Green Infrastructure

Options to Reduce Flooding

Definitions, Tips,
and Considerations
O F F I C E F O R C O A S TA L M A N A G E M E N T

ECONOMICS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

 Green Infrastructure
Options to Reduce Flooding
The practices described in this handout can be used to reduce
flooding and help communities design a green infrastructure
strategy. It should be noted that while green infrastructure practices make
communities more resilient, flooding might not be totally alleviated.

This document is a companion piece to the Process Guide for Assessing

Costs and Benefits of Green Infrastructure for Flood Mitigation. Step 3 in this
publication, which involves identifying how a flood reduction target can be
met with green infrastructure, is addressed here. The larger process guide is
available by sending an email request to [email protected].

Information in this handout includes

• Section 1 - Green Infrastructure Practices. Most communities implement

a variety of approaches to reach their flood reduction goals. Basic
information about the most common is described here.

• Section 2 - Considerations for Planning and Implementation. Numerous

tips and considerations are provided to help community planners develop
the best green infrastructure plan for their unique situation.

• Section 3 - Estimating Storage Potential and Costs. Cost and capacity

matter. Use this chart and the examples provided to start the calculations.

• Section 4 - For More Information. This document provides a good

overview, but additional information resources are provided for those ready
to dive deeper into this topic.

About NOAA’s Office for Coastal Management

This federal organization is the nation’s leader in
efforts to protect coastal communities and the natural
environment. For more information, visit the website
at www.coast.noaa.gov. For additional resources related
to green infrastructure, visit NOAA’s Digital Coast at
http://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/topic/green-infrastructure.
SECTION ONE
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE PRACTICES

EXISTING FORESTS AND WETLANDS Limitations: It requires a lot of space and is not
well-suited for urban areas.
Description: The most economical way to absorb
and clean water is to protect existing forests and Maintenance required: Participants must
wetlands. These areas should be protected in control invasive species and ensure planting
perpetuity and expanded where possible. survival and density.

Benefits: Such protections help absorb and store

floodwaters; reduce erosion along stream banks; GREEN AND BLUE ROOFS
improve water quality through filtration; improve
air quality; increase groundwater recharge; Description: Green roofs are flat or gently
provide recreation; provide wildlife habitat; and sloping roofs that contain a planting medium and
preserve vistas and aesthetic appeal. vegetation on top of the roof material. Typically, a
green roof has a filter membrane, drainage layer,
Limitations: These steps require conservation waterproof membrane, support panel, thermal
of undeveloped forest and wetland areas. If insulation, and vapor control layer.
land is in private hands, communities will need
to work with the landowner to get conservation Blue roofs, also known as non-vegetated roofs,
agreements. Land acquisition can be expensive. detain water on the surface or in engineered
Healthy and larger forests and wetlands will trays. These surfaces or trays slowly release the
provide more protection. water through a flow-restriction device around
a roof drain. From there the water travels to a
Maintenance required: Measures include storm sewer system or to a green-infrastructure
controlling pollution and invasive species and cistern or bioretention area.
conducting controlled burns.
Benefits: Both green and blue roofs reduce
stormwater peak flood and runoff volume;
STORMWATER WETLANDS provide pollutant removal through uptake and
filtering; and can be designed for public access.
Description: Stormwater wetlands consist of a In addition, green roofs reduce the cooling and
properly designed basin that contains water, a heating needs of buildings; improve air quality;
substrate (e.g., soil, sand), and wetland plants. extend the life of the roof membrane; decrease
This technique stores floodwater during a storm the heat island effect; and reduce water demand
and releases it slowly, reducing peak flows. There by reusing the collected rainwater.
are several variations of the stormwater wetland
design. The designs are characterized by the Limitations: Both green and blue roofs require
volume of the wetland in deep pool, high marsh, flat or gently sloping roofs that are structurally
and low marsh, and whether the design allows engineered to withstand the necessary weight for
for detention of small storms above the wetland these systems.
surface.
Maintenance required: Participants must
Benefits: This technique reduces peak ensure planting survival by watering until plants
discharges; provides flood control for higher- are established; control invasive species; and
magnitude storms; improves water quality inspect yearly to remove problematic shrubs and
through pollutant removal; provides aesthetic reduce the potential for leaks to develop.
appeal; increases property value; and improves
air quality.
TREE PLANTINGS AND CONSERVATION Benefits: These trenches maintain water balance
and provide groundwater recharge; reduce
Description: Planting native trees or conserving runoff; promote pollutant uptake through
existing trees can slow down, capture, and store vegetation; improve air quality; and provide
runoff in the canopy and release water into the aesthetic appeal.
atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Tree
roots also create soil conditions that promote Limitations: This technique requires specific
infiltration. conditions. These include a careful selection of
tree species and appropriate root zone areas
Benefits: Tree plantings reduce stormwater, and an absence of conflicts with utility structures
pollutants, temperatures, and noise; absorb (such as electric wires and signs) or other
carbon dioxide; provide habitat for urban wildlife structures (such as basements or foundations).
and recreation; increase property values; and
reduce costs of clearing and grading by keeping Maintenance required: Participants must
areas natural. Larger, older trees can intercept water, mulch, and ensure plant survival and
more stormwater. density; control invasive species, maintain inlets,
and collect garbage, removing litter as needed;
Limitations: Trees need adequate space and inspect annually for erosion, sediment buildup,
soil to ensure their health. Check with local and proper vegetative conditions; and inspect
ordinances to see which species are allowed for inlets, outlets, and cleanouts twice annually.
planting in the proposed area. Trees need to be
maintained, especially near powerlines.
BIOSWALES AND RAIN GARDENS
Maintenance required: Participants must water
and prune; control pests; and maintain fringe Description: Bioswales convey stormwater at
landscaping. a slow, controlled rate, and the flood-tolerant
vegetation and soil act as a filter medium,
cleaning runoff and allowing infiltration.
STORMWATER TREE TRENCHES Bioswales generally are installed within or near
paved areas such as parking lots or alongside
Description: A stormwater tree trench is a row roads and sidewalks. In locations with low
of trees that are connected by an underground infiltration rates, underdrains can be used to
trench engineered with layers of gravel and soil collect excess water and discharge the treated
that store and filter stormwater runoff. They work runoff to another green infrastructure practice or
well in streets and parking lots that have limited storm sewer system.
space to manage stormwater.
Rain gardens are composed of drought-tolerant
shrubs, flowers, and grasses, and they lack a
complex soil matrix and underdrain. They are
well-suited for installation in residential lots.

Benefits: Bioswales and rain gardens reduce

stormwater runoff volumes and increase
groundwater recharge; promote pollutant
uptake through vegetation and soil; reduce peak
discharges; improve air quality; and provide
aesthetic appeal.
Limitations: These features are best for smaller
sites or neighborhoods and can be expensive for
large areas. Colder climates experience frozen
soils, which limit infiltration rates. Colder climate
use requires adjustments and will add to the cost.

Maintenance required: Steps must be taken

to ensure plant survival (watering) and density;
control invasive species; rake mulch annually;
remove litter; and clean filter. Maintenance costs
and time are higher initially and then taper off
once established. require less maintenance than regular pavement,
especially in cold climates where heaving cracks
traditionally impact asphalt and concrete.
PERMEABLE PAVEMENT

Description: Permeable pavement includes RAIN HARVESTING:

both pavements and pavers with void space that RAIN BARRELS AND CISTERNS
allows runoff to flow through, and be temporarily
stored in, an underground stone base prior to Description: Rain barrels and above-ground
infiltrating into the ground or discharging from an cisterns are closed containers that retain
under drain. runoff for non-potable reuse purposes such
as landscaping and car washing. Roof runoff is
Permeable pavers use blocks of brick, stone, directed into a downspout and then to the barrel
or concrete in a grid; permeable sand or gravel or cistern. Rain barrels typically store about 50 to
in spaces between the blocks; and a gravel or 100 gallons of stormwater.
aggregate sublayer. Porous concrete and asphalt
looks similar to traditional pavement but is Cisterns can store thousands of gallons of
coarser, with similar-sized stone and less fine stormwater. However, costs for installation
material to increase void space. can be significantly higher depending on size,
location, and siting configurations. For both
Permeable pavement reduces annual runoff barrels and cisterns, manual or electronic flow-
volumes by approximately 60 percent; reduces control valves can be used to control storage.
peak flows; and improves water quality by
removing oil and grease, metals, and suspended Benefits: The containers reduce water
solids. It typically does not remove nutrients. demand; reduce runoff volume to conventional
stormwater facilities; require minimal space;
Benefits: This pavement reduces runoff quantity increase community engagement; and manage
during storm events; reduces surface ice stormwater on site.
formation in cold climates; and improves water
quality from filtration through pavement or Limitations: The containers are only useful
pavers and underground media. when empty, so water collected needs to be used
between rain events. Rain barrels collect only a
Limitations: Snow plowing can catch the edge of small amount of water. Water collected is not
pavers and damage pavement surface. Applying suitable for drinking.
sand and salt can clog pavement pores. Soil
substrate below the pavers must have adequate Maintenance required: Check for cracks,
filtration rates to allow water to dissipate. ensuring that hoses and lids are properly
attached and that no yard pests are in the
Maintenance required: It is important to sweep barrel. In cold climates rain barrels must
or vacuum and reduce the application of sand be disconnected during periods of freezing
and salt in cold climates. Porous asphalt might temperatures to prevent damage.
Stormwater tree trench. Forest and wetlands.
Source: Alisa Goldstein

Bioswale. Porous pavers.

Blue roof. Porous asphalt.

Source: Gowanus Canal Conservancy.

Green roof. Rain barrel.

Source: South Carolina Department of Natural Resources.
SECTION TWO
CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
Green infrastructure practices can be effective in increase the cost of construction. Also, land
reducing flooding impacts in communities but, acquisition costs vary greatly from site to site.
to increase the success of practices, consider the
following: • Take a staged approach to implementation.
Look for opportunities to include green
infrastructure practices in ongoing or planned
PLANNING capital improvements, new development, and
redevelopment. Look for opportunities to
• Consider a watershed approach to planning weave green infrastructure into comprehensive
instead of a plan that only accounts for planning or zoning code updates.
a municipality’s portion of the flooding
or a subwatershed. This will enable a • Include monitoring components to help
comprehensive look at the area’s hydrology. determine if the approach is working.

• Identify a flood storage target, which is the • Several cities use zoning codes to encourage
amount you want to reduce the peak flow of a green infrastructure to reduce runoff in new
certain flood event. The result will be a certain development and redevelopment projects. The
volume of water that needs to be stored using following examples illustrate this point:
either green infrastructure practices or a
combination of green and gray (built) practices. A new discharge permit condition requires
To learn more about estimating a flood storage that the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage
target, see “Select a Flood Reduction Target,” District add green infrastructure to capture
which is Step 3 in the process guide. one million gallons of water annually in the
region. This is the first permit in the country
• Know the community’s characteristics. with a green infrastructure requirement in the
Climate characteristics, for example, include body of the permit. See www.freshcoast740.
precipitation amounts and storm frequencies com/PDF/final/MMSDGIP_Final.pdf.
and intensities. Land use and land cover
considerations include vegetation, current Duluth, Minnesota, just passed a new
zoning, and high-density development. stormwater ordinance that requires post-
Additional areas to consider include development peak flow rates at each
topography, slope, and soil (for instance, discharge point not to exceed 75 percent of
sandy soil tends to have more infiltration and pre-development peak flow rates for 10- and
less runoff, while tight clay tends to have less 100-year events. For a two-year storm, post-
infiltration and more runoff). Community development peak flow rates cannot exceed
interests are also important to consider if 90 percent of the pre-development peak
maximum flood reduction benefits are to be flow rates. And for all storm events, post-
achieved. development peak flow rates cannot exceed
pre-development peak flow rates.
• Account for construction costs such as moving
utilities or reinforcing roofs as well as ongoing
maintenance. PARTNERSHIPS AND FUNDING

• The cost of constructing any green • Use other people’s money. There are many
infrastructure technique is variable and grants available to help with proof-of-concept
depends largely on site conditions and drainage projects. Funding sources can be found
area. For example, if a green infrastructure here at http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/
technique is constructed in very rocky soils, the greeninfrastructure/gi_funding.cfm.
increased excavation costs might substantially
• Build partnerships with universities, non-
profits, homeowner associations, and
other government agencies that have time,
experience, and access to helpful resources.

• Talk to people living in cities such as

Milwaukee, Philadelphia, and Portland who
have been doing comprehensive green
infrastructure strategic planning.

• Start a task force focused on using green

infrastructure to help manage flooding.

Native tree conservation.

MAINTENANCE
• Consider including public works or other
• Note that some practices require more maintenance departments during the planning
extensive maintenance (for instance, and design stages of the project. This ensures
permeable pavers that can become clogged). that staff members understand the function
Maintenance could be worked into existing and long term maintenance requirements and
municipal maintenance activities or into will head off potential conflicts with existing
annual homeowner association fees at a maintenance practices.
neighborhood scale to keep costs down.
• Maintenance costs can range from 1 to 10
percent of the capital or project cost.

CHOOSING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

APPROACHES

• Choose practices that have a longer lifespan to

see a higher return on the investment.

• Tailor green infrastructure approaches to the

type of flooding the community experiences.
For example, some practices such as rain
gardens will not store large quantities of water
created by larger extreme precipitation events.
If large events are the major source of flooding,
an alternative or a mix of approaches should be
considered.

• Maximize the cost-benefit ratio of implementing

green infrastructure by considering economies
of scale, sequencing, leveraging other
infrastructure investments, and mixing and
matching various practices to achieve the
total storage needed. Implementing a green
Rain garden. infrastructure practice in multiple places
Source: South Carolina Department of Natural Resources.
within the community can drive down costs.
SECTION THREE
ESTIMATING STORAGE POTENTIAL AND COSTS
It’s unlikely that just one green infrastructure practice will meet all flood storage needs, so consider
mixing and matching approaches to create the strategy that will best meet the flood storage and
infiltration target.

Cost also is a consideration. Below are rough estimates of what storage could cost for each green
infrastructure practice included in this reference, followed by an example calculation showing how to
determine the cost to meet a flood storage target. The common unit of cubic feet (ft3)* enables you to
compare one green infrastructure practice to another and also estimate how much floodwater storage
that practice can provide.

Green infrastructure practice Cost estimate**

Existing forests and wetlands It depends on value of land, opportunity costs.

Stormwater wetlands Capital cost: $1 to $2 per cubic foot of storage provided.

Blue roofs Capital cost: $2 to $10 per cubic foot of storage provided
($1 to $5 per square foot with a 6” depth).

Green roofs Capital cost is $18 to $64 per cubic foot of storage
provided ($9 to $32 per square foot with a 6’’ depth).

Tree plantings Capital cost: Tree cost is about $175 to $400.

Capital cost is about $270 to $330 per cubic foot of

Tree box filter storage provided (includes tree box filter and additional
soil). Trees are an additional cost.

Permeable pavement Capital cost: For sidewalks, the cost is about $16 to $17
per cubic foot of storage provided.

Bioretention (bioswales, rain Capital cost is about $7 to $60 per cubic foot of storage
gardens) provided (depending on the type of bioretention).

Capital cost is about $7 to $13 per cubic foot of storage

Rain barrels provided. An average rain barrel holds about 55 gallons
or 7.3 cubic feet.

*A cubic foot of storage is about 7.5 gallons of water.

**The cost estimates do not account for construction costs or maintenance. Maintenance
estimates can be found on the Center for Neighborhood Technology Green Values Calculator
cost details sheet, where information is provided in costs per square foot of storage
(http://greenvalues.cnt.org/national/cost_detail.php).
EXAMPLE

A community has a goal to reduce the peak discharge from the one-percent annual chance flood by
10 percent. This means they need to find 1,307,000 cubic feet (30 acre-feet***) of flood storage. The
urban community is considering commercial rooftop space to help store water. They are interested
in using blue roofs, which cost about $6 per cubic foot of storage. To estimate the storage potential
of the commercial rooftops and what it could cost to obtain that storage, the following calculations
were used.

Commercial rooftop dimensions:

Area: 2,500,000 ft2 of commercial rooftops in the watershed

Depth: 6 inches (0.5 ft)

Coverage: Assume 75 percent of roofs could be retrofitted with blue roofs

1. Calculate total storage volume

(area of rooftop space) x (depth) x (percentage of roof used) = volume

For example: 2,500,000 ft2 X 0.5 ft X 0.75 = 937,500 ft3

2. Estimate cost per cubic foot of storage

(blue roof volume) x (unit cost of blue roof) = cost of storage

For example: 937,500 ft3 x $6.00/ft3 = $5,625,000

RESULTS

To obtain 938,000 cubic feet (ft3) (or 21 acre-feet) of storage using blue roofs, it would cost about $5.6
million; with full implementation of blue roofs, this community would have fulfilled 70 percent of their
flood storage target with this one practice.

***An acre foot is a unit of volume used in reference to large-scale water resources such as reservoirs
and river flows. It is the volume of water that covers one acre, one foot deep. It equals 43,560 cubic
feet, or 325,851 gallons.
SECTION FOUR
FOR MORE INFORMATION
The following resources provide greater detail regarding green infrastructure practices; the first two
represent the primary sources for this document.

Economic Assessment of Green Infrastructure Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation: Pilot Studies in
the Great Lakes Region – http://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/publications/climate-change-adaptation-pilot.
Document provides additional supporting information and sources and was the basis for this quick
reference.

The National Green Values – Calculator – http://greenvalues.cnt.org/national/calculator.php. This

tool quickly compares the performance, costs, and benefits of green infrastructure (or low impact
development) to conventional stormwater practices.

National Low Impact Development Atlas – http://lidmap.uconn.edu/index_original.php. The atlas

provides examples of on-the-ground green infrastructure throughout the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency’s Green Infrastructure for Resiliency Website – http://water.epa.gov/

infrastructure/greeninfrastructure/climate_res.cfm. This website provides information and resources for
implementing green infrastructure to improve resilience.

Best Management Practices Construction Costs, Maintenance Costs, and Land Requirements –
www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/view-document.html?gid=17.134

Stormwater wetland. Source: Alisa Goldstein.

NOAA OFFICE FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT
2015