CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
• H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-
 Chemical characteristics of water
Alkalinity
• Sources:
• Alkalinity is ability of water to neutralize
acid (or the quantity of ions that will react
to neutralize hydrogen ions).
• Constituents of alkalinity in neutral water:
• CO32- carbonates
• HCO3- bicarbonates
• OH- hydroxides
• Others: HSiO3-, H2BO3-, H2PO4-, HS, NH30
• Impact on: taste of water, coagulation,
precipitation in pipes (fouling pipes)
• Measurement: Titration technique and
producing Alkalinity Titration Curve.
 Chemical characteristics of water
Total Dissolved Solids
• The material remaining in water after filtration for suspended solids
(TS) analysis.
• Source: reaction of water as a solvent on solids. Materials have
different origin (minerals, decay products, organic chemicals, gases,
etc).
• Impact: an important impact on water quality, wastewater
treatment and water treatment processes.
• Measurements: Total dissolved solids (TDS) is expressed in
milligram per litre on dry basis. In lab measurements are done after
drying in oven at 500oC, in the field by measurement of the
electrical conductivity (specific conductance).
• Very often ion balance is performed for drinking water and for
industrial water to assess the presence of important cations and
anions in the water. A significant imbalance (more than 10%)
suggests that other constituents are present beside those
measured in water.
 Chemical characteristics of water
Hardness
• Hardness is the concentration of multivalent
metallic cations in solution. Total hardness (TH) is
express mostly as a sum of Ca2+ and Mg2+;
However, traces of Fe3+, Mn2+, Sr2+, Al3+ may also
be present. There are:
• carbonate hardness (CH) – associated with CO32-
carbonates, HCO3- bicarbonates
• ii) non-carbonate hardness (NCH) associated with
other anions
• NCH = TH – CH
• Impact : sodium soap react with multivalent
cations to form precipitates and loose its
surfactant properties; hard water precipitate in
boilers and hot water pipes, magnesium hardness
has laxative effect (sulphate ions).
 Chemical characteristics of water
Hardness (cont)
Measurement: titration with indicators. If 0.01M
EDTA is used, 1 mL of titration measures 1.0 mg of
hardness as CaCO3
Hardness is expressed in CaCO3 equivalent.
Hardness of water:
Extremely soft to soft 0-45 mg/L as CaCO3
Soft water to moderately hard: 46 to 90 mg/L as
CaCO3
Moderately hard to hard 91-130 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard to very hard 131 -170 mg/L as CaCO3
Very hard to excessively hard 171-250 mg/L as CaCO3
Too hard for domestic use >250 mg/L as CaCO3
500 mg/L as CaCO3 - maximum in drinking water.
 Chemical characteristics of water
Equivalent concentration
• Formula for expressing the concentration of a
substance A by an equivalent concentration of
substance B
• [A(g/L)/A(g/equivalent)] x B(g/equivalent) =
• = A (g/L) expressed as B

Express 70 mg/L of NaCl as CaCO3, where MW of

Na Cl and CaCO3 are 58.3 and 100, respectively:

[(70/mg/L)/(58.5/1 mg/mequ)] x 100/2 mg/mequ

= 59 mg/L as CaCO3
 Chemical characteristics of water
Oxygen content
• In environmental engineering oxygen is important in both forms
gaseous and dissolved (DO)
• Source: naturally appears in air and water; can be introduced by a
system of diffusers.
• Measurements: direct measurement of DO by portable special
devises.
• Impact: necessary to maintain healthy environment, used in WWTP
for aerobic treatment processes; responsible for oxidation of organic
and inorganic components in water and wastewater; solubility
depends on pH, hardness, temperature.
• Oxidation/Reduction (redox processes) : transfer of electrons.
• Metabolism that uses oxygen: aerobic treatment
(oxygen electron acceptor)
• Metabolism in absence of oxygen: anaerobic
treatment SO4, Fe, NO3 are electron acceptors)
 Chemical characteristics of water
Metals
• Sources: dissolution of rocks, discharge with industrial or municipal
effluents; addition of coagulants, corrosion of pipes.
• Measurements: spectrometric analysis (Atomic Adsorption),
electrodes, ICP (inductive coupled plasma).
• Impact: toxicity, coating pipes, clogging pumps (iron hydroxide,
manganese).
• Non toxic metals: iron (0.3 mg/L), manganese (0.05 - 0.4 mg/L),
sodium (200 mg/L)
• Toxic metals: lead (0.01 mg/L), nickel (0.07)mg/L, mercury (0.006
mg/L), chromium (0.05 mg/L), arsenic (0.05 mg/L), cadmium (0.003
mg/L), barium (0.7 mg/L, boron (0.5 mg/L), uranium (0.015 mg/L) ,
selenium (0.01 mg/L), molybdenum (00.7 mg/L), cyanides (0.07
mg/L), etc
• Synergistic metals: copper (1-2 mg/L) and zinc (5 mg/L)
 Chemical characteristics of water
Metals : Arsenic
Inorganic arsenic can occur in the environment in several
forms but in natural waters, and thus in drinking-water, it is
mostly found as trivalent arsenite (As(III)) or pentavalent
arsenate (As (V)). Severe health effects have been observed
in populations drinking arsenic-rich water over long periods
in countries world-wide. Inorganic arsenic is a documented
human carcinogen.

Countries with adverse health

effects: Argentina, Australia,
Bangladesh, Chile, China,
Hungary, India, Mexico, Peru,
Thailand, and USA
 Chemical characteristics of water
Metals : Fluoride
• Source: dissolution of
certain sedimentary or
igneous rocks.
• Impact: toxic in large
quantities, bone fluorosis,
in moderated quantities
(> 2 mg/L) discoloration
(mottling) of teeth,
beneficial in low
concentration (1.5 mg/L)
Drinking water standards: inorganics
 Chemical characteristics of water
Chloride
• Source: natural dissolution of rocks, discharge of
effluents, runoff, tide rivers, intrusion of salt water
to the groundwater, effluent from bleaching
facilities (e.g. pulp and paper), disinfection of
effluents, discharge of snow.
• Impact: decrease dissolved oxygen concentration in
water, density of water, react with natural water
components, participate in deposition in pipes,
change organoleptic characteristics of water; might
be toxic in high concentrations,
indicator for plume of groundwater
contamination. Acceptable concen-
tration for drinking water <250 mg/L.
 Chemical characteristics of water
Nutrients : Nitrogen

• Essential element of the growth and reproduction of

organisms.
• Source: decayed organic materials; animal waste;
direct discharge with effluents, manure, and runoff.
• Impact: excessive amount in streams and lakes leads to
their eutrophication and depletion of water organisms;
presence of nitrogen requires an additional oxygen
demand due oxidation of ammonium (NH4+); nitrate
(NO3-) converted to nitrite (NO2-) has an affinity to
haemoglobin and replace oxygen in blood (“blue baby”
syndrome), which might lead to death.
• Measurements: spectrometric analysis, direct
measurements using ammonia or nitrate
electrodes. Acceptable concentrations
< NO2 : 0.3-2 mg/L, NO3: 50 mg/L
 Chemical characteristics of water
Nutrients : Phosphorous
• There are many forms of phosphorous: inorganic, organic,
soluble, particulate. Phosphorous similar to nitrogen
belongs to group of nutrients.
• Sources: similar to nitrogen; additionally, due to excessive
application of fertilizers (runoff, infiltration, erosion),
detergents.
• Impact: interference with waste water treatment
processes; change water characteristics (turbidity); being a
limiting nutrient provokes a rapid plants growth leading to
eutrophication of lakes and streams.
• Measurements: in most cases phosphorous
is measured under the form of phosphate
(PO43-) using spectrometric analysis.
 Quality of effluent from WWTP to upstream-
phosphorous
Type of
stream New effluents(5) Existing effluents(5)

Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L

Priority 20 m3/d < Q < 200 m3/d : 20 g/d 20 m3/d < Q < 66,7 m3/d : 20 g/d
Q > 200 m3/d : 0,1 mg/L(4) Q > 66,7 m3/d : 0,3 mg/L

Important 0,5 à 1,0 mg/L(3)

Monitored 0,5 à 1,0 mg/L(3

Watershed with
excess of 0,5 à 1,0 mg/L(3)
phosphorous
Other water 1,0 mg/L
bodies (if required)
 Quality of effluent from WWTP to lake - phosphorous
Type of lake
New effluents(5) Existing effluents(5)

Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L

Priority No new effluents 20 m3/d < Q < 66,7 m3/d : 20 g/d
Q > 66,7 m3/d : 0,3 mg/L

Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L

Important 20 m3/d < Q < 200 m3/d : 20 g/d 20 m3/d < Q < 66,7 m3/d : 20 g/d
Q > 200 m3/d : 0,1 mg/L Q > 66,7 m3/d : 0,3 mg/L

Q < 20 m3/d : 1 mg/L

Monitored 20 m3/d < Q < 66,7 m3/d : 20 g/d Existing effluents(5)
Q > 66,7 m3/d : 0,3 mg/L
 Chemical characteristics of water
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
• H2S is colorless, toxic and flammable gas partially responsible
for the foul odor of rotten eggs.
• Source: it often results from the bacterial break down of
sulphites in nonorganic matter in the absence of oxygen, such
as in swamps and sewers, anaerobic digestors (in WWTP). It
also occurs in volcanic gases, natural gas and some deep well
waters; waste biodegradation.
• Impact: required facilities for control odor, explosion and
toxicity, pipe corrosion; gives indication of lack of oxygen.
• Measurement: spectroscopic in air; in water: specific
analyzers that use a pH buffer chemical reagent to condition
the sample to measure total sulfide concentration, and many
other sophisticated method particularly
for low concentration of H2S .
Acceptable limit for drinking
water is 0.05 mg/L.
 Chemical characteristics of water
Sulfate
• Source: wastewater, runoff, resulting from fossil
fuel and biomass combustion, addition of
coagulants.
• Impact: laxative effect, test impairment,
dissolution of soluble gases and slightly soluble
substances, surface tension depression by
organic substances and accommodation
coefficient changes. Sulfates occur as
microscopic particles aerosols, which increase
the acidity of the atmosphere and form acid
rain; aerosols are implicated in global dimming.
Ration of alkalinity : SO4 = 1:5
• Measurement: spectroscopic analysis.
Acceptable concentration in drinking water =
250 mg/L.
Organic and microbiological
characteristics
of water and wastewater
Microorganisms: metabolic process
Aerobic process (oxygen as an electron acceptor)
Anaerobic process: absence of oxygen (NO3, SO4, Fe,
CO2, organics can be used as a electron acceptors)
 This bottle represents what happens in reactor
when biological activity takes place
Day 1 Day 5
O2 O2 O2 O2
Electron acceptor
O2
O2 O2 O2
O2
O2 O2

Organics = Electron donor

DO = 8 mg O2/L DO = 3 mg O2/L 35
 Organic characteristics
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Water and wastewater contains an important
number of known and unknown organic products.
In this case total oxygen demand should be
measured.
• Measurement: Lab test in 300-mL BOD bottles in
dark at 20oC for 5 days gives a standard value of
BOD5.
• BOD is referred to the rate of oxygen use by the
microorganisms in the presence of
biodegradable organic compounds.
 Organic characteristics
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• The rate is defined by first order reaction

• Or after substitutions (see explanation in the
textbook)
 BOD and oxygen-equivalent relationship
BODu

Lo, L t, – total oxygen equivalent of organics (mass of organics) at time 0 and t

BODt (yt) – oxygen used in consumption of organics
K1 – reaction rate, decay of biomass
BODu (y u)– BOD ultimate = oxygen equivalent of initial Lo
BOD – temperature, time dependence
• BODu = BODt/(1 – e -kt); BOD5 = BODu(1 – e -kt)
• kT = k20ϴ T-20 ; kT = k20(1.047) T-20 ;
• BODu - ultimate BOD
• BODt – BOD after time t (e.g. BOD5 after 5 days )
• T – temperature different than T=20oC
• k20= reaction constant (decay) at temperature of
20oC
• kT = reaction constant (decay) at temperature
different than 20oC
 Organic characteristics
Carbonaceous (CBOD) and
Nitrogenous (NBOD)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
• CBOD (carbonaceous BOD) – carbon oxidation
only
• Nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD)
is due to the exertion of oxygen demand by the
microorganisms that decompose nitrogenous
organics and convert to
the stable NO3-
• BOD u = a BOD5 + b KN
 Effluent discharge after treatment
Maximum acceptable concentration:
• 25 mg/l for CBOD5
• 25 mg/l for TSS.
In fact the
requirements
are assessed
based on
ecosystem
vulnerability
 Important information
• Biodegradable organic pollutants are defined
by BODU, BOD, BOD5, NBOD, CBOD
• Surface water contains microorganisms
capable to degrade BOD to some extend
• Rate of degradation depends on oxygen
presence, temperature, microorganism
culture, availability of nutrients, salinity,
presence of toxicants, and type of a water
body
 Organic characteristics
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• COD defines oxygen demand for all bio- and
non biodegradable organic compounds in the
sample.
• Measurements: 3-h lab tests using COD
devices with oxidation agents
 Organic characteristics
of water and wastewater

• Organic materials in water and wastewater sample can

biodegradable and non biodegradable (refractory).
• Oxygen Demand (OD)
• The OD for decomposition of a pure material can be
expressed by Theoretical Oxygen Demand (THOD)
• ThOD = (C-ThOD) + (N-Th OD)
• where (C-ThOD) is due decomposition carbonaceous
(organic) material; (N-Th OD) is due to stabilisation of
nitrogenous material (NH3)
• ThOD can be applied to known organic compounds
present in the sample using stoichiometric calculations.
 Organic characteristics
Methane
• Methane CH4 is produced during anaerobic
processes; e.g. Anaerobic digestion of sludge
in WWTP, degradation of waste in landfill.
• Measurement: gas chromatography or
portable devices with methane sensors.
 Organic characteristics
Specific organics
• If spills to sewage system, river and
groundwater are suspected, analyses of
different organic components (particularly
petroleum products or agriculture chemicals)
are required.
• Measurements: gas or liquid chromatography
analyses done using collected samples.
Drinking water standards: organics
Drinking water standards: organics (pesticides)
 Microbiological characteristics
of water and wastewater

• Pathogens in water are responsible for many

diseases, pandemics (e.g. London, Walkerton,
ON).
• Water pathogens of importance related to
gastrointestinal problems:
• Escherichia coli Salmonella, Shigella, Giardia
lambia, Entamoeba histolytica,
Cryptosporidium,
• viruses (hepatitis).
 Microbiological characteristics
Pathogenic indicators:
Total fecal coliform
Total coliform
• Measurements: i) membrane filtration / 48 hours
incubation, concentration in water is expressed in
coliforms/ 100mL.
• ii) most probable number (MPN) based on lab
test where a series of water dissolutions are
incubated in tubes able to produce gas if bacteria
is present. Statistical analysis of positive (gas
producing tubes) and
negative solutions is performed to
get MPN.
 Microbiological characteristics
Specific microorganisms
• They are required to be tested for various
purposes; e.g. thermal waters, sludge after
digestion (Clostridium, helmints ova), spread
of diseases.
•
 Quality of recreational water

Fecal coliform/
Water quality Explication
100 millilitres
Excellent 0-20 Permitted for all recreational usage
Good 21-100 Permitted for all recreational usage
Acceptable 101-200 Permitted for all recreational usage
No swimming and no other direct
Low quality Plus de 200
contact with water
Very low quality Plus de 1000 Any recreational usage