THE HUMAN BODY SUBDIVITIONS OF ANATOMY

ANATOMY GROSS OR MACROSCOPIC

• Studies the structure of the body parts and their • Parts are visible to naked eye
relations to one another o Regional, surface, systemic anatomy
• ANA – “apart” • What nurses deal more
• TOMY (Greek) – “to cut” or “to dissect”
MICROSCOPIC
PHYSIOLOGY
• Aided with the use of microscopes
• Studies the function of the body parts • Cytology:
• Deals on how the body and its specific parts work o study of cells
o Includes integration of chemistry and • Histology:
physics in understanding such processes o study of tissues
• Everything we do is based on physiology
o Breathing, eating, thinking, listening, DEVELOPMENTAL
reacting to stress and different stimuli
• Focuses on events at cellular or molecular level • Embryology:
• It deals with chemical and physical o Study of fetal development
o Study changes that occur before death
 We can only appreciate human body when we study
anatomy and physiology together LEVELS OF PHYSIOLOGY

• They are complimentary to each other CELL PHYSIOLOGY

COMPLIMENTARITY OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION • Examines the processes occurring in the cells

• What structure can do depends on its specific SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY

form
• Structure is created to form a specific function • Considers the functions of organ systems
• “Structure dictates function”
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
• Example: Brain
o Located in the uppermost part of the body
• Focuses on the nervous system
o Protected by the skull
o Delicate in nature and functions in CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
relation to other body parts
• Deals with the heart and blood vessels
COMPLEMENTARITY
EXERCISEPHYSIOLOGY
• There is a purpose and a function of each
structure and without one part or organism it is • Focuses on the changes in function and structure
considered incomplete caused by exercise
BENEFITS OF HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• It helps care clients more effectively • Anatomy and physiology are always related
• It help to identify abnormal, critical signs and • Structure determines what functions take place
symptoms from clients
• E.g., the lungs are not muscular chambers like the
SIGNS heart and cannot pump blood, but because the
walls of lungs are very thin, they can exchange
• Manifestation of the disease that the physician gases and provide oxygen to the body
perceives
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
• Objective
• E.g., lab results CHEMICAL LEVEL
SYMPTOMS
• Study of atoms and molecules
• Manifestation of the disease that is apparent to the • Involves interactions between atoms: tiny building
patient blocks of matter
• Subjective • Atoms combine to form molecules, such as water,
sugar, fats and proteins

CELLULAR LEVEL

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units

of plants and animals

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 • Molecules combine to from organelles (little ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
organs) which are the small structures that make
up cells • Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes
such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use
TISSUE LEVEL (metabolism) by body cells
• Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
• A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis
and the materials surrounding them. The o Pituitary gland – oxytocin: hormone that
characteristics of the cells and surrounding mother secretes during labor
materials determine the functions of the tissue
• Tissues that make up into body are classified in CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
four: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
• Blood vessels transports blood, which carries
ORGAN LEVEL oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
• The heart pumps blood
• An organ is composed of two or more tissue types • blood vessels, heart
that perform one or more common functions
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM / IMMUNITY
ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
• Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
• An organ system is a group of organs that returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the
together perform a common function or set of lymphatic stream.
functions and are therefore viewed as a unit • Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved
in immunity. The immune response mounts within
ORGANISM LEVEL
the attack against foreign substances within the
• An organism is any living thing considered as a body
whole-whether composed of one cell, such as • Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels,
bacterium or of trillions of cells, such as human thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
beings RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Human organism is a complex of organ systems –
all are mutually dependent to one another for an • Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and
organism to function well removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges
OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
• Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung,
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM bronchus

• Forms the extended body covering and protects DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D,
and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) • Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
receptors and sweat and oil glands the blood for distribution to body cells.
Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
• Hair, skin, nails
• Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
SKELETAL SYSTEM large intestine, rectum, anus, liver

• Protects and supports body organs and provides URINARY SYSTEM

a framework the muscles use to cause movement.
Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store • Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.
minerals Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base
balance of the blood
• Joints, bones
• Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion and facial expression. Maintains • Overall function is production of offspring.
posture, and produces heat • Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and
• Skeletal muscle male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to
the female reproductive tract.
NERVOUS SYSTEM • Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone
• The remaining female structures serve as sites for
• As the fast-acting control system of the body, it fertilization and development of the fetus
responds to internal and external changes by • Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk
activating appropriate muscles and glands to nourish the newborn
• Brain, nerves, spinal cord • Male: penis, testis, scrotum, prostate gland,
ductus deferens

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 • Female: mammary glands (in breasts), uterus, • Needed in regulation of body temperature,
vagina, ovary, uterine tube moistens tissues in the eyes, nose, mouth, and
other mucous membranes
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE • Protects body organs, tissues and carries out
nutrients and oxygen to cells, lubricate the joints,
ORGANIZATION
and lessen the burden on the kidneys and liver by
flushing out waste products into the form of the
• Refers to the specific interrelationships among urine
the parts of an organism and how those parts
• It helps dissolve minerals and nutrients to make it
interact to perform specific functions
accessible to the body
• Any disruption/malfunction in the organization
can lead to disease/death NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE (98.6°F or 37°C)
METABOLISM
• Body temperature must be controlled at a very
narrow range so that the body can function
• Refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place properly
in an organism
• Enzymes in a body’s cells must have the correct
• Process of human metabolism is important as it is temperature to be able to catalyze chemical
the springboard for other processes such as reactions
responsiveness, growth, development,
• Higher temperature can cause dehydration, heat
reproduction, etc.
stroke and death if untreated
RESPONSIVENESS
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Organism’s ability to sense changes in its external
• To maintain its gases in solution and to facilitate
or internal environment and adjust to those
respiration or the intake of oxygen and release of
changes
carbon dioxide
GROWTH • Change in altitude: we are naturally selected to
live well above sea level and below the skies. The
• Refers to an increase in the size or number of air at higher altitudes is colder and less dense and
cells, which produces an overall enlargement of contains fewer oxygen molecules, means, we
all or part of an organism need to take more breaths in order to get the same
amount of oxygen as we would at lower altitude.
DEVELOPMENT The higher the elevation the more difficult
breathing becomes
• Includes the changes an organism undergoes
through time, beginning with fertilization and
ending at death HOMEOSTASIS: THE BODY’S BALANCING ART
REPRODUCTION
HOMEOSTASIS
• Formation of new cells or new organisms • Maintenance of relatively stable internal
• Without this, organisms and species will go extinct conditions
SURVIVAL NEEDS (to sustain life) • Negative (-) feedback: reduces effect on stimulus
o Body temperature, breathing rate, blood
NUTRIENTS sugar levels
• Positive (+) feedback: increases response
• Compound derived from foods, providing needed o Labor contractions, blood clotting
energy. The building blocks for repair and growth • Diseases = homeostasis imbalance
and substances to regulate the chemical
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
processes
• Carbohydrates, lipids, fats, protein, vitamins, • Most systems of the body are regulated by
mineral, water negative-feedback mechanisms, which maintains
OXYGEN homeostasis (EQUILIBRIUM)
• Negative means that any deviation from the set
• Without oxygen, cellular processes cannot take point is made smaller or is resisted
place; without cellular processes, the organism • often it causes the output of a system to be
will die lessened so that the feedback will stabilize the
system
WATER

• 60-70% of the human body is made up of water

• Adult: 60% of body weight is attributed to it
• It helps in metabolic and physiologic processes

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3 COMPONENTS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYNTHESIS OF MOLECULES

RECEPTOR • Different cells of the body synthesis varies various

types of molecules:
• monitors the value of a variable o Protein, nucleic acid, lipids
• Structural and functional characteristics of cell
CONTROL CENTER will be determined by the types of molecules they
will produce
• receives information about the variable from the
receptor, establishes set point and controls the COMMUNICATION
effector
• Cell produce and respond to chemical and
EFFECTOR electrical signals that allows them to
communicate with one another
• produces responses that change the value of the • Ex. Nerve cell can produce chemical signal which
variable they can communicate with muscle cell
POSITIVE FEEDBACK REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE

• Positive-feedback mechanisms occur when a • Most cells contains a complete copy of all genetic
response to the original stimulus results on the information of an individual
deviation from the set point becoming even • Genetic information determine the structural and
greater functional characteristic of the cell
• At times, this type of response is required to re- • As a person grows, cells divide to produce new
achieve homeostasis cells containing same genetic information
• Specialized body cells (gametes) – responsible for
transmitting genetic information to the next
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS generation

HUMAN CELLS TYPES OF CELLS

• Basic unit of structure and function of the body

• 200 different cell types
• Made of C, O, H, N + trace elements
• 3 main parts:
o Plasma membrane / cell membrane
▪ Outer boundary of the cell
through which the cell interacts
to its external environment
o Cytoplasm
▪ Located between cell membrane
and nucleus
▪ Where you can see the cell’s
different organelles
o Nucleus
▪ Located centrally
▪ Directs the cell activities

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL • Cells that connect body parts, form linings or
transport gases
CELL METABOLISM AND ENERGY USE
o Fibroblasts, epithelial cells, erythrocytes
• There are chemical reactions that occur within the • Cells that move organs and body parts
cell o Skeletal muscle cell, smooth muscle cells
o Chemical reactions – metabolic reactions • Cell that stores nutrients
▪ Collectively called cell o Fat cell
metabolism • Cell that fights disease
• Energy released from metabolic reaction will fuel o Macrophage
the cellular activities: • Cell that gather information and controls body
o Synthesis of molecules, muscle functions
contraction o Nerve cell
• Through metabolic reactions energy is released • Cell reproduction
as heat that helps the body maintain temperature o Sperm

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CELL STRUCTURE Inner membrane forms Site of energy
projections called conversion
cristae
Centrioles Pair of cylindrical Serve as centers for
organelles in the microtubule formation;
centrosome, consisting Determine cell polarity
of triplets of parallel during cell division
microtubules Form the basal bodies of
cilia and flagella
Cilia Extensions of the Move materials over the
plasma membrane surface of cells
containing doublets of
parallel microtubules;
10 µm in length
Flagellum Extension of the plasma In humans, propels
containing doublets of spermatozoa
parallel microtubules;
55 µm in length
Microvilli Extension of the plasma Increase surface are of
membrane containing the plasma membrane
microfilaments for absorption and
secretion;
Modified to form sensory
receptors
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION/S THE CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE

Cell Parts Structure Function • The outermost component of the cell

Plasma Lipid bilayer composed Functions as the outer • Encloses the cytoplasm
membrane of phospholipids and boundary of cells;
cholesterol; Acts like a guard, • Forms the boundary between the material inside
Proteins extend across controls the entry and and outside the cell
or are embedded in exit of substances; • Promotes communication among cells
either surface of the Receptor proteins
lipid bilayer function in intercellular • Made of:
communication; o Lipid bilayer
Marker molecules enable o Cholesterol
cells to recognize one
another o Glycolipids
Nucleus Enclosed by nuclear Control center of the o Proteins
envelope, a double cell;
membrane with nuclear DNA within the nucleus CYTOPLASM
pores regulates protein (e.g.,
enzyme) synthesis and
therefore the chemical
• Structure found within the cell membrane
reactions of the cell • The transparent semi-liquid substance that is
Cytoplasmic Ribosomal RNA and Serves as site of protein outside the nucleus and gives shape to the cell
organelles proteins form large and synthesis
ribosome small subunits;
• It is where the different organelles are suspended
Some are attached to or located
the endoplasmic
reticulum, others (free THE CELL NUCLEUS
ribosomes) are
distributed throughout
the cytoplasm
• Contains the cell’s genetic material – DNA and
Rough Membranous tubules Synthesizes proteins and RNA
endoplasmic and flattened sacs with transports them to Golgi • Controls the cell’s growth and reproduction
reticulum attached ribosomes apparatus
Smooth Membranous tubules Manufactures lipids and THE CELL CYCLE
endoplasmic and flattened sacs with carbohydrates;
reticulum no attached ribosomes Detoxifies harmful
chemicals; • It is an ordered sequence of events that begins
Stores calcium from the time that a cell is first formed from a
Golgi Flattened membrane Modifies, packages and dividing parent cell until its own division
apparatus sacs stacked on each distributes proteins and
other lipids for secretion or • Cells within the body divide and develop at
internal use different rates
Lysosome Membrane-bound Contains digestive o Red bone marrow cells
vesicle pinched off golgi enzymes
apparatus
▪ Divide every 12 hours to replace
Peroxisome Membrane-bound Serves as one site of RBCs that we use
vesicle lipid and amino acid o Cells at the tip of the root
degradation; ▪ Divide every 19 hours
Breaks down hydrogen
peroxide o Neurons
Proteasomes Tubelike protein Break down proteins in ▪ Normally never divide again once
complexes in the the cytoplasm the brain is fully formed in utero
cytoplasm
(inside the mother’s womb)
Mitochondria Spherical, rod-shaped, Major sites of ATP
or threadlike (Adenosine • Cell division is influenced by external factors (in
structures; Triphosphate) synthesis the presence of essential nutrients)
Enclosed by double when oxygen is o Growth factors – proteins stimulate
membrane; available;
division

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 o Density-dependent inhibition – “crowded with the codon
cells” stop dividing of the mRNA
o Anchorage dependence – the need for • rRNA (ribosomal)
cells to be in contact with a solid surface
to divide  PROTEIN SYNTESIS
• Gene expression
o Is the process by which information from • DNA → protein
a gene directs protein synthesis • Synthesis – “to make something”
o Two steps: • To make protein
▪ Transcription • Gene
▪ translation o Portions of DNA that can code for
• Gene proteins
o Sequence of nucleotides that provides a • Protein
chemical set of instructions for making a o Involved in transport, in structure, in
specific protein acting as enzymes that make all kinds of
o Functional units of heredity materials, in protecting the body, etc.
o In the transmission of genetic traits from • DNA
parent to child, each gene is a segment of o Located in the nucleus
DNA molecule that would specify the o Some DNA is noncoding DNA
structure of RNA molecule o Some DNA makes up genes that are not
o RNA would function on its own or it can activated
produce a protein the production of RNA • RNA
and protein from the information stored in o Nucleic acid like DNA
the DNA is called gene expression. o Role in protein synthesis is huge
o Portions of DNA, that can code for • Transcription
proteins o Comes first before translation
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) o Transcribing the DNA into a message
o Influences the structural and functional o We do transcription in the nucleus, as the
characteristics of the entire organism DNA is located in the nucleus
o An enzyme called RNA polymerase will
STEPS OF GENETIC EXPRESSION connect complementary RNA bases to
the DNA.
• Transcription o RNA bases are bonded together to form a
o The cells make a copy of a gene single stranded mRNA
necessary to make a particular protein in ▪ m – messenger
the nucleus of the cell ▪ Messenger RNA
o DNA determines the structure of the ▪ it consists of a message made of
mRNA
RNA that has been based on the
o DNA nucleotide + RNA = mRNA
DNA
DNA Nucleotide mRNA ▪ it can go out of the nucleus into
Thymine Uracil the cytoplasm where it is going
Adenine Adenine to attach into a ribosome.
Cytosine Cytosine • Ribosome makes protein
Guanine Guanine • Made of rRNA
o r – ribosomal
o Ribosomal RNA
• Translation
• Translation
o Changing from one form to another
o In the cytoplasm, you have all tRNA
o Converting the copied information into a
molecules available.
protein
▪ t – transfer
o Synthesis of proteins based on
▪ transfer RNA
information in the mRNA
▪ carries amino acid
o The process occurs at the ribosomes
• monomer for a protein
▪ Required two types of RNA:
• building block for protein
• tRNA
o one tRNA for • held together by a
each mRNA peptide bond
o for each tRNA = o tRNA brings amino acid together to make
3-nucleotide protein
sequence ▪ mRNA directs which tRNA comes
(anticodon) and in and therefore amino acids are
one amino acid transferred
that will pair ▪ tRNA looks for complementary
bases on the mRNA where they
transfer their amino acid

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 ▪ in bringing the amino acids, it INTERPHASE
reads the bases represented by
letters [ex. AUG] on the mRNA in • The stage wherein the cell copies its DNA in
threes – codon. preparation for mitosis
▪ tRNA contains complementary • The chromosomes are made up of two genetically
anticodon [ex. UAC] – carries an identical strands of chromatin – chromatids
amino acid – methionine • Divided into three portions
▪ tRNA with UAC anticodon comes o G1 – cell carries out routine metabolic
into pair with the complementary activity
AUG codon on the mRNA, ▪ Growth and normal metabolic
transfers the amino acid it roles
carries – methionine o S – DNA replication
▪ tRNA will leave, but leave behind o G2 – cell prepares for division
its amino acid ▪ Growth and preparation for
o at the very end of the mRNA, there is a mitosis
stop codon
▪ do not code for amino acid, but
when the ribosome reaches it
indicates that the protein
building is finished
o Result::
▪ Built a chain of amino acids that
were brought in certain
sequences based on the coding
of the mRNA PROPHASE
▪ mRNA is complementary to the
DNA • The chromatin condenses to form visible
▪ DNA was the director of the chromosomes
entire protein building o  Each chromosome consists of two
▪ Protein folding and modification chromatids joined at the centromere
may occur and the protein may • The spindle fiber extend from the centrioles
need to be transported – this
• The centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of
varies based on the protein’s
the cell
structure and function
•  Nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear
MITOSIS • Microtubules form near the centriole and project
in all direction
• Type of cell division that result in two daughter • Some microtubules are called astral fibers
cells each having the same number and kind of (spindle fiber) – project at the invisible line called
chromosomes as the parent nucleus equator and overlap with fibers from opposite
• Diploid number of chromosomes centrioles
• Typical of ordinary chromosomes
• 23 pairs of chromosomes
• 46 chromosomes

MEIOSIS

• Type of cell division that result in four daughter

cells each with half the number of chromosomes
of the parent cell
• Haploid number of chromosomes
• Occurs in the production of gametes METAPHASE
• 23 chromosomes
• The chromosomes align near the center of the cell
PHASES OF MITOSIS • The movement of the chromosomes is regulated
by the attached spindle fibers
•  m – meet at the center

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ANAPHASE • Rich, nutritious “soup”
o Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,
• At the beginning, the chromatids separate vitamins, hormones, salts, wastes
• Each chromatid is called a chromosome
• 46 chromosomes within the cell SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
• At the end, each chromosome has reached the
• Plasma membrane only allows some substances
end of the pole
to enter cell
• Cytoplasm begins to divide
• Nutrient in, wastes out
•  a – away from the center
• By passive or active transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISM

• No energy (ATP) needed

• Molecules move down concentration gradient
from HIGH → LOW concentration
• Types:
o Diffusion
 Cytokinesis – two cells will be formed. It begins during o Osmosis
the anaphase as cleavage furrow form around the cell. o Facilitated diffusion

TELOPHASE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

• The chromosomes in each daughter cells become • Concentration difference between two points
organized to form two separate nuclei divided by the distance between the points
• The cytoplasm divides to form 2 new cells with 46 • Occurs when the solute concentration in a solvent
chromosomes is greater at one point than at another point
• Cleavage furrow • Greater concentration gradient = greater rate of
o Indent that separates two cells diffusion of solute
DIFFUSION

• The movement of solutes from an area of higher

solute concentration to an area of lower solute
concentration

OTHER CELLULAR PROCESSES 1. When a salt crystal 2. Salt ions (green) 3. Salt ions and water
(green) is placed into move down their molecules are
a beaker of water, a concentration distributed
• Differentiation concentration gradient into the throughout the
o The process by which cells develop with gradient exist water solution. Even though
between the salt from the salt ions continue
specialized functions and structures
the salt crystal and to move randomly, an
• Apoptosis the water that equilibrium exists,
o Refers to programmed cell death surrounds it and no net movement
o A normal process by which cell numbers occurs because no
concentration
within various tissues are adjusted and gradient exits
controlled

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS: TRANSPORT FACILITATED DIFFUSION

THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES
• Transport proteins (carrier or channel proteins)
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT assist molecules across membrane
• Ex.: glucose, amino acids, water, ions
• Different mechanisms on how substances
(solutes, ions and water) move in and out of the
cell
• 2 factors involved
o Permeability of the membranes
o Size of solutes or substances (going in
and out)

INTERSTITIAL FLUID

• Fluid outside cells

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CHANNEL PROTEINS EFFECTS OF SOLUTIONS ON RED BLOOD CELLS

• Form passageways through the plasma

membrane allowing specific ions or molecules to
enter or exit the cell
• Water-filled channels
o Ex.: ions and lipids

CARRIER PROTEINS

• Binds to molecule, changes shape, ferries it

across membrane
• Ex.: glucose transporter

OSMOSIS

• Refers to the diffusion of water from high to low

concentration ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Aquaporins
o Channel proteins for water passage • Energy (ATP) is needed
• Move molecules against concentration gradient
from LOW → HIGH concentration
• Types:
o Primary
o Secondary

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Directly uses ATP to drive transport

• E.g. Ca2+ pump H+ pump, Na+-K+ pump

SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Move more than 1 substance at a time

TONICITY • Symport – 2 substances moved in same direction
• Antiport – 2 substances cross in opposite
• Ability of solution to change shape or tone of cells diretions
by changing water volume • E.g. contransport of sugars, amino acids, ions
• Isotonic – equal concentration solutes
• Hypertonic – higher concentration of solutes
• Hypotonic – lower concentration of solutes

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 • Na+/Glucose Co-transport

VESICULAR TRANSPORT

• Fluid and large particles transported across

membranes in vesicles (sacs)
• Exocytosis – “out of cell” – eject substances
• Endocytosis – “within the cell” – ingest substances

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

• Phagocytosis
o Cell eating – engulf large or solid material
o Ex. WBC engulf bacteria
• Pinocytosis
o Cell drinking – fluid with dissolved
molecules
o Ex. Intestinal cells
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o Concentrate specific substances
(ligands) that bind to receptor proteins
o Ex. Insulin, iron, cholesterol

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