AD-A244 417

NAVSWC TR 91 -178

NOTES ON THE CAUSE OF PARACHUTE CRITICAL

VELOCITY

BY WILLIAM P. LUDTKE

UNDERWATER SYSTEMS DEPARTMENTD T

ELEP
JAN 15 1992
25 JUNE 1991 gB I

Appoved for public release; distribution Is unlimited.

92-01253

NAVAL SURFACE WARFARE CENTER

Dahigen. Virgiria 2244-SM000 Swer Spring. Marytand 20ft3-50

92 1 14 014
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

FOREWORD

The author presents a new approach to the subject of

parachute critical velocity. Aspects of the observed performance
of critical parachutes in the field are theoretically developed in
the analysis. In addition, the effects of the mass flow ratio on
parachute stability, drag coefficient and inflation dynamics are
offered.

Approved by:

C. A. KALIVRETENOS, Deputy Head

Underwater Systems Department

Accession For
NTIS GEA&I
DTID T.,?

Uj :., eL
Spo:: [

L I~ 1'
Special
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

ABSTRACT

This report discusses how the critical velocity of parachutes

depends upon the rate of outflow through the canopy surface and
the rate of inflow through the canopy mouth. The analysis
indicates that the mass flow rate ratio, M', is demonstrated to be
the theoretical key to the critical velocity of parachutes. All
other observed effects modify the onset of critical velocity. The
effects of M' and altitude on inflation reference time, parachute
stability, drag coefficient, and inflation rate are also
discussed.

ii
 NAVSWC TJR 91-178

CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION...........................1

APPROACH............................3

CRITICAL VELOCITY EFFECTS..................3

LENGTH OF SUSPENSION LINES AND NUMBER OF GORES . . . 6

EFFECT OF PARACHUTE DIAMETER ON INFLATION
INSTABILITY........................11

EFFECTIVE MOUTH AREA....................17

DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL VELOCITY .............. 1

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON PARACHUTE INFLATION TIME
STABILITY AND DRAG COEFFICIENT...............26
EFFECT OF MASS FLOW RATIO ON THE PARACHUTE DYNAMIC
DRAG AREA SIGNATURE....................30
EXAMPLE 1.........................32

CONCLUSIONS...........................39

REFERENCES............................41

NOMENCLATURE..........................43

DISTRIBUTION..........................(1)

iii /iv
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1 COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL FLAT CIRCULAR

PARACHUTE GORE LAYOUT AND MINIMUM CLOTH
STRESS GORE CONFIGURATION....... ............. 4

2 EFFECTIVE RIGGING LENGTH WITH MULTIPLE

RISER ATTACHMENTS .......... .................. 5

3 EFFECT OF SUSPENSION LINE EFFECTIVE LENGTH

ON PARACHUTE DRAG COEFFICIENT ...... ............ 7
4 EFFECT OF SUSPENSION LINE LENGTH ON THE
AERODYNAMIC FORCE BALANCE AT THE SKIRT
HEM OF A FLAT TYPE OF PARACHUTE..... ........... 8

5 CANOPY SKIRT HEM GEOMETRY AND FORCE

DISTRIBUTION OF FLAT PARACHUTES IN FULL
STEADY-STATE INFLATION ........ ............... 9
6 EFFECTS OF THE NUMBER OF CANOPY GORES ON THE
CLOTH TANGENT FORCE ANGLE OAND GORE BILLOW
HALF ANGLE 0 ........ .................... 10
7 DISTRIBUTION OF CANOPY AREA AND RATE OF AIRFLOW
VERSUS CANOPY RADIUS ...... ................ 12

8 PARACHUTE CROSS SECTION NOMENCLATURE .......... .. 15

9 MEASURED STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE
STADIA ROD SHOWING ELEVATED LOCAL STATIC PRESSURES
AHEAD OF THE CANOPY SKIRT HEM .... ............ 22
9A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CROSS PARACHUTE OF FIGURE 9
IN THE WIND TUNNEL ....... ................. 23
10 EFFECT OF THE CLOTH RATE OF AIRFLOW ON THE
DRAG COEFFICIENT OF THE MK 38 MOD 0 PARACHUTE. . . . 24

11 NOMINAL POROSITY OF PARACHUTE MATERIAL VERSUS

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ...... ................ 27

12 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON MASS FLOW RATIO AT

CONSTANT VELOCITY ....... .................. 29
13 EFFECT OF VELOCITY ON MASS FLOW RATIO AT
CONSTANT DENSITY ....... .................. 29

v
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)

Figure Page

14 SIDE PROFILES OF RIBBON PARACHUTE CANOPIES

WITH POROSITIES FROM 15 TO 30 PERCENT .. ........ .35
15 EFFECT OF CLOTH PERMEABILITY ON THE MEASURED
STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE STADIA
ROD SHOWING ELEVATED LOCAL STATIC PRESSURES
AHEAD OF THE CANOPY SKIRT HEM .... ............ 36
16 THE REDIRECTED FLOW AROUND A SQUIDDED OR INFLATING
PARACHUTE DEVELOPS A SQUIDDING FORCE BELT WHICH
STABILIZES THE ASSEMBLY AND MAINTAINS THE SQUIDDED
CONDITION BELOW THE UPPER CRITICAL VELOCITY ...... .38

vi
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

TABLES

Table Page

1 SUMMARY OF 24- AND 30-GORE PARACHUTE TEST

RESULTS ......... ..................... 14

2 EFFECTS OF THE EXPONENT "n" AND VELOCITY

VARIATION ON THE CLOTH RATE OF AIRFLOW ........
.. 20

3 EFFECTS OF THE EXPONENT "'n" AND DENSITY RATIO

ON THE CLOTH RATE OF AIRFLOW ... ........... .. 25
4 EFFECTS OF BALLISTIC MASS RATIO ON THE
REDUCTION OF THE MASS FLOW RATE RATIO
DURING THE UNFOLDING PHASE OF INFLATION
OF A FLAT SOLID CLOTH PARACHUTE .. ......... 33

vii
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

INTRODUCTION

Parachutes have a property known as critical velocity where

the canopy fails to fully inflate at deployment. Critical
velocity is not really understood although some of the effects
that modify the onset of critical velocity have been observed.
Canopy rate of airflow, altitude, suspension line length, number
of gores in the canopy, canopy gore shape and cut, and parachute
diameter are all known factors that affect critical velocity.
The key to the solution of this problem came from observation
of a critical parachute under test in a wind tunnel. Below the
critical velocity, the parachute was fully and satisfactorily
inflated. At the critical condition the canopy suddenly
collapsed. The inflated canopy actually lost volume due to an
increase in velocity. This signaled that the rate of outflow
through the canopy surface exceeded the rate of inflow through the
canopy mouth and was a function of velocity. The analysis
indicates that the mass flow rate ratio, M', is the key element of
critical velocity and is shown to theoretically illustrate the
described effects. All other observed effects modify the onset of
critical velocity.

1/2
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

APPROACH

CRITICAL VELOCITY EFFECTS

One of the more exotic properties of parachutes is the

failure to fully inflate during deployment. The critical
deployment velocity is the lowest velocity at which the parachute
does not fully inflate. Deployment at higher than critical
velocity results in a partial inflation of the canopy.
Some of the known phenomena that affect parachute inflation
criticality are:
1. Critical velocity is affected by the length of the
suspension lines. Increasing the suspension line length raises
the critical velocity.
2. Critical velocity is also affected by the number of
canopy gores. Increasing the number of gores raises the critical
velocity.
3. The rate of airflow through the canopy surface area,
and the distribution of the rate of airflow. The rate of airflow
for solid cloth parachutes is also affected by whether the gores
are block cut or bias cut.
4. The shape of the canopy gore. Figure 1 is a comparison
between a triangula. gore design and a gore shaped to provide a
minimum stress condition and illustrates how gore surface area can
be modified.
5. The effect of increasing the deployment altitude is to
raise the critical velocity.
6. Imporous parachute canopies always inflate.
7. Critical velocity is a function of parachute diameter.
Theoretical explanations for the above effects have been
derived in the several sections of this report. Consider the
parachute to consist of two main components: the canopy which
produccs the aerodynamic forces, and the suspension lines which
transmit the aerodynamic force to the payload. The suspension
lines are usually connected to the payload in an assembly which
result in a steady-state cone angle, §, as in Figure 2. The
suspension lines are joined to the can 8 py at the skirt hem. The
balance of forces at this connection is a key to critical velocity
analysis.

3
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

MINIMUM
CONVENTIONAL CLOTH STRESS

100
FLAT CIRCULAR
PARACHUTE

90 -30 GORES
D o =30 FEET

80

70

=60
z
uJ

X 50 i
w
-
~0
Mn 40 -

-- "C "C '

20
30

L -J..

MAXIMUM
INFLATED

LOCATION

• -37
-- 5/8 -a - 40 I

FIGURE 1. COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL FLAT CIRCULAR PARACHUTE GORE LAYOUT AND

MINIMUM CLOTH STRESS GORE CONFIGURATION

4
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

EFFECTIVE CONFLUENCE

RISERS SUSPENSION LINES

FIGURE 2. EFFECTIVE RIGGING LENGTH WITH

MULTIPLE RISER ATTACHMENTS

5
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

LENGTH OF SUSPENSION LINES AND NUMBER OF GORES

The effects of suspension line length on the parachute drag

coefficient were developed in Reference 1 and are illustrated in
Figure 3. As the suspension lines of Figure 4 are lengthened, the
radial component of the suspension line force, F R, is reduced,
and the canopy pressure differential, due to the Rxcess cloth in
the skirt of a flat parachute, expands the inflated parachute
diameter which gives rise to the improved aerodynamic drag of the
parachute and increases the canopy steady-state mouth area,
The lengthened suspension lines improve the mouth area throug 8 ut
the inflation cycle and permit additional mass inflow which
results in a higher critical velocity. Shortening of the
suspension line length produces the reverse of the conditions
cited above. Flaring the canopy mouth improves the inflation
characteristics of marginal canopies.

The aerodynamic force generated by the canopy cloth area is

transmitted to the canopy main seams. Figure 5 illustrates the
relationship between the tangent force in the canopy cloth F
and the canopy radial force, F As the number of gores in The
canopy is increased tne angle D approaches zero, see Figure 6.
This more effectively converts the aerodynamic cloth tangent force
at the main seam into an inflation assisting normal force.
Therefore, increasing the number of gores in a canopy improves the
critical inflation characteristics and the drag coefficient of the
parachute. Reducing the number of gores in a canopy has the
opposite effect.

Atmosphere flowing into the canopy mouth is reduced in

velocity and is converted into an entrapped air mass at an
elevated pressure. The ability of the canopy to entrap sufficient
air to completely fill the parachute is the most important element
in critical velocity theory. The intensity of the internal
pressure depends upon the rate of airflow through the canopy cloth
or the ribbon grid and the canopy surface area. Canopies continue
to inflate as long as the mass inflow exceeds the mass outflow.
Canopy inflation stops at any time that the mass outflow is equal
to the mass inflow. Fully inflated parachutes subjected to
increasing velocity deflate and collapse after the critical
velocity has been reached.

6
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

1.1 - 6
° 3.kj
Le Co
[~.~oj.Do ,,.J
-,

0.00 Do 0.34s
1 / .
00 Do 1.3665 . . . . . . .

1.0
.0 ...... ..............
0/
I- --" ! "1-* 'T i T . . . :
,, . . .I- -. . - X REF. 1

u ......... ADAPTED FROM REF.s 1 AND 217

1.HEMISPHERICAL (3 FT D o)
.... 2.EXTENDED SKIRT (11 FT D)
_- 3.FLAT CIRCULAR (28 FT DO)

.8 _ 4 FLAT CIRCULAR (6.5 FT DO)

i.- 5.FLAT RIBBON (3 FT D o)
.4L ._ _ &RINGSAIL (41 88 FT D

7.t... 4-- - t-
.4 .6 .8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8

EFFECTIVE LENGTH (,/Do)

FIGURE 3. EFFECT OF SUSPENSION LINE EFFECTIVE LENGTH

ON PARACHUTE DRAG COEFFICIENT

7
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

dmo

(A)

FAc

FIGURE 4. EFFECT OF SUSPENSION LINE LENGTH ON THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE BALANCE

AT THE SKIRT HEM OF A FLAT TYPE OF PARACHUTE

(B)
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

FAC FAC

dmo/2 FAC - INFLATING CANOPY AERODYNAMIC

FORCE AT THE CANOPY HEM

FRL a COLLAPSING SUSPENSION LINE

FORCE AT THE CANOPY HEM

FIGURE 5. CANOPY SKIRT HEM GEOMETRY AND FORCE DISTRIBUTION OF FLAT

PARACHUTES IN FULL STEADY-STATE INFLATION

9
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

20 - 8
z
0 =3.7332
sin e Vi-

15
AS Z oo
-~0

Lu W

0uL-

20 40 60 80 100
NUMBER OF GORES (Z)

FIGURE 6. EFFECTS OF THE NUMBER OF CANOPY GORES ON THE CLOTH TANGENT FORCE
ANGLE 0 AND GORE BILLOW HALF ANGLE 0

10
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

EFFECT OF PARACHUTE DIAMETER ON INFLATION INSTABILITY

Solid cloth parachutes usually use cloths of constant rates
of airflow per unit area, and geometrically porous parachutes
often use constant porosity over the entire canopy surface.
Because of this constancy we tend to envision the flow through the
canopy to be constant over the total area. Thus, we confuse total
flow rate with flow rate p~r unit area. The total CFM through the
gore is equal to P (CFM/FT ) times the area of the gore (FT ), but
the flow distribution varies. As the radius of a flat circular
parachute proceeds from the center the surface area varies as the
square of the radius.
Figure 7 illustrates the distribution of the canopy area
and rate of airflow along the radius of a 28 FT, D , flat circular
canopy. The canopy is divided into concentric rin~s of one foot
width. Each ring's area was normalized by ratioing it to the area
of the first ring.

AR - A(R 1 )
Rat = Al
AR=1

2
- 1)
a R - r(R
Rat= (1)2

Rat =2R-1

A canopy with a constant cloth flow rate per unit area or

geometric porosity has a varying flow rate along the radius due to
the increase in area. The canopy airflow in CFM is a minimum in
the canopy vent area and a maximum at the canopy skirt hem. As an
example, the area of the ring etween the R=13 FT and R=14 FT
radii is equal to the 84.82 FT area of an R=5.20 FT disc.
Critical parachutes partially inflate because the high flow rate
per unit of cloth area in the crown area of the canopy lacks
sufficient area to produce an outflow that exceeds the inflow.
Canopy inflation continues until the outflow is equal to the
inflow. At this point the canopy ceases to convert the velocity
head of the flow to a pressure head which can proceed to the
canopy skirt hem, and the component of the canopy aerodynamic
inflating force, F , is in equilibrium with the collapsing
component of the sopension line force, FRL, at the particular
intermediate suspension line angle, . R

11
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

CO)

LU

IL
0

0 L-

LL 0
LU

ILLc
0.0

> z
0 c0

z
cc 0
ILL
40
U- .
0 CO)

0L 2

E-4 a0
;u4 Lu
do LL
N 0u

?A,
uj Z P-

DNI 3H.0 Fe~ H N 3I J IY~ Lt

U

N C12
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

A solution to critical inflation is to use more than one canopy

cloth where the rates of flow per unit area decrease as the skirt
hem is approached. This approach may also be applied to the
porosity distribution of geometrically porous parachutes.
The inflation stability of a given parachute with a
constant rate of canopy airflow per unit area depends upon the
canopy diameter. As the diameter of the canopy (Do0=2R ) increases
by dR0 the surface area and canopy mouth area each increase.

Aso =iRo
AMO=tR2o

From Table 1 for a 30-gore flat circular parachute.

668;
0=. 0. 827;= =0. 6214;-=0. 7806
Do a a a
With reference to Figure 8.

21 '5 b'/I!

v 0.7806
R"-=0965

j=0.668 D
2

Rmo =0.965x0.668Ro

Rro = 0.664R o

13
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

M N Ul) 0 - OP-
r CD ONI to
N 1 loC I 4m00Go toC4
aN C y0 0m0 00 (') 0
Pm Nr- to wr I L w n 00to c

LU In 0
cw 0 0 '0
en t--.ocy
Ps ON r- Go N-r-rN N LONCOONq

o __ND_ 0GocoG

I. NW qmc q NNr t (
-J + Go0 N - c G Go00 '-V
!! - - t 't ------ - -- t --

4U 0 NN 2
w __co P

4 00 0 0000
oo0 J

4
A. n (N aO~N a
mr (v)

__ . 0 z

N o m GoN Ns 4.t

C1 wA a >0
U. 0 N Goo00 cv P- to 0 00 P. L
0 No cc 0 00 to wc oI 04 cw(

4 > w I') La N n N P. C) f r. ) N P. m P. PCV) w

8- L CL>
LC)
IL
Or- 01N0 C Y N0 2.
w __
0 0

Z
w- q
0 w w

I. 0 c

U. x.4
0 0i Le-

0 0 :~
Z w0 X2(

LLI
A.
-0W
40 -
~ I
CL
SLOco w-j R

X Wcc4
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

4 14
0 cI,
LL.

0LU
zo
z E
0z 0
0. x > 0 LU

I
2

z
0

00
V LU

Ul,
0 0d
00

CD)

C,4

___15
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

The ratio of surface area to mouth area is:

Aso - rR2
2
Amo yr(O.644R o)

Aso -2.41
AMO

and the ratio of mouth area to surface area is:

A,,O = 0.415
T-041

If the inflated shapes of parachutes of similar proportions

(D /L , number of gores, type) are taken to be essentially
coRstgnt with size, the rate of increase in the AS /AM ratio must
be the same for an increase in canopy diameter of HR.
Rate of change of surface area:

dAso = 2xrRdR,

Rate of change of mouth area:

dAMo = 2rRmo dRmo

Rmo =0.644R o

dRmo = 0.644 dR o

Rate of change of surface area to mouth area ratio

dAso 21rRdR,
dAmO 2x(0.644RoX0.664dRo)

dAso 1
dAM, 0.6642

dAso 2.41
dAMo 1

16
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

The implication of this is 2 that as the parachute diameter

is made larger, there are 2.41 FT of outfloy area generated at
the flow sensitive canopy hem for each 1 FT of inflow area
generated. For a given rate of canopy airflow, there is a limit
to the diameter of the parachute to maintain inflation stability.
The Aso/AMO value may vary for different types of parachutes.

EFFECTIVE MOUTH AREA

Equation (1), Reference 2, expresses the inflation distance
for solid cloth parachutes in terms of altitude and the system
steady-state parameters imposed by the initial system design
requirements.

[Pg92 0 CDSo
2
1 (1)2W
. w
Vto=pgCoS, [e A. -A k(Cpp/2)'
-j

The significance of the various terms is discussed in Reference 2.

The most important term relevant to critical velocity is the
concept of "effective mouth area," (AME).

AME = - Asok(Cpp / 2)1/2

As the rate of airflow per unit area determined by k, the air

density, the pressure coefficient and the exponent 1/2 is
increased the system has an effectively smaller inflow area.
Since this affects the inflation reference time and distance
exponentially, it is not necessary for the effective mouth area to
reach zero before the parachute will fail to fully inflate. The
exponential effect can extend the parachute inflation reference
time and distance to a point where the canopy does not fully
inflate during the system flight time. An observer on the ground
would see an incomplete inflation. Equation (2) has the effective
mouth area effect for a general value of "n".
°t7 t -2n

to _ dt - Ak Vs dt (2)

17
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL VELOCITY

The basic parachute inflation mass flow equation is:
dV
mp =p-=m inflow - m oufow
dt

mPp= pVAM - pPA s

If at any time during the inflation process, the inflow is equal

to the outflow the inflation process ceases.

rhp =pVAM - pPA s = 0 (3)

AM = EP =£= M ,
As pV V

where M' was shown in Reference 2 to be

M,=k(C opV2 / 2) (4)

V

When the ratio of the instantaneous mouth area, AM, to the

instantaneous inflated surface area, A is equal to the mass flow
rate ratio a critical inflation condition exists and V=Vcr.

Am k(C~pV, / 2)n (5)

As VC,

AM =k v2n-1
As k -2)c,

When n=0.5, M' is independent of velocity

AM )2n1
(6)
Ask1(Cpp / 2

18
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

The critical velocity of imporous parachutes (k=o) is

infinite and the canopy always inflates. However, the exponent
"n" is a second cloth flow parameter that affects critical
velocity. Measured values of "n" range between 0.53 and 0.771.
For a value of 1/2 the exponent in Equation (6) becomes infinite.
So there are really two cloth airflow properties that affect the
critical velocity of parachutes. It should be noted that if a
value of "n" less than 0.5 exists, the exponent of Equation (6)
becomes negative. This has the effect of inverting Equation (6)
and producing effects which are contrary to observed effects such
as imporous parachutes never inflate.
Equation (4) illustrates how the exponent "n," the constant "k,"
the test velocity and the air density all contribute to the cloth
permeability and the mass flow rate per unit area ratio.

When the test velocity is multiplied by a factor of two, the rate

of canopy inflow is doubled. The rate of canopy outflow would be
raised to the fourth power if it were not regulated by "n." Table
2 illustrates the contribution to outflow regulation by the cloth
characteristic "n"as velocity is increased.
An examination of Table 2 discloses the following:
1. When n=0.5, the ratio of outflow to inflow per unit
area is not affected by velocity. The outflow to inflow ratio per
unit area is constant.
2. As n approaches unity, the rate of outflow per unit
area exceeds the rate of inflow per unit area.
3. As n approaches unity, the rate of canopy outflow per
unit area accelerates.
4. As velocity increases, the effects noted in 2 and 3 are
amplified.
For cloths having an n value exceeding 0.5 the rate of
canopy outflow per unit area accelerates as n approaches 1, and
also as the velocity increases. Because of this, each parachute
has some "CRITICAL VELOCITY" where the outflow is equal to the
inflow. The designer must guarantee that the critical velocity of
the design is safely above the range of operational velocities in
order to produce a reliable design.
The increase in flow rate per unit area with velocity for
values of n>0.5 explains why a fully inflated parachute will
collapse when the critical velocity is reached. As the test
velocity is raised, the following continuously varying events are
in progress.

19
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

LU

x I LU L

0 0
N N
0 -1 06 0 2 0 N
iL QN P O 0 j
U.,

o- N I

z
0
z LI
o0 ~ n
O.. C C iC
4>

4C

z
4~ 0 4 cLntoc m0 m0

I-
z -

LU f

(0-

U.2

LU >

Nt to N N L
N % 0 V nr n L
4!w 0 4

20
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

1. The ratio of the rate of outflow per unit area to the

rate of inflow per unit area, M', is rising.
2. The higher rate of outflow coupled with the concentrated
outflow area at the hem, as in Figure 7, increases the
canopy outflow volume per unit of time.
3. The higher outflow volume reduces the canopy internal
pressure which also reduces the pressure differential
across the canopy cloth.
4. The reduced canopy cloth pressure differential lowers
the canopy inflation force, FAC' at the canopy hem.
5. The parachute drag force has been rising which causes
the canopy collapsing component of the suspension line
force, FRL, at the hem to increase.
6. At the critical velocity the inflation force, F
becomes less than the collapsing force, F ., anUihe
canopy outflow volume also exceeds the infow volume.
Both of these conditions contribute to canopy collapse.
7. The canopy continues to collapse until the higher flow
rate per unit area passing through the reduced canopy
inflated area can produce a new canopy inflating
aerodynamic force, FAS which is in equilibrium with the
new collapsing forceAomponent, FRh, of the reduced
suspension line force at a pseudo hem where the inflated
and uninflated canopy areas meet. The suspension line
force has been reduced do to the smaller canopy inflated
diameter and the canopy collapsing component is further
reduced by a smaller suspension line angle, .
Fully inflated parachutes possess a zone ahead of the skirt
hem where the local static pressure is higher than free stream
static pressure. This static pressure zone decays as the distance
ahead of the canopy skirt hem increases. Figure 9 presents a
static pressure profile measured along the centerline of a Cross-
type parachute during a subsonic wind tunnel test. Figure 9A is a
photograph of the Cross parachute under test. Figure 10 presents
the effects of canopy cloths with different rates of airflow on
the drag coefficients of geometrically similar 41 percent scale
models of the U.S. Navy MK 38 MOD 0 Cross parachute. The 3-momme
silk cloth canopy partially inflated to the point where the
lowered canopy pressure differential, due to the rate of airflow,
acting on the canopy surface area balanced the radial component,
FRL, of the suspension line force.
The flow rate contribution of the air density of Equation
(4) is also regulated by the exponent "n". Table 3 illustrates
the reduction in cloth flow rate as "n" approaches one for
selected altitudes from sea level to 100,000 feet.

21
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

1.0

0 WITHOUT PARACHUTE
0 WITH THE PARACHUTE OF FIGURE 9A.
.8

(D- PRESSURE TAP NO.

.6 V

I-z

.
00
LOCATION OF THE PLANE OF THE
uj 0 r SUSPENSION LINE-CANOPY ASSEM-
D- BLY JOINTS
nj .2 --

TOP OF CANOPY

0.0e

0 END OF STADIA ROD

-. 2

-. 4 I I I I I
16 24 32 40 48 56 64

DISTANCE ALONG STADIA ROD (INCHES)

TEST VELOCITY 200 MPH

FIGURE 9. MEASURED STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE STADIA ROD SHOWING
ELEVATED LOCAL STATIC PRESSURES AHEAD OF THE CANOPY SKIRT HEM.

22
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

( -

RINGSLOT PARACHUTE
LINES AT 200 MPH WITH EQUALLY ELONGATED
SUSPENSION Do 37 - INCH DIA
24 GORE
16% POROSITY

CROSS PARACHUTE
WITH UNEQUALLY
ELONGATED SUSPENSION
LINES AT 200 MPH L = 40 INCH DIA
FIGURE 9A. PHOTOGRAPH W/L - 0.264
OF THE CROSS PARACHUTE
OF FIGURE 9 IN THE
WIND TUNNEL

23
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

z Z

a. a
0o
U. 0 2Z L
I L ( Do U.
(3 1 LU
0 0

0 0
L6 U.
o z
~U.
0
z0 1

10 :

0 00

LLu 0

0 LL Z
0
UL U
N LU

LL.

0U

04U

IR I 0

1N3I31TAki3O3 DV1JU

24
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

) j

U wU

U. 17 2-A

ag
to
m

o . . .

LUU

o
zz ig ~ ~ O~It~~0 0 Ur%
0 c -o
N m o q oo o o o

-J0 OC O ~
0 ~ 4 O O O OD
w it- - N N I

N N)1N
IN . . e 1 1 7 :
o cc 0Y 0 )0 0 o 0 0 0C)C )0c ;C
0

z U. 00 0 c0 0 N ;

x
wLNV4 %c oc %0G

I-1

U.)

ION

- oI 10
P%1 G

25
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON PARACHUTE INFLATION TIME, STABILITY

AND DRAG COEFFICIENT

The mass flow rate ratio, M', provides explanations as to why

solid cloth parachutes inflate faster as the deployment altitude
is raised, otherwise stable parachutes are caused to oscillate and
also the shape of the basic dynamic drag area inflation signature.

It is well known from field tests that solid cloth parachutes

inflate faster as the altitude rises and the air becomes less
dense. This apparent paradox can be explained by the examination
of the mass flow ratio. The explanation is simplified by using an
infinite mass deployment to eliminate transient velocity profiles
that vary with altitude during inflation.
If a given solid cloth parachute system were tested under
infinite mass conditions in a variable density wind tunnel, the
canopy inflates in a predictable time at sea level density. The
mass flow ratio is in accordance with Equation (4a) and

M,= k(C.OV2 /2)'(p/ip)'

V (4a)
V
plPo=. When the wind tunnel density is reduced to p/po=0.5
(approximately 22,000 feet) and the parachute retested at constant
velocity, the mouth inflow rate per unit area and the velocity
contribution to the canopy outflow rate per unit area is the same
as at sea level deployment. However, the cloth pressure
differential is reduced due to the lower air density which results
in a reduced rate of canopy outflow as illustrated in Figure (11).
Under a condition of constant canopy mouth inflow rate and reduced
canopy outflow rate the parachute must inflate more rapidly.
In a constant dynamic pressure scenario test condition the
cloth rate of airflow per unit area remains the same at all
altitudes, but to achieve constant dynamic pressure the test
velocity must be raised. So under constant dynamic pressure
conditions, the canopy rate of outflow per unit area is the same
at all altitudes and the rate of mouth inflow per unit area
increases, which once again results in a reduced inflation time.
Some analysts suggest that the canopy cloth is less porous as
the altitude is increased. It appears that the rate of airflow of
the canopy cloth is the same at all altitudes for a given AP and
the change in performance is due to the pressure differential
variations altering the cloth rate of airflow per unit area. A
reduction in pressure differential and cloth rate of airflow
(inflation time reduction, opening shock increased, larger canopy
oscillations) may give the parachute system the attributes of a
lower permeability cloth near sea level.

26
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

3000 __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _

2000 MIL-C-7020, TYPE III

1000

800 MIC801 TPE1

600 __

0 200 _

EXPERIMENTAL DATA
0
0 CALCULATED DATA
z

2 so -Po a 87.6255(AP)O.63246

60- P®) u 59.6813(Ap)0.5 74 0 3 ---

40 _________
P@ w 26.4705(&P)O.60492

20--_

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (LSIFT2)

FIGURE 11. NOMINAL POROSITY OF PARACHUTE MATERIAL VERSUS DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

27
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

During low altitude finite mass deployments the inflating

parachute system has substantial velocity reduction while in the
inflation process. The inflation velocity profile at say 22,000
FT is greater than the sea level inflation velocity profile for
constant velocity or constant dynamic pressure deployment
scenarios do to the decrease in the air density. Equations (1),
(7), and (8) were developed in Reference 2. Equation (1) shows
that the inflation distance of a solid cloth parachute depends
upon the deployment altitude, cloth rate of airflow, system mass,
and the parachute steady-state geometry.

(1)
14W e 2W [AmSAso]pp ) l

The inflation distance and altitude determine the Ballistic

Mass Ratio scale parameter, M.
2W (7)
PgVstoCDSO
and the Ballistic Mass Ratio determines the velocity profile
during inflation.

V 1 (8)

All of these effects result in faster opening of the parachute.

So the apparent paradox of the decrease in solid cloth parachute
inflation time as the air density is reduced is not a paradox at
all. It is as it should be! The reduction of cloth outflow
versus altitude is shown in Figures (12) and (13).
Parachutes with low values of canopy cloth permeability are
known to oscillate. As the canopy cloth permeability is raised,
the oscillations decrease. Cross parachutes with a W/L of 0.264
oscillat 2 violently in wind tunnels when the cloth permeability is
8 CFM/FT at 1/2 inch of water pressure. The same canopy geometry
with MIL-C-7020 canopy cloth has minimal oscillations in the wind
tunnel. Cross parachutes with a W/L of 0.264, MIL-C-7020 canopy
cloth, and "L" diameters in the range 60 to 75 feet oscillate
noticeably when deployed above 200,000 feet.

28
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

100
CLOTH, MIL.C-7020. TYPE III
k a 1.46; mia 0.632; Cp a 1.15

M' MASS FLOW RATIO a MASS OUTFLOW

MASS INFLOW
so-
2
pk (Cpav Po V 12)' (PIPo)
w (4a

0
wi60-
a
z
4
OA,

wA40-

20

- A

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

MASS FLOW RATIO (M')

FIGURE 12. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON MASS FLOW RATIO AT CONSTANT VELOCITY

0.14
CLOTH, MIL-C-7020, TYPE III SEA LEVEL
0.12 -k a 1.46; n m 0.632; Cp a 1.15................

0.10- 20 K FEET
0
X
0.03

S0.06
4 SO KFEET
2 0.04

0.02
100 K FEET

0
0 200 400 600 g0o 1000
VELOCITY (F.P.S.)

FIGURE 13. EFFECT OF VELOCITY ON MASS FLOW RATIO AT CONSTANT DENSITY

29
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

At these altitudes the low air density has degraded the flow
rate through the canopy cloth and just as the wind tunnel tests
demonstrated low cloth rate of airflow correlates with more
oscillation.
Figure 10 Cross parachute drag coefficient versus canopy
cloth rate of airflow shows a decrease in drag coefficient as
canopy permeability increases. The permeabilities noted are the
values measured at 1/2 inch of water pressure. Some of the
implications of the drag coefficient data are:
a. At a constant altitude there may be a decrease in drag
coefficient with increased test velocity. Depending on
the cloth, the effect may be negligible.
b. As the test altitude rises, in a constant velocity
scenario, the cloth permeability decreases do to reduced
density and drag coefficients tend to be increased.

EFFECT OF MASS FLOW RATIO ON THE PARACHUTE DYNAMIC DRAG AREA

SIGNATURE

The recorded infinite mass inflation signatures of solid

cloth parachutes show that the inflation process begins slowly
until the canopy reaches an inflation time ratio of approximately
t/t =1/2. As inflation continues the rate of inflation increases
witH time. The mass flow rate ratio, M', is also part of the
mechanics of the inflation process. Equation (9) and Table 2 have
demonstrated how the ratio of the rate of outflow per unit area to
rate of inflow per unit area increases as the velocity is raised.
An inflating parachute is slowing down the payload with the
following continuously varying sequence of events:
1. In the initial phase of inflation the canopy inlet area
is small and the volume of air collected is small.

2. Due to the small parachute drag area the inflation

process, up to approximately t/t =1/2 is essentially at
constant velocity and M' is esseRtially constant.
3. After t/t =1/2, the canopy begins to develop a drag area
that is eifective in reducing the trajectory velocity.
4. Just as increasing the wind tunnel test velocity raised
the cloth outflow per unit area to inflow per unit area
ratio, the reduction of trajectory velocity lowers the
ratio of outflow per unit area to inflow per unit area
and the canopy retains more of the inflow volume.

30
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

5. As the canopy retains more of the inflow volume the rate

of inflation increases and the larger parachute further
retards the payload.
6. A continuous inflation cycle of slow down reduces the
rate of outflow per unit area, -retains more of the
inflow through the increasing mouth area, and increases
the rate of inflation. Slow down has been generated
that seems to explain the deployment signature of solid
cloth parachutes. For finite mass and infinite mass
drag area-deployment time signatures to be the same,
this effect must be small compared to the inflation
process dynamics. In Table 1 of Reference 3 the
unfolding phase of inflation velocity profile is given
by Equation (8) for r=O and j=6.

V 1
V t) (8)

Substitution of the velocity expression into the mass flow

rate ratio Equation (9)

P=k(Cvp / 2)' V2" - 1 (9)

yields

p k(C vp I2) n s (10)

L7M %o

P= 1t " 2n-1(1a

The particular mass flow rate ratio is the infinite mass

flow rate ratio divided by a reduction factor represented by the
denominator of Equation (lOa) which depends upon the mode of
operation, infinite mass, intermediate mass, or finite mass. The
percent reduction in the mass flow rate ratio is given by the
difference between the infinite mass operation and the particular
operational ballistic mass ratio.

(oo
(!!)Reduction= )

31
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

For infinite mass deployments, M= o , and the mass flow rate ratio
is constant throughout the inflation. A value of M=10, for solid
cloth parachutes, is a nearly constant velocity deployment. Table
4 summarizes the variation of the mass flow rate ratios for
several ballistic mass ratio applications.
Table 4 shows that the reduction in the mass flow rate ratio
is not significant except in the later stages of very finite mass
deployments. Therefore, this condition does not significantly
vary the drag area ratio-inflation time ratio signature.

EXAMPLE 1 A parachute is fully inflated in a wind tunnel. As the

wind tunnel velocity is increased, the parachute suddenly
collapses. Explain what has happened.
If the wind tunnel is maintained at the critical velocity,
and the air density is reduced, what effects are expected?
When the parachute is fully inflated at a wind tunnel
velocity below the critical velocity, explain the effects that are
expected as the D diameter is allowed to increase?

Discussion: The events which occur during the collapse of a

critical parachute are controlled by the generation and
distribution of the parachute aerodynamic forces and canopy rate
of airflow. Currently, four forces have been identified as
contributing to the total critical condition. Three of these
forces regulate the upper critical velocity of the canopy
collapse. After collapse, an additional fourth force is generated
which delays reinflation until the lower critical valoiLy is
achieved. The four forces are:
1. Parachute drag force, FD'
2. Radial component of the suspension line force, F
This force, perpendicular to the parachute cente~ine at
the canopy skirt hem-suspension line junction, is a
result of the suspension line cone angle and tends to
collapse the canopy.
3. Radial component of the canopy aerodynamic inflation
force, FA. This force develops from the canopy
pressure differential acting on the canopy cloth and
tends to inflate the canopy. The pressure differential
is dependent on the quantity of air permitted to pass
through the canopy surface. For a given constant canopy
cloth k and n, this varies with velocity and altitude.

32
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

rcC 6 46 ad m In

In
2 2I> cc
I- - 0 0 co 0

a.1> to c
4i N
C) 0 0 cn 0 en

0 0

CL I- > c 0

I-I II _ _ _ _ _ '

U.£

0 a 1.1a
U-0 40
u.II >2

0-0

us c 0 1 0 0 0 0; 0 0s

2 cc
0 Z .. U
~0 0

A a. I > aca
2r
8

w
ccU .
4 2u

3: 33
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

4. Parachute squid force, F . After a critical canopy has

collapsed, the collapsegYshape deflects the airflow
symmetrically around the canopy in a manner different
from the fully inflated state. This additional
symmetrical inward force tends to hold the canopy in the
collapsed state and stabilizes the configuration.

a) Collapse at the critical velocity:

(1) When the critical parachute is

already inflated below the critical velocity, the
volume of flow into the canopy through the mouth is
equal to the volume of outflow through the canopy
surface. The canopy cloth pressure differential, at
this velocity, provides an inflation force, FjC , at the
canopy hem that balances the collapsing radiaT
component, FRL, of the parachute suspension line force,
Figure 4.
(2) As the wind tunnel velocity is
increased the ratio of the rate of outflow through the
cloth per unit area to the rate of inflow through the
mouth per unit area, M', continuously increases (see
Table 2) and the outflow through the canopy skirt area
increases due to the distribution of the cloth area in
the gore, Figure 7.

(3) The increased rate of canopy

airflow causes a reduction in the canopy cloth pressure
differential. This produces an effect similar to the
geometrically porous canopies of Figure 14 where
increasing canopy porosity for constant suspension line
length results in a smaller inflated canopy diameter,
caused by a lower internal pressure. If the canopy
surface area is used in the data reduction the lower
parachute aerodynamic drag force, due to the smaller
inflated diameter, manifests itself as a reduction in
the drag coefficient.

34
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

X= 15% X = 20% X= 25% X= 30%

NOTE: SUSPENSION-LINE RATIO L/D o 1.0

FIGURE 14. SIDE PROFILES OF RIBBON PARACHUTE CANOPIES

WITH POROSITIES FROM 15 TO 30 PERCENT

Figure 15 illustrates the effect of canopy cloth rate of

airflow on the pressure distribution measured adjacent to the
centerline of the Cross parachute MK 38 MOD 0. All parachute
models were of common geometry with varied canopy cloth
permeabilities.
(4) As the critical velocity is approached, the ratio of
the rate of canopy outflow per unit area to canopy inflow per unit
area continuously increases. Also, the aerodynamic drag force and
the radial component of the suspension line force increases. At
the critical value, the inf.ating canopy pressure differential at
the hem has been lowered to a point where the canopy aerodynamic
force at the hem F is insufficient to resist the suspension
line collapsing fort, F , and the canopy collapses to a
condition where the infl W through the smaller canopy mouth is
equal to the outflow of the higher flow rate per unit area through
the reduced inflated canopy area.
b) Density reduction: The air density affects the rate
of canopy outflow per unit area in the mass flow rate ratio, M',
the canopy drag force and F . Density reduction results in a
corresponding reduction of 9knopy outflow rate per unit area and
tends to support canopy inflation, see Table 3. When the wind
tunnel density is sufficiently reduced the ratio of canopy outflow
rate to mouth inflow rate is less than one, and the canopy
reinflates since FRL has also been reduced.

35
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

RUN PARACHUTE NO. PERMEABILITY

NO. NO. LINES (CFM/FT 2 )
X 5 2 16 MIL-C-7020, TYPE I 90
0 11 8 16 MIL-C-17208, TYPE I, CLASS B 325
0 12 9 16 MIL-C-17208, TYPE I, CLASS B 325
O 13 10 16 3 MOMME SILK 428
ci 14 STRUT AND FIXTURE TARE RUN WITH LONG STADIA ROD

1.0 I I I I
RUNS 11, 12, & 13 ARE 41.7% SCALE MODELS
OF THE CROSS PARACHUTE MK 38 MOD 0.

0.8

ALL OUTER SUSPENSION----,..

LINE-CANOPY SKIRT HEM
JOINTS LIE IN THIS PLANE
0.6 -
2 xV

U.
UJ
0

. 0.2--
0.2 uii
_ __

0.0 - _
C>l

-0.21III
16 24 32 40 48 56 64
DISTANCE ALONG STADIA ROD (INCHES)
TEST VELOCITY 200 MPH

FIGURE 15. EFFECT OF CLOTH PERMEABILITY ON THE MEASURED STATIC PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE STADIA ROD SHOWING ELEVATED LOCAL
STATIC PRESSURES AHEAD OF THE CANOPY SKIRT HEM.

36
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

c) The reinflation velocity of a critical parachute, at

constant density, is less than the critical velocity at collapse.
In the collapsed squid like shape the redirected flow has modified
the canopy force distribution as shown in Figure 16. In uniform
flow, the newly introduced "squid" force which rings the canopy
like a wide belt and acts inward toward the canopy centerline,
contributes to the stability of the squidded canopy. This also
applies to inflating noncritical canopies. Upon reduction of the
wind tunnel velocity, the ratio of canopy outflow to inflow begins
to decrease, the canopy drag force and the opposing collapsing
component, FRT, of the suspension line force are also getting
smaller. At The upper critical velocity the canopy rates of
airflow are marginal for reinflation. The canopy is kept from
fully inflating by the collapsing squid force, F ,. Further
velocity reduction lowers the mass flow rate ratH, M', increases
the canopy internal pressure and reduces the collapsing force,
F At the lower critical velocity conditions have modified to
t~point where the internal pressure front can override the
reduced collapsing force, Fso , and the canopy reinflates.
d) Increase of D diameter: In the case of the
variation of the D diameter, it has been shown that the canopy
outflow surface area increases by 2.41 square feet for each square
foot of increase of mouth inflow area derived from an increase in
D . The increased canopy surface area is added at the skirt hem
wRere the outflow is a maximum. An increasing D eventually
results in a critical velocity condition.
Wind tunnel tests are planned to investigate the effects of
the ratio of steady-state mouth area to surface area (Ay/Aso) and
cloth rate of airflow on parachute critical velocity. st
results are to be published in Reference 1.
The various standard cloths available for parachutes are
based on use properties such as strength, weight per square yard,
elongation and air permeability. Cloth, ordered from and
conforming to a specification, has nominal limits on the
requirements. The rate of airflow, due to the nature of cloth
manufacture has the permeability usually specified in a range from
a lower limit to an upper limit. The upper limit may exceed the
lower limit by 50 to 80 percent. In addition, the rate of airflow
may vary randomly between limits within a roll of cloth or between
different rolls of cloth of the same lot. In addition, different
weavers may use different constructions to obtain the requirements
of the specification. This may vary the airflow performance.
Identical parachutes constructed at the same time, may have some
what different opening characteristics because of variations in
the manufactured cloth air permeability.

37
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

zu

I. ~LL <L

WZ x

IA-

00g

oU0

z L-a..-

383
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

CONCLUSIONS

1. Parachute inflation characteristics of solid flat types of

canopies are determined by the balance between the radial canopy
inflating aerodynamic force and the opposing deflating inward
radial suspension line force component at the canopy skirt hem.

2. The parachute aerodynamic force may be increased by:

a. Reducing the canopy rate of airflow. This raises the
canopy internal pressure which increases the canopy inflated
diameter.
b. Using longer suspension lines, which permit greater
inflation by reducing the collapsing radial force component of the
suspension line force, FRL.

c. Increasing the number of suspension lines in the

parachute. As the number of lines is raised the tangent force in
the canopy cloth at the main seam is used more efficiently and
improves the inflation characteristics of the canopy.
3. For impermeable cloths (k=O), the critical velocity is
infinite and the parachute always inflates.
4. For a value of n=0.5, the critical velocity is infinite.
5. As n approaches unity the ratio of the rate of cloth outflow
per unit area to canopy mouth inflow rate per unit area is raised.
6. Test velocity affects the ratio of cloth rate of outflow per
unit area to canopy mouth inflow rate per unit area. This is the
key to critical velocity. All other observations are effects
which modify the onset of critical velocity. The mass flow rate
ratio, M', theoretically describes these effects. Increasing the
test velocity raises the ratio of canopy outflow rate to inflow
rate.
7. Triangular solid cloth parachute gores increase in local area
from vent to canopy skirt hem. 2 Even though the canopy cloth has a
uniform rate of airflow (CFM/FT ) the local canopy rate of airflow
(CFM) is minimum through the cloth in the vent area and a maximum
through the cloth in the skirt hem area. The total rate of
airflow is PxS 0 (CFM).
8. An increase i a solid cloth flat parachute's diameter
generates 2 2.41 FT of additional outflow area at the skirt hem for
each 1 FT of generated mouth inflow area. The additional area
occurs at the canopy skirt hem where the flow rate is a maximum
and most sensitive.
9. The effective canopy mouth area is reduced as the rate of
airflow increases through the cloth or grid.

39
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

10. The canopy internal static pressure is reduced as the canopy

rate of outflow is raised. The zone of higher than ambient static
pressures extends ahead of the canopy skirt hem and diminishes as
the distance ahead of the skirt hem increases.
11. As velocity increases, the parachute aerodynamic drag force
increases. The collapsing component of the drag force, FRL, in
the suspension line is also increasing while the opposing
inflationary force, FhC, is decreasing due to the increase in the
canopy rate of outfloito rate of inflow ratio. At the critical
velocity, the rate of outflow exceeds the rate of inflow and the
force, F_, causes the canopy to collapse until the inflow to
outflow Rlance is re-established by the reduction of available
outflow cloth area.
12. Once a parachute has squidded, a new force is introduced into
the system. This squidding force is developed from the new
deflected airflow pattern about the canopy which tends to
stabilize the squidded parachute.
13. In order to overcome the squidding force, the velocity must
be reduced below the squidding velocity.
14. The known phenomena that affect parachute criticality have
been theoretically separately demonstrated.
15. A unified system that would calculate the critical velocity
of a particular system from its design characteristics of
suspension line length, number of suspension lines and the canopy
type and rate of airflow has not been completed.

40
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

REFERENCES

1. Ludtke, W.P., A Summary of Parachute Technology Development at

the Naval Surface Warfare Center, WO, NAVSWC TR 90-002, Section
VII.
2. Ludtke, W.P., Observations on the Inflation Time and Inflation
Distance of Parachutes, NAVSWC TR 88-292.
3. Ludtke, W.P., Notes on a Generic Parachute Opening Force
Analysis, NAVSWC TR 86-142.

41/42
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

NOMENCLATURE

2 - Maximum steady-state inflated parachute diameter of

gore mainseam, FT
2
AM - Instantaneous canopy mouth area, FT
2
AME - Effective mouth area, FT
FT 2
AMO Steady-state inflated mouth area,

A - Instantaneous pressurized canopy surface area during

inflation, As=S FT
2
Aso - Canopy surface area, FT
See SO
so 0= D0 /4
b - Minor axis of the steady-state inflated shape ellipse
bounded by the major axis (2i) and the vent of the
canopy, FT
b' - Minor axis of the steady-state inflated shape ellipse
which includes the skirt hem of the canopy, FT

C - Width of the unbillowed gore at the point of analysis

C' - Theoretical billowed gore circumference for minimum
cloth stress
CD - Parachute coefficient of drag
2
CDS 0 - Parachute steady-state drag area, FT

Cpay - Parachute average pressure

the instantaneous coefficient.
or steady-state drag force to theof
The ratio
dynamic pressure times the parachute projected area.

din0 - Steady-state mouth diameter of the inflated canopy,

measured at the junction of the gore mainseam and the
suspension lines at the canopy skirt hem, FT
D - Nominal diameter of the aerodynamic decelerator =
gS/7T ,FT

43
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

NOMENCLATURE (Cont.)

2f - Inflated parachute chord line bet-ween two adjacent

load lines at the point XN, YN' PN
FCA - Aerodynamic force generated by the parachute canopy at
the parachute skirt hem which tends to inflate the
canopy, LBS.
FRL - Suspension line radial force component at the parachute
skirt hem which tends to collapse the canopy, LBS.
F - Steady-state drag force that would be produced by a
fully open parachute at velocity Vs, LBS.
FS - Side force which surrounds a squidded parachute and is
SQ directed toward the canopy centerline. The force, which
is generated by redirection of the flow around the
canopy, stabilizes the squidded parachute and delays
canopy reinflation, LBS.
F1 - Parachute suspension-line force, LBS

2
g - Gravitational acceleration, FT/SEC

k - Permeability constant of canopy cloth

Le - Effective suspension line length. L = L when the

lines are connected at a single point

LR - Length of a riser used to extend parachute suspension

lines

Ls Suspension line length

- In the development of the derived inflation time

equation inp refers to the mass of air flowing

M - Ballistic Mass Ratio - ratio of the mass of the retarded

hardware (including parachute) to a mass of atmosphere
contained in a right circular cylinder of length (Vst0 ),
face area (CDSO), and density (P)

44
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

NOMENCLATURE (Cont.)

M' Mass flow rate ratio - ratio of the rate of atmosphere

flowing through a unit of pressurized cloth area to the
atmosphere flowing through a unit inlet area at
arbitrary pressure. In some reports M' was termed the
mass flow ratio.

n - Permeability constant of canopy cloth

N - Canopy depth is the distance from the skirt hem of the
canopy to the vent of the canopy along the parachute
center line
P - Cloth permeability - rate of airflow throygh a cloth at
an arbitrary differential pressure CFM/FT
Military specifications specify a flow rate measured
under a pressure differential of 1/2 inch of water
Pav- Pressure differential acting on the inflated canopy
projected area, PSF

2
q - Dynamic pressure, LB/FT
2
qs Steady-state dynamic pressure, LB/FT

r - Billowed gore radius of curvature

r - Billowed gore radius of curvature for minimum stress

R - Canopy radius along the gore centerline
Rat - Ratio of the surface area of a ring of canopy cloth to
the surface area of the first ring
Rmo - Mouth radius of the steady-state canopy=dmo/2
Ro D/2

S - Instantaneous pressurized canopy surface area S=A s

45
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

NOMENCLATURE (Cont.)

t Instantaneous time, SEC

t0 Reference
drag area time whenfirst
for the the parachute
time, SEC has reached the design

V Instantaneous system velocity, FT/SEC

Vcr - Parachute critical velocity, FT/SEC

0 - Volume of air which m st be collected during the

inflation process, FT
Vs - Trajectory velocity at parachute line stretch, FT/SEC

W - System weight, LB

Z - Number of gores in the parachute

GREEK SYMBOLS

- Semi-vetex angle between the suspension lines and the

parachute center line and tangent to the transient
pressurized canopy area during canopy inflation or the
pseudo hem of a critically collapsed parachute
DEGREES.
-0 Semi-vertex angle between the suspension lines and the
parachute center line and tangent to the mainseam canopy
hem, DEGREES
o Central angle subtended by the billowed gore, DEGREES
o - Central angle subtended by the billowed gore for minimum
stress, DEGREES
3
P - Air density, SLUGS/FT
3
Po - Sea level air density, SLUGS/FT
* - Angle between the load line normal force and the force
tangent to the canopy cloth at the load line, DEGREES

46
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

GREEK SYMBOLS (Cont.)

- Angle subtended by0 a parachute gore in the plane of the

canopy mouth = 180 /Z; also the unbillowed gore vertex
angle, DEGREES
'I"- Angle subtended by a parachute gore in the plane
perpendicular to the load line at the point XN, YN'
DEGREES

47
 NAVSWC TR 91-178

DISTRIBUTION

Copies Copies

Commander Director
Naval Air Systems Command Naval Research Laboratory
Attn: Library 4 Attn: Code 2027
AIR-931H(F.Terry Thomasson) Library, Code 2029(ONRL) 2
Technology Manager Crew Washington, DC 20375
Station & Life Support
Systems(JP#1-Rm 424) 2 U.S. Naval Academy
Department of the Navy Attn: Library 2
Washington, DC 20361 Annapolis, MD 21402
Commander Superintendent
Naval Sea Systems Command U.S. Naval Postgraduate School
Attn: Library 4 Attn: Library (Code 0384) 2
Washington, DC 20362 Monterey, CA 93940
Commanding Officer Commander
Naval Personnel Research and Naval Air Development Center
Development Center Attn: Library 2
Attn: Library 2 Dr. Norman Warner 1
Washington, DC 20007 Dr. Donald McErlean 1
Kenneth Greene 1
Office of Naval Research William B. Shope 1
Attn: Library 4 David N. DeSimone 1
Washington, DC 20360 Louis A. Daulerio 1
Thomas J. Popp 1
Office of Naval Research Maria C. Hura 1
Attn: Fluid Dynamics Branch 2 Warminster, PA 18974
Structural Mechanics
Branch 2 Commanding Officer
800 N. Quincy St. Naval Weapons Support Center
Arlington, VA 22217 Attn: Library 2
Mark T. Little 1
Commanding Officer Crane, IN 47522
Naval Ordnance Station
Attn: Library 3 Commanding Officer
Christopher O'Donnell, 6 Naval Weapons Center
(C ode 5920L) Attn: Library 2
Indian Head, MD 20640 Eric Smith 1
China Lake, CA 93555-6001

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Commander Commanding General

Naval Ship Research and U.S. Army Weapons Command
Development Center Attn: Technical Library 2
Attn: Library 2 Research and Development
Washington, DC 20007 Directorate
Rock Island, IL 61201
Commander
Pacific Missile Test Center Commanding General
Attn: Technical Library, U.S. Army ARDEC
Code N0322 2 Attn: Library 2
Point Mugu, CA 93041 Walt Koenig, 1
SMCAR-AET-A
Director Roy W. Kline 1
Marine Corps Development and SMCAR-AET-A
Education Command Development Dover, NJ 07801
Center
Attn: Library 2 Army Research and Development
Quantico, VA 22134 Laboratories
Aberdeen Proving Ground
Marine Corps Liaison Officer Attn: Technical Library, 2
U.S. Army Natick Laboratories 2 Bldg. 313
Natick, MA 01760 Aberdeen, MD 21005
Commanding General Commanding General
U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Edgewood Arsenal Headquarters
Research and Development Attn: Library 2
Center Aero Research Group
Attn: Technical Document Center 2 Aberdeen Proving Ground
Fort Belvoir, VA 22660 Aberdeen, MD 21005
Commanding General Commanding General
U.S. Army Munitions Command Harry Diamond Laboratories
Attn: Technical Library 2 Attn: Technical Library 2
Stanley D. Kahn 1 2800 Powder Mill Road
Dover, NJ 07801 Adelphi, MD 20783

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U.S. Army Ballisti: Research Commanding General

Laboratories U.S. Army Material Laboratories
At--. Technical Library 2 Attn: Technical Library 2
Aberdeen Proving Ground Fort Eustis, VA 23604
Aberdeen, MD 21005
U.S. Army Air Mobility R&D
Commanding General Laboratory
U.S. Army Foreign Science and Eustis Directorate
Technology Center Attn: Systems and Equipment 2
Attn: Technical Library Division
220 Seventh Street, NE Fort Eustis, VA 23604
Federal Building
Charlottesville, VA 22312 President
U.S. Army Airborne Communications
Commanding General and Electronic Board 2
U.S. Army Material Command Fort Bragg, NC 28307
Attn: Library 2
Washington, DC 20315 Commanding General
U.S. Missile Command
Commanding General Redstone Scientific Information
U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Center
Command Attn: Library 2
Attn: Library 2 Redstone Arsenal, AL 358091
Aberdeen Proving Ground
Aberdeen, MD 21005 Commander
U.S. Army Natick R&D Labs
Commanding General Attn: Library 2
U.S. Army Combat Developments James E. Sadek 1
Command Peter Maske 1
Attn: Library 2 Calvin K. Lee 1
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060 M. P. Gionfriddo 1
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Commanding General Timothy E. Dowling 1
U.S. Army Combat Developments John Calligeros 1
Command Carl Callianno 1
Attn: Technical Library 2 DRDNA-UAS 1
Carlisle Barracka, PA 17013 Kansis Street
Natick, MA 01760-5017

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Commander Commanding Officer

U.S. Army Aviation Systems Wright-Patterson AFB
Command Attn: William Casey ASD/ENECA 1
Attn: Library 2 William Pinnel,
St. Louis, MO 63166 AFWAL/FIER 1
Robert L. Hesters Jr. 1
Office of the Chief of Research ASD/YYEE 1
and Development E. Schultz AFWAL/FIER 1
Department of the Army Daniel J. Kolega
Attn: Library 2 Bldg. 25 Area B 1
Washington, DC 20315 Patrick J. O'Brian
Bldg. 25 Area B 1
H. Engel ASD/ENECA 1
U.S. Army Advanced Material A. Kididis ASD/ENECA 1
Concepts Agency OH 45433
Department of the Army
Attn: Library 2 Commanding Officer
Air Force Flight Tests Center
Director Attn: Airframe Systems
U.S. Army Mobility R&D Division Aerodynamic
AMES Research Center Decelerator Branch 2
Attn: Library 2 John A. Hed 1
Moffett Field, CA 94035 Edwards AFB, CA 93523
Commandant Commanding Officer
Quartermaster School Air Force Space Division
Airborne Department Attn: Library 2
Attn: Library 2 P.O. Box 92960
Norman Bruneau 2 Worldway Postal Center
Fort Lee VA 23801 Los Angeles, CA 90009
U.S. Army Ctandardization
Group, UK Commanding Officer
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Representative Laboratory
Box 65 Attn: Library 2
FPO, NY 09510 Hanscom Field, MA
Commanding Officer Command Officer
McCallan AFB Kelly AFB
Attn: Library 2 Attn: SA-ALC/MMIR 2
SA-ALC/MMIR Library 2
McCallan AFB, CA 95652 TX 78241

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Rockwell International Corporation

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Pennsylvania State University
Applied Research Laboratory
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P.O. Box 30
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Honeywell, Inc.
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Internal distribution:
U (H.D. Smith) 1
U06 (J. Goeller) 1
U13 (W. Parsons) 1
U13 (W. P. Ludtke) 150
U13 (D. Fiske) 1
U13 (J. F. McNelia) 1
U13 (J.Murphy) 1
U13 (J. Correll) 1
U13 (S.M. Hunter) 1
U13 (R.L. Pense) 1
U13 (M. L. Lama) 1
U43 (J. Rosenberg) 1
E231 2
E232 3
E31 (GIDEP) 1
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 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE I OBN.040188
Public reporting burden for this Collection ofiinfo~rmation IS fttiMaLed to avrage I hour per response. iriduclrry the time for reviewing instructions. searching existing data
sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed. and completing and reviewing the collection of information Senid comments regarding thi burdsen e~timate or any other
aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing tisn burden, to Wasrhington ffeadquarters Services. Directorate for information Operations and
Reports, 1215 iefteron Dav i Highway. Suite 1204, Arlington. VdA22202A4302.and to the Office of Management and budget. Paperwork keduction Project (0/04-01I bb).
Washington, OC 20503

1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

125 June 1991 F'Y90to FY91

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE S. FUNDING NUMBERS

Notes on the Cause of Parachute Critical Velocity j U91 CT

6. AUTHOR(S)

William P. Ludtke
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZAYiON NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
Naval Surface Warfare Center (U 13)
10901 New Hampshire Avenue
Silver Spring, MD 20903-5000

9. SPIONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This report discusses how the critical velocity of parachutes depends upon the rate of outflow
through the canopy surface and the rate of inflow through the canopy mouth. The analysis indicates that
the mass flow rate ratio, M' , is demonstrated to be the theoretical key to the critical velocity of
parachutes. All other observed effects modify the onset of critical velocity. The effects of M' and altitude
on inflation reference time, parachute stability, drag coefficient, and inflation rate are also discussed.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

63
Parachute Technology Number of Canopy Gores Suspension Line Length 16. PRICE CODE

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF
OFRPR FTI AEOF ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified SAR
RN 54001 23 -OOStandard Form 298(Rev 2-89J
Prescribed by ANSI Sid 139 18
199 10,
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING SF 298

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