Steam generators

Introduction

● In simple a boiler may be defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from
water by combustion of fuel.
● According to American Society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.) a ‘steam generating
unit’ is defined as :
“A combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing or recovering heat together
with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made available to the fluid being
heated and vaporized.”

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The steam generated is employed for the following purposes :
i. For generating power in steam engines or steam turbines.
ii. In the textile industries for sizing and bleaching etc. and many other industries like
sugar mills; chemical industries.
iii. For heating the buildings in cold weather and for producing hot water for hot water
supply.

The Primary requirements of steam generators or boilers are :

i. The water must be contained safely.
ii. The steam must be safely delivered in desired condition (as regards its pressure,
temperature, quality and required rate).

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Classification of boiler

The boilers may be classified as follows :

1. Horizontal, vertical or inclined
If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal, if the axis is vertical, it is
called vertical boiler and if the axis is inclined it is known as inclined boiler. The parts of a
horizontal boiler can be inspected and repaired easily but it occupies more space. The vertical
boiler occupies less floor area.
2. Fire tube and water tube
In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes.
Examples :
Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them.
Examples : Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc.
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Classification of boiler
3. Externally fired and internally fired
• The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell.
Examples: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler etc.
• In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell.
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.
4. Forced circulation and natural circulation
• In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump.
Examples: Velox, Lamont, Benson boiler etc.
• In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural
convention currents produced by the application of heat.
Examples :Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.

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Classification of boiler

5. High pressure and low-pressure boilers

• The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high pressure
boilers.
Examples : Babcock and Wilcox, Velox, Lamont, Benson boilers.
• The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
Examples: Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
6. Stationary and portable
Primarily, the boilers are classified as either stationary (land) or mobile (marine and locomotive).
• Stationary boilers are used for power plant steam, for central station utility power plants, for plant
process steam etc.
• Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for temporary
use at sites (just as in small coalfield pits).
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7. Single-tube and multi-tube boilers
• The fire tube boilers are classified as single-tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the fire tube is one or more than one.
• The examples of the former type are Cornish, simple vertical boiler and rest of the boilers
are multi-tube boilers

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Comparison between ‘Fire-tube and Water-tube’ Boilers

S. No Particulars Fire-tube boilers Water-tube boilers

1. Position of water and hot Hot gases inside the tubes and Water Water inside the tubes and hot water
gases inside the tubes and hot water outside outside the tubes. gases outside the
the tubes. gases outside the tubes. tubes.
2. Mode of firing Generally internally fired. Externally fired.
Operating pressure Operating pressure limited Can work Can work under as high
under as high to 16 bar. pressure as 100 bar.
to 16 bar.
4. Rate of steam production Lower Higher.
5. Suitability Not suitable for large power Suitable for Suitable for large power
large power plants. plants.
plants.
6. Risk on bursting Involves lesser risk on explosion Involves more risk on bursting
Involves more risk on bursting due to lower pressure. due to high
due to lower pressure. pressure.
7. Floor area For a given power it occupies For a For a given power it
given power it more floor area. occupies less floor-
more floor area. area.
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Comparison between ‘Fire-tube and Water-tube’ Boilers

S. No Particulars Fire-tube boilers Water-tube boilers

8. Construction Difficult Simple
9. Transportation Difficult Simple
10. Shell diameter Large for same power Small for same power
11. Chances of explosion Less More
12. Treatment of water Not so necessary More necessary
13. Accessibility of various parts Various parts not so easily Various Various parts are more
parts are more accessible for accessible for cleaning, repair
cleaning, repair accessible and accessible.
inspection.
14. Requirement of skill Require less skill for efficient Require Require more skill and careful
more skill and careful and economic working. attention.
and economic working.

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Selection of a Boiler
While selecting a boiler the following factors should be considered :
1. The working pressure and quality of steam required (i.e., whether wet or dry or superheated).
2. Steam generation rate.
3. Floor-area available.
4. Accessibility for repair and inspection.
5. Comparative initial cost.
6. Erection facilities.
7. The probable load factor.
8. The fuel and water available.
9. Operating and maintenance costs.

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Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler
A good boiler should possess the following features :
1. The boiler should produce the maximum weight of steam of the required quality at minimum
expenses.
2. Steam production rate should be as per requirements.
3. It should be absolutely reliable.
4. It should occupy minimum space.
5. It should be light in weight.
6. It should be capable of quick starting.
7. There should be an easy access to the various parts of the boiler for repairs and inspection.
8. The boiler components should be transportable without difficulty.
9. The installation of the boiler should be simple.

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Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler

10. The tubes of the boiler should not accumulate soot or water deposits and should be
sufficiently strong to allow for wear and corrosion.
11. The water and gas circuits should be such as to allow minimum fluid velocity (for low
frictional losses).

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Boiler Terms
Shell:
• The shell of a boiler consists of one or more steel plates bent into a cylindrical form and riveted or
welded together. The shell ends are closed with the end plates.
Setting:
• The primary function of setting is to confine heat to the boiler and form a passage for gases. It is
made of brickwork and may form the wall of the furnace and the combustion chamber. It also
provides support in some types of boilers (e.g., Lancashire boilers).
Grate:
• It is the platform in the furnace upon which fuel is burnt and it is made of cast iron bars. The bars are
so arranged that air may pass on to the fuel for combustion.
• The area of the grate on which the fire rests in a coal or wood fired boiler is called grate surface.

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Furnace:
• It is a chamber formed by the space above the grate and below the boiler shell, in which
combustion takes place. It is also called a fire box.
Water space and steam space:
• The volume of the shell that is occupied by the water is termed water space while the entire shell
volume less the water and tubes (if any) space is called steam space.
Mountings:
• The items such as stop valve, safety valves, water level gauges, fusible plug, blow-off cock,
pressure gauges, water level indicator etc. are termed as mountings and a boiler cannot work
safely without them.
Accessories:
• The items such as superheaters, economisers, feed pumps etc. are termed as accessories and
they form integral part of the boiler. They increase the efficiency of the boiler.
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Water level:
• The level at which water stands in the boiler is called water level. The space above the water level
is called steam space.
Foaming:
• Formation of steam bubbles on the surface of boiler water due to high surface tension of the water.
Scale:
• A deposit of medium to extreme hardness occurring on water heating surfaces of a boiler because
of an undesirable condition in the boiler water.
Blowing off:
• The removal of the mud and other impurities of water from the lowest part of the boiler (where they
usually settle) is termed as ‘blowing off’. This is accomplished with the help of a blow off cock or
valve.

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Lagging:
• Blocks of asbestos or magnesia insulation wrapped on the outside of a boiler shell or steam
piping.
Refractory:
• A heat insulation material, such as fire brick or plastic fire clay, used for such purposes as lining
combustion chambers.

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Fire Tube Boilers
The various fire tube boilers are described as follows:
Simple vertical boiler
• It consists of a cylindrical shell, the greater portion of which is
full of water (which surrounds the fire box also) and
remaining is the steam space. At the bottom of the fire box is
grate on which fuel is burnt and the ash from it falls in the ash
pit.
• The rate of production in such a boiler normally does not
exceed 2500 kg/h and pressure is normally limited to 7.5 to
10 bar.
• A simple vertical boiler is self-contained and can be
transported easily.
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18
Advantages of Simple Vertical Boiler Disadvantages of Simple Vertical Boiler
The following are the advantages of a simple vertical The following are the disadvantages of simple vertical
boiler: boiler:
1. The initial cost is low because of fewer parts. 1. The vertical design of this boiler limits its work in many
2. Maintenance cost is low. places.
3. Working is simple. 2. Steam production is limited because of the limited
4. It is easy to install and replace. great area.
5. It occupies a small space on the ground. 3. The impurities settle at the bottom and thus prevents
6. These type of boilers have water level tolerance. the water from heating up.
4. The boiler tube should be kept small to reduce height.
As a result, most of the available heat is lost through
the chimney, as the tubes have very little time to heat.

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Application of Simple Vertical Boiler

The following are the application of a simple vertical boiler:

1. Simple vertical boilers may have applications in railway locomotives, for example, a railway

steam engine.

2. Simple vertical boilers are employed in road vehicles such as steam wagons or steam lorry.

3. The simple vertical boiler has a very well known application that is a steam tractor.

4. The number of boats is particularly small which uses simple vertical boilers to power the engine.

5. In some parts of the world ordinary vertical boilers are used in the steam donkey.

6. Simple vertical boilers are also worked in steam cranes and steam shovels.

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• A steam donkey or donkey engine is a steam-powered
winch once widely used in logging, mining, maritime,
and other industrial applications.
• To transport logs from the forest to the railroad tracks
(where they would then be loaded onto train cars and
transported to the mill to be made into lumber) at the
same time that horses were used.
• A steam shovel is a large steam-powered excavating
machine designed for lifting and moving material such
as rock and soil.
• A steam crane is a crane powered by a steam engine.
It may be fixed or mobile and, if mobile, it may run on
rail tracks, caterpillar tracks, road wheels.

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Cochran boiler

• Cochran boiler is a vertical, multi-tube boiler generally used

for small capacity steam generation.
• The Cochran boiler is made in different sizes of evaporative
capacities ranging from 150 to 3000 kg per hour and working
pressure up to 15 bar.
• The Cochran boiler consists of an external cylindrical shell
and a firebox.
• The shell and firebox are both hemispherical, the
hemispherical crown of the boiler shell gives maximum space
and strength to withstand the pressure of steam inside the
boiler.
• The hemispherical crown of the firebox is also advantageous
for resisting intense heat.
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Technical details of the Cochran Boiler

Shell diameter = 2.75 m

Height = 5.79 m
Working pressure = 6.5 bar (max. pressure = 15 bar)
Steam capacity = 3500 kg/h (max. capacity = 4000 kg/h)
Heating surface = 120 m2
Efficiency = 70 to 75% (depending on the fuel used)

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Applications of Cochran Boiler

Following are the applications of Cochran boiler:

1. These types of boilers are used in various industries to perform process applications.
2. Cochran boilers are also employed in chemical processing divisions.
3. They are also installed in pulp and paper manufacturing plants.
4. Most of the time they are applied on purifying units.
5. They are often employed in power generation plants where large amounts of steam need to
be produced.

Cochrane boilers are employed in power generation plants where there is a large volume of steam (500 kg/s.)
with a pressure higher than about 160 bar and higher temperatures reach 550°C. Most of the time, they are
employed in refining units.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler

Advantages Disadvantage
1. Low initial installation cost. 1. Low rate of steam generation.
2. It requires less floor area. 2. Inspection and maintenance are difficult.
3. Easy to operate and handle. 3. High room head is needed for its installation due
4. Transportation of Cochran boiler is easy. to the vertical design.
5. It can use all types of fuel. 4. It has a limited pressure range.

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Cornish Boiler

• It consists of a cylindrical shell with flat ends

through which passes a smaller flue tube
containing the furnace.
• The products of combustion pass from the fire
grate forward over the brickwork bridge to the
end of the furnace tube; they then return by the
two side flues to the front end of the boiler, and
again pass to the back end of a flue along the
The specifications of Cornish Boiler are given below:
bottom of the boiler to the chimney. No. of flue tube = 1
Diameter of the shell = 1.25 to 1.75 m
Length of the shell = 4 to 7 m
Pressure of the steam = 10.5 bar
Steam capacity = 6500 kg/h. 27
28
Advantages of Cornish Boiler: Disadvantages of Cornish Boiler:
• Due to its simple design and easy construction, it is • The rate of steam production i.e. 1350 kg/hour is
easy to operate. very low, so it can’t be used in large power plants.
• Cornish boilers are portable and small due to which it • Pressure is low in Cornish boilers so it is less
becomes easy to install it. efficient than other boilers.
• The cost of maintenance is low. A maintenance check • If by chance, the boiler bursts it can lead to a lot of
is required only once or twice a year. damage
• The chances of an explosion of the boiler are very less • It requires more floor area.
due to low pressure. • The circulation of water is not in a definite
direction.

• Applications of Cornish Boiler

• It is used in textile, chemical, and paper industries also Used in
laboratories and at marine.
• Used to produce steam to run steam turbines.
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Lancashire boiler

• This boiler is reliable, has simplicity of design, ease of operation and less operating and
maintenance costs.
• It is commonly used in sugar-mills and textile industries where along with the power steam and
steam for the process work is also needed.
• In addition, this boiler is used where larger reserve of water and steam are needed.
• Lancashire boiler works on the principle of the heat exchanger. The heat is a transfer from
exhaust gases to the water through convection. It is a natural circulation boiler that uses natural
current to flow the water inside the boiler.
• It is basically a shell and tube type heat exchanger in which the exhaust gases flow through the
tubes and the water flows through the shell.

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The specifications of Lancashire boiler are given below :
Diameter of the shell = 2 to 3 m
Diameter of the shell = 7 to 9 m
Maximum working pressure = 16 bar
Steam capacity = 9000 kg/h
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Efficiency = 50 to 70%
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• The Lancashire boiler consists of a cylindrical shell inside which two large tubes are placed. The
shell is constructed with several rings of cylindrical from and it is placed horizontally over a
brickwork which forms several channels for the flow of hot gases.
• These two tubes are also constructed with several rings of cylindrical form. They pass from one
end of the shell to the other and are covered with water.
• The furnace is placed at the front end of each tube and they are known as furnace tubes. The
coal is introduced through the fire hole into the grate.
• There is low brickwork fire bridge at the back of the gate to prevent the entry of the burning coal
and ashes into the interior of the furnace tubes.

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• The combustion products from the grate pass up to the back end of the furnace tubes and then
in downward direction.
• Thereafter they move through the bottom channel or bottom flue up to the front end of the boiler
where they are divided and pass up to the side flues. Now they move along the two side flues
and come to the chimney flue from where they lead to the chimney.
• To control the flow of hot gases to the chimney, dampers (in the form of sliding doors) are
provided. As a result the flow of air to the grate can be controlled.

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Advantages of Lancashire Boiler
• Cleaning and inspection can be done easily.
• It is more reliable and can generate a large amount of steam.
• It required less maintenance.
• This boiler is a natural circulation boiler so lower electricity consumption than others.
• It can easily operate.
• It can easily meet with the load requirement.
• Lancashire boiler has a high thermal efficiency of about 80-90%.
Disadvantages of Lancashire Boiler
• This boiler required more floor space.
• This boiler has a leakage problem.
• It requires more time to generate steam.
• It cannot generate high-pressure steam if required.
• Grates are situated at the inlet of fire tube, which has a small diameter. So the grate area is small in this
boiler. 35
Application of Lancashire Boiler

• Lancashire boilers are employed to operate steam turbines, locomotives, marines etc.

• The Lancashire boiler used in several industries like paper industry, textile industry, sugar industry, tire

industry etc.

Notes:

• In Cornish and Lancashire boilers, conical shaped cross tubes known as galloway tubes (not shown)
may be fitted inside the furnace tubes to increase their heating surfaces and circulation of water.
• But these tubes have now become absolute for their considerable cost of fitting. Moreover, they cool
the furnace gases and retard combustion.

36
Locomotive boilers Dimensions and the specifications of the locomotives
• It is mainly employed in locomotives though it boilers (made at Chitranjan works in India) are given
may also be used as a stationary boiler. It is below :
compact and its capacity for steam production is • Barrel diameter = 2.095 m
quite high for its size as it can raise large quantity • Length of the barrel = 5.206 m
of steam rapidly. • Size of the tubes (superheater) =14 cm
• No. of superheater tubes = 38
• Size of ordinary tubes = 5.72 cm
• No. of ordinary tubes =116
• Steam capacity = 9000 kg/h
• Working pressure =14 bar
• Grate area = 4.27 m2
• Coal burnt/h =1600 kg
• Heating surface = 271 m2
• Efficiency = 70% 37
38
In this boiler natural draught cannot be obtained because it requires a very high chimney which
cannot be provided on a locomotive boiler since it has to run on rails.
A locomotive boiler entails the following merits and demerits :
Merits : Demerits :
1. High steam capacity. 1. There are chances to corrosion and scale formation in the
2. Low cost of construction. water legs due to the accumulation of sediments and the mud
3. Portability. particles.
4. Low installation cost. 2. It is difficult to clean some water spaces.
5. Compact 3. Large flat surfaces need bracing.
4. It cannot carry high overloads without being damaged by
overheating.
5. There are practical constructional limits for pressure and
capacity which do not meet requirements. 39
Water Tube Boilers
• Water tubes have high pressures and capacity than shell and tube boilers. These boilers can be of single- or
multiple-drum type.
• A water tube boiler is such kind of boiler where the water is heated inside tubes and the hot gasses surround
them. This is the basic definition of water tube boiler. Actually this boiler is just opposite of fire tube boiler
where hot gasses are passed through tubes which are surrounded by water.

Longitudinal Two drum

Horizontal
straight tube
Drum Three drum

Water tube
boilers Low head
Bend tube Four drum
three drum

Cyclone fired
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Advantages of Water Tube Boiler

There are many advantages of water tube boiler due to which these types of boiler are essentially
used in large thermal power station.
• Larger heating surface can be achieved by using more numbers of water tubes.
• Due to convectional flow, movement of water is much faster than that of fire tube boiler,
hence rate of heat transfer is high which results into higher efficiency.
• Very high pressure in order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained smoothly.

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Babcock and Wilcox water tube boiler
• The water tube boilers are used exclusively, when pressure above 10 bar and capacity in excess
of 7000 kg of steam per hour is required.
• Babcock and Wilcox water tube boiler is an example of horizontal straight tube boiler and may be
designed for stationary or marine purposes.

The particulars (dimensions, capacity etc.) relating to this boiler are given below :
Diameter of the drum =1.22 to 1.83 m
Length = 6.096 to 9.144 m
Size of the water tubes = 7.62 to 10.16 cm
Size of superheater tubes = 3.84 to 5.71 cm
Working pressure = 40 bar (max.)
Steaming capacity = 40000 kg/h (max.)
Efficiency = 60 to 80%
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44
Working of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

• Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door and is burnt. The hot exhaust gases expand upward
and pass across the left side of the water tubes.
• The baffles deflect the flue gases and hence the flue gases travel in a zig-zag manner over the
water tubes and along with the superheater. The exhaust gases leave the atmosphere through
the chimney.
• The portion of the water tubes, which is just above the furnace, is heated comparatively to a
higher temperature than the rest of it.
• The boiler is fitted with the necessary mountings for safe operation. The water level indicator and
pressure gauge are attached to the boiler at its left end. The stop valve and steam safety valve
are mounted on the upper side of the drum. Blow-off cock is provided for the periodical removal
of mud and sediments collected in the mud box.
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Working of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

• Water rises into the drum through the uptake header. Here the steam and water are distributed
in the drum.
• Steam, which lighter is being collected in the upper part of the drum. The water from the drum
comes down through the down header into the water tubes.
• Continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and vice versa is thus
maintained.
• The circulation of water is maintained by convective currents and is known as “nature
circulation”.
• Steam is taken from the steam space through tubes to the superheater. Steam is superheated in
the superheater.

46
Advantages of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Following are the advantages of Babcock and Wilcox boiler:

1. This boiler produces steam up to 2,000 to 40,000 kg/hr.
2. It takes less space as compared to other boilers.
3. Boiler tubes can be easily replaced.
4. It is the only boiler that is used to produce a huge quantity of heat in power plants.
5. In this boiler, the draught loss is low.
6. It can be easily repaired and cleaned.
7. High overall efficiency.

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Disadvantages of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Following are the disadvantages of Babcock and Wilcox boiler:

1. Large maintenance cost.
2. It is not suitable for impure and sedimentary water. In the case of impure and sedimentary
water, the scale may accumulate in the tubes and this causes the tubes to overheat and
burst. The water treatment is necessary before feeding in a boiler.
3. A continuous feedwater supply is needed to work. If continuous water is not supplied even for
a small duration of time, in this case, the boiler is overheated. The water level must be strictly
observed during the process of the Babcock and Wilcox boilers.

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High Pressure Boilers

• In applications where steam is needed at pressure, 30 bar, and individual boilers are required to
raise less than about 30,000 kg of steam per hour, shell boilers are considerably cheaper than the
water tube boilers.
• Above these limits, shell boilers (generally factory built) are difficult to transport if not impossible.
There are no such limits to water tube boilers.
• These can be site erected from easily transportable parts, and moreover the pressure parts are of
smaller diameter and therefore can be thinner.

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High Pressure Boilers

• The geometry can be varied to suit a wide range of situations and furnace is not limited to
cylindrical form.
• Therefore, water tube boilers are generally preferred for high pressure and high output,
whereas, shell boilers for low pressure and low output.
• The modern high pressure boilers employed for power generation are for steam capacities
30 to 650 tonnes/h and above with a pressure up to 160 bar and maximum steam
temperature of about 540°C.

50
Unique features of the high pressure boilers

Following are the unique features of high pressure boilers :

1. Method of water circulation
2. Type of tubing
3. Improved method of heating.

51
Method of water circulation
• The circulation of water through the boiler may be natural circulation due to density difference or
forced circulation.
• In all modern high pressure boiler plants, the water circulation is maintained with the help of pump
which forces the water through the boiler plant.
• The use of natural circulation is limited to sub-critical boilers due to its limitations.
Type of tubing
• In most of the high pressure boilers, the water circulated through the tubes and their external
surfaces are exposed to the flue gases. In water tube boilers, if the flow takes place through one
continuous tube, the large pressure drop takes place due to friction.
• This is considerably reduced by arranging the flow to pass through parallel system of tubing. In
most of the cases, several sets of the tubing are used.
• This type of arrangement helps to reduce the pressure loss, and better control over the quality of
the steam. 52
Improved method of heating

The following improved methods of heating may be used to increase the heat transfer :
(i) The saving of heat by evaporation of water above critical pressure of the steam.
(ii) The heating of water can be made by mixing the superheated steam. The mixing phenomenon
gives highest heat transfer co-efficient.
(iii) The overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased by increasing the water velocity inside
the tube and increasing the gas velocity above sonic velocity

53
Advantages of high pressure boilers
The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers :
1. In high pressure boilers pumps are used to maintain forced circulation of water through the tubes
of the boiler. This ensures positive circulation of water and increases evaporative capacity of the
boiler and less number of steam drums will be required.
2. The heat of combustion is utilised more efficiently by the use of small diameter tubes in large
number and in multiple circuits.
3. Pressurised combustion is used which increases rate of firing of fuel thus increasing the rate of
heat release.
4. Due to compactness less floor space is required.
5. The tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to high velocity of water through the tubes.
6. All the parts are uniformly heated, therefore, the danger of overheating is reduced and thermal
7. Stress problem is simplified.
54
Advantages of high pressure boilers

8. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the possibility
of gas and air leakages.
9. The components can be arranged horizontally as high head required for natural circulation is
eliminated using forced circulation. There is a greater flexibility in the components arrangement.
10. The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without the use of
complicated control devices.
11. The efficiency of plant is increased up to 40 to 42 per cent by using high pressure and high
temperature steam.
12. A very rapid start from cold is possible if an external supply of power is available. Hence, the
boiler can be used for carrying peak loads or standby purposes with hydraulic station.
13. Use of high pressure and high temperature steam is economical.

55
La Mont boiler
• This boiler works on a forced circulation and the circulation is maintained by a centrifugal pump,
driven by a steam turbine using steam from the boiler. For emergency, an electrically driven
pump is also fitted.
• The feed water from the hot well is supplied to the storage and separating drum (boiler) through
the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feedwater passing through the
evaporator tubes and the part of the vapor is separated in the separator drum.
• The forced circulation causes a weight of feed water to circulate through the water walls and
drums equal to 10 times the weight of steam evaporated. This prevents the tubes from being
overheated.
• It is then moved to the circulating pump over the tube. The centrifugal pump delivers the water to
the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute
the water through the nozzle into the generating tubes acting in parallel to the evaporator.
56
• The water and steam from these tubes pass into the
drum.
• Now, the steam is separated in the boiler is further
passed through the superheater where the steam is
superheated.
• Superheater improves the steam temperature to the
desired level.
• Finally, the superheated steam transfers to either a
steam collecting drum or supplied to the prime
mover for power generation.
• The working pressure, temperature, and capacity of
this boiler are maybe 170 bar, 773 K, and 50
ton/hour.
57
58
Features of Lamont Boiler
1. An advanced steam circulation and water circulation system exist.
2. It has excellent tubing process.
3. The boiler has an advance heating process.
Advantages of Lamont Boiler
1. This boiler can be started easily.
2. It transfers the heat at a higher rate.
3. The Lamont boiler has a high steam generation capacity of about 50 tons/hour.
4. It can be easily reassembled with the natural circulation boiler.
5. Simple in design.
6. It is a high-pressure boiler.
Disadvantages of Lamont Boiler
1. The bubbles are formed on the surfaces of the tubes in this boiler.
2. This decreases the heat transfer rate for steam. 59
Benson boiler
• In the LaMont boiler, the main difficult experienced is
the formation and attachment of bubbles on the inner
surfaces of the heating tubes.
• The attached bubbles to the tube surfaces reduce
the heat flow and steam generation as it offers high
thermal resistance than water film.
• Benson in 1922 claimed that if the boiler pressure
was raised to critical pressure (225 atm.), the steam
and water have the same density and therefore, the
danger of bubble formation can be easily eliminated.
• The first high pressure Benson boiler was put into
operation in 1927 in West Germany.

60
• This boiler too makes use of forced circulation and uses oil as fuel.
• It chief novel principle is that it eliminates the latent heat of water by first compressing the feed to
a pressure of 235 bar, it is then above the critical pressure and its latent heat is zero. It directly
changes into steam without boiling and this prevents the formation of bubbles at the tube surface.
Working of Benson Boiler
• In Benson Boiler, the feed pump increases the pressure of the water to the supercritical pressure,
and then it enters the economiser.
• From economiser, the water passes to the radiant heater. Here the water receives the heat
through radiation and partly gets converted into steam. The temperature raises almost to the
supercritical temperature.
• After that mixture of steam and water enters convective evaporator where it is completely
converted into steam and may superheated to some degree. Finally it is passed through the
superheater to obtained the desired superheated steam.
• This superheated steam is then used by turbines or engines to produce electricity. 61
The supercritical condition of a steam-water cycle is
a state at which its temperature and pressure are
above its thermodynamic critical point, where the
pressure of the steam water is 22.12 MPa, the
temperature is 647.14 K, and the density is 324.

62
Advantages of a Benson Boiler:
The Benson boiler possesses the following advantages :
1. It can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area.
2. The total weight of a Benson boiler is 20% less than other boilers, since there are no drums. This
also reduces the cost of the boiler.
3. It can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
4. Natural convection boilers require expansion joints, but these are not required for Benson boiler as
the pipes are welded.
5. The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using smaller diameter and
closed pitched tubes.
6. The transfer of parts of the boiler is easy as no drums are required, and majority of the parts are
carried to the site without pre-assembly.

63
Advantages of a Benson Boiler:

7. It can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and pressure at part loads and
overloads. The desired temperature can also be maintained constant at any pressure.
8. The blow-down losses of the boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation boiler of the same capacity.
9. Explosion hazards are not severe as it consists of only tubes of small diameter and has very little
storage capacity.
10.The superheater in a Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation system, therefore, no
special starting arrangement for superheater is required.
Application
• This supercritical boiler is used in different industries to generate steam for the production of
electricity or mechanical power.
• The average operating pressure, temperature and capacity of Benson boiler is 650°C, 250 bar and
135 tonnes/h.
64
 Velox boiler
• It is a well known fact that when the gas
velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the
heat is transferred from the gas at higher
rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow.
• The advantage of this theory is taken to
effect the large heat transfer from a smaller
surface area in this boiler.
• This boiler makes use of pressurised
combustion.
• The gas turbine drives the axial flow
compressor which raises the incoming air
from atmosphere pressure to furnace
pressure.
65
• The combustion gases after heating the water and steam flow through the gas turbine to the
atmosphere.
• The feed water after passing through the economiser is pumped by a water circulating pump to
the tube evaporating section.
• Steam separated in steam separating section flows to the superheater, from there it moves to the
prime mover.
• The size of the Velox boiler is limited to 100 tonnes/h because 600 B.H.P. is required to run the
air compressor at this output.
• The power developed by the gas turbine is not sufficient to run the compressor and therefore,
some power from external source power must be supplied.

66
Advantages:
1. The boiler is very compact and has greater flexibility.
2. Very high combustion rates are possible.
3. It can be quickly started.
4. Low excess air is required as the pressurised air is used and the problem of draught is
simplified.

67
 Mountings and Accessories
The boiler mountings
• Fittings are mounted on the boiler for its proper functioning. Mountings are water level indicator,
safety valve, pressure gauge, etc.
• It may be noted that a boiler cannot function safely without the mountings.

The boiler accessories

• Accessories are the devices, which form an integral part of a boiler but are not mounted on it.
• They include Superheater, Economiser, Feed pump etc. It may be noted the accessories help in
controlling and running the boiler efficiently.

68
Boiler Mountings
Following are the important boiler mountings:
1. Water level indicator
2. Pressure gauge
3. Safety valve
4. Stop valve
5. Blow off
6. Feed check valve
7. Fusible plug

69
In a boiler house one of the important readings is the level of water. The water level should be
measured in all boilers all the times. Out of several methods available for determining the levels, some
of them are as follows :
1. By sight glass
2. Cable and float
3. By hydrostatic pressure
4. By float and hydraulic pressure
5. By strain gauges
6. By radiation absorption gauges

70
Water Level Indicator
It is an main fitting in the boiler, Water level indicator indicates the
water level inside the boiler. It is a safety device upon which safe
working of the boiler depends.
Working Principle
• Water-tube indicator the water consists of a vertical hard glass
tube G which is fitted with two gunmetal tubes A and B. The tubes
A connects the steam space of the boiler with the glass tube and
the tube B connects the water space of the boiler with the glass
tube.
• The tube A is provided with a valve ‘S’, called a steam valve, and
tube B is fitted with another valve ‘W’, called a water valve. In
addition to these valves, a third valve D, called drain valve, is
fitted to the water level indicator through which water together
with condensed steam from the gunmetal tube A is drained from
71
time to time.
Pressure Gauge
Pressure gauges are used to measure the pressure of steam
inside a steam boiler. The pressure gauge is fixed in front of a
steam boiler.

72
BOURDON TUBE
A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube of non circular that is open to external
pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other
end, as shown schematically below.
Tube of Non-circular cross section

Applied force attempt to attain a circular cross section.

Types: C, Spiral and Helical

73
Safety valves
• These are the devices attached in the steam boiler for
preventing explosions due to excessive internal pressure of
steam.
The safety valve is an instrument which prevents the boiler pressure
from rising above its normal working pressure by automatically
opening when the boiler pressure exceeds the normal working
pressure,
Thus allowing excess steam to escape into the atmosphere until the
pressure comes down to its normal valve.
Thus, a safety valve ensures safety to a boiler from being damaged
due to excessive steam pressure.
The safety valves commonly used are:
1.Deadweight safety valve,
2.Lever safety valve,
3.Spring-loaded safety valve, 74
75
Steam stop valve

• The function of a stop valve is to control the flow of the

steam from within the boiler and to stop it completely
when required.
• A stop valve or junction valve is used to regulate the flow
of steam from the boiler.
• The valves mounted on the boilers, which change the
direction of flow of steam by 90° are called junction
valves, while valves fitted in pipelines which allowing the
steam in the same direction are called stop valve.

76
77
Blow-off Valve
• The function of a blow-off valve is to remove periodically
the sediments deposited at the bottom of the boiler
while the boiler is in operation and to empty the boiler
while it is being cleaned or inspected.
• When the blow-off valve is opened the water which is
under the pressure of steam, rushes out with
tremendous velocity thus carrying out the sediments
along with it.

78
Boiler Accessories

Accessories are the auxiliary plants required for steam boilers for their proper operation and for the
increase of their efficiency.

79
Feed Pumps
• The feed pump is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the boiler. It is desirable that the
quantity of water supplied should be at least equal to that evaporated and supplied to the engine.
• Two types of pumps which are commonly used as feed pumps are: (i) Reciprocating pump, and
(ii) Rotary pump.
• The reciprocating pump consists of a pump cylinder and a piston. Inside the cylinder reciprocates a
piston which displaces water. The reciprocating pump may be of two types :
1. Single-acting pump
2. Double-acting pump.
• In a single-acting pump the water is displaced by one side of the piston only and so the water is
discharged in alternate strokes. In a double-acting pump, the water is discharged in each stroke of
the piston since the water is displaced by both the sides of the piston.
• The reciprocating feed pumps are continuously run by steam from the same boiler to which water is
to be fed.
80
Duplex direct acting steam pump operation

• Figure shows a duplex direct acting steam pump. Here there are two single steam cylinders
placed side by side. Slide valves distribute the steam in each cylinder.
• The slide valve in each cylinder steam chest is operated by the crosshead on the piston rod of the
opposite cylinder, through an arrangement of rods and rocker arms.
• The feed pump is generally double-acting. On each side of the pump plunger there are suction
and discharge valves.
• The pumps work alternately and consequently continuous flow of water is maintained. Double
feed pump is commonly employed for medium size boilers.
• Rotary feed pumps are of centrifugal type and are commonly run either by a small steam turbine
or by an electric motor.
• A rotary pump consists of a casing and a rotating element known as impeller which is fitted over a
shaft. It utilises the centrifugal force of the rotating impeller for pumping the liquid from one place
to the other. 81
82
83
Injector

• The function of an injector is to feed water into the boiler. It is commonly employed for vertical
and locomotive boilers and does not find its application in large capacity high pressure boilers.
• It is also used where the space is not available for the installation of a feed pump.
• In an injector the water is delivered to the boiler by steam pressure; the kinetic energy of steam
is used to increase the pressure and velocity of the feed water.

84
Advantages of an injector: Disadvantages:
1. Low initial cost. 1. Pumping efficiency is low.
2. Simplicity. 2. It cannot force very hot water.
3. Compactness. 3. Irregularity of operation under extreme variation in
4. Absence of dynamic parts. steam pressure.
5. Thermal efficiency very high (about 99%).
6. Ease of operation.

• An injector is more efficient than a feed pump because all the heat in the operating steam is returned to boiler

and in addition to performing the work of a pump, the injector acts as a feed water heater.

• But when a large quantity of feed water is involved (e.g. marine and large installations) feed pumps are

employed because they have greater reliability and require lesser amount of attention.

85
 Economiser

• An Economiser is a device in which the waste

heat of the flue gases is utilised for heating the
feed water.
• Economiser are of the two types: (i) Independent
type, and (ii) Integral type.
• Former is installed in chamber apart from the
boiler setting.
• The chamber is situated at the passage of the
flow of the flue gases from the boiler or boiler to
the chimney.
• Latter is a part of the boiler heating surface and
is installed within the boiler setting.
86
The use of an economiser entails the following
advantages :
1. The temperature range between various parts of
the boiler is reduced which results in reduction of
stresses due to unequal expansion.
2. If the boiler is fed with cold water it may result in
chilling the boiler metal. Hot feed water checks it.
3. Evaporative capacity of the boiler is increased. By-pass arrangement of flues

4. Overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

87
Air Preheater
• The function of the air preheater is to increase the temperature of
air before it enters the furnace. It is generally placed after the
economiser; so the flue gases pass through the economiser and
then to the air preheater.
• An air preheater consists of plates or tubes with hot gases on one
side and air on the other. It preheats the air to be supplied to the
furnace. Preheated air accelerates the combustion and facilitates
the burning of coal.
Degree of preheating depends on:
(i) Type of fuel, (ii) Type of fuel burning equipment, and
(iii) Rating at which the boiler and furnace are operated.
There are three types of air preheaters:
1. Tubular type
2. Plate type
88
3. Storage type.
• Finally the gases escape to the atmosphere through
the stack (chimney).
• The temperature of the gases leaving the stack should
be kept as low as possible so that there is minimum
loss of heat to the stack.

Storage type air preheater

89
Superheater

• The function of a superheater is to increase the temperature of the steam above its saturation
point.
• The superheater is very important accessory of a boiler and can be used both on fire-tube and
water-tube boilers.
• The small boilers are not commonly provided with a superheater.
Superheated steam has the following advantages :
• Steam consumption of the engine or turbine is reduced.
• Losses due to condensation in the cylinders and the steam pipes are reduced.
• Erosion of turbine blade is eliminated.
• Efficiency of the steam plant is increased.

90
Superheaters are located in the path of the furnace gases so that heat is recovered by the
superheater from the hot gases.

There are two types of superheaters :

1. Convective superheater
2. Radiant superheater.

• Convective superheater makes use of heat in flue gases whereas a radiant superheater is
placed in the furnace and wall tubes receives heat from the burning fuel through radiant process.
• The radiant type of superheater is generally used where a high amount of superheat
temperature is required.

91
Steam Separator
• The steam available from a boiler may be either wet, dry; or superheated; but in many cases there
will be loss of heat from it during its passage through the steam pipe from the boiler to the engine
tending to produce wetness.
• The use of wet steam in an engine or turbine is uneconomical further involving some risk; hence it
is usual to endeavor to separate any water that may be present from the steam before the latter
enters the engine.
• This is accomplished by the use of a steam separator.
• Thus the function of a steam separator is to remove the entrained water particles from the steam
conveyed to the steam engine or turbine.
• It is installed as close to the steam engine as possible on the main steam pipe from the boiler.

92
Baffle plate steam separator
• The steam enters the flange A and flows down. In its
passage it strikes the baffles B ; as a result, it gets
deflected, but water particles having greater density
and greater inertia fall to the bottom of the separator.
• The drier steam discharges through the flange C. To
see the level of water collected a water gauge is
provided.
• The water collected in the vessel is removed at
intervals through the drainpipe D.

93
According to the principle of operation the steam separators are classified as follows :
1. Impact or baffle type
2. Reverse current type
3. Centrifugal type.

94
Feed water heaters and evaporators

• The main condensate in most of the power plants returns to the steam generator as feed water.
Some make-up water may be added to replace losses in the cycle.
• In a few plants the boiler feed water may be 100 per cent make-up, in this case the plant turbines
exhaust at back pressures above atmospheric to supply steam for other purposes.
• Feed water is heated by bleeding steam to heaters as in a regenerative cycle from the main turbine,
or by using exhaust steam from auxiliary-drive turbines, or by by-product steam from processes.
• Feed water heating with steam at a lower pressure than boiler pressure usually raises overall plant
efficiency.

95
Feed Water Heaters
The feed water heaters may be classified as follows :
1. Open or contact heaters
(i) Tray type (ii) Jet type.
2. Closed or surface heaters
• Heated feed water enables steam generators to produce more kg of steam and avoids
severe thermal stressing by cold water entering a hot drum.
• Preheating feed water also causes scale-forming dissolved salts to precipitate outside the
boiler and removes dissolved O2 and CO2, which corrode boiler material.

96
Open feedwater heater

Closed feedwater heater

97
98
99
Miscellaneous Heaters
Water may also be heated by “waste heat” in a variety of heater arrangements, some of which
are as listed below :
1. The blow off heat exchanger.
2. The turbine tube oil cooler.
3. Generator air and hydrogen coolers.
4. The steam-jet air-ejector condenser.
5. The deaerating vent condenser.
6. The evaporator condenser.
7. The drain cooler.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCvYPclQNWM

100
Plate type heat exchanger

101
102
103
Turbine tube oil cooler

Generator air and hydrogen coolers

104
steam-jet air-ejector condenser
Flash Steam Vent Condensers 105
Evaporator condenser

106
Drain cooler

107
Evaporators
• These are used to give a supply of pure water as
make-up feed for the boilers.
• Raw water is evaporated using extracted steam and
then condensed to give distilled and pure feed water.

Two main classes of evaporators are :

1. The film type evaporators.
In this type water is sprayed on the surface of tubes
through which steam is passed. As the water falls on
the surface of heated tubes it evaporates.

108
2. The submerged type evaporators.

• In this case the bundle of tubes is submerged in water.

• Vapours formed in the shell pass out of the shell through a moisture separator and enter a
feed water condenser or water heater where these condense and mix with feed water.
• In practice, two or more evaporators may be connected in parallel or in series.
• The raw water used causes sludge and scale formation in the evaporator drum and on the
surface of the tubes.
• Regular blow-downs keep the sludge concentration low.
• Scales from the outer surface of tubes are removed by cracking them with sprays of cold
water, steam flow inside the tubes being continued.

109
110
 PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS

1. Evaporative Capacity
The evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in terms of:
(i) kg of steam/h
(ii) kg of steam/h/m2 of heating surface
(iii) kg of steam/kg of fuel fired.
2. Equivalent Evaporation
• Generally the output or evaporative capacity of the boiler is given as kg of water evaporated per
hour but as different boilers generate steam at different pressures and temperatures (from feed
water at different temperatures) and as such have different amounts of heat; the number of kg of
water evaporated per hour in no way provides the exact means for comparison of the
performance of the boilers.

111
• Hence to compare the evaporative capacity or performance of different boilers working under
different conditions it becomes imperative to provide a common base so that water be supposed to
be evaporated under standard conditions.
• The standard conditions adopted are: Temperature of feed water 100°C and converted into dry and
saturated steam at 100°C. As per these standard conditions 1 kg of water at 100°C necessitates
2257 kJ to get converted to steam at 100°C.
• Thus the equivalent evaporation may be defined as the amount of water evaporated from
water at 100°C to dry and saturated steam at 100°C.
• Consider a boiler generating ma kg of steam per hour at a pressure p and temperature T.
Let, h = Enthalpy of steam per kg under the generating conditions, and
h = hf + hfg ...... dry saturated steam at pressure p
h = hf + xhfg ...... wet steam with dryness fraction x at pressure p
h = hf + hfg + cp (Tsup – Ts) ...... superheated steam at pressure p and temperature Tsup

112
 hf1 = Specific enthalpy of water at a given feed temperature.
• Then heat gained by the steam from the boiler per unit time = ma (h – hf1)
• The equivalent evaporation (me) from the definition is obtained as:
ma ( h − h f 1 ) ma ( h − h f 1 )
me = =
h fg 2257
• The evaporation rate of the boiler is also sometimes given in terms of kg of steam/kg of fuel.
• The presently accepted standard of expressing the capacity of a boiler is in terms of the total
heat added per hour.
Factor of Evaporation
• It is defined as the ratio of heat received by 1 kg of water under working conditions to that
received by 1 kg of water evaporated from and at 100°C. It is denoted by Fe.
Factor of evaporation,
Fe =
( h−h ) f1

2257 113
Boiler Efficiency
‘Boiler efficiency’ is the ratio of heat actually utilized in generation of steam to the heat supplied by
the fuel in the same period.

ma ( h − h f 1 )
Boiler efficiency =
C
where, ma = Mass of water actually evaporated into steam per kg of fuel at the working pressure,
and C = Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg.

If the boiler, economiser, and superheater are considered as a single unit, then the boiler efficiency
is termed as overall efficiency of the boiler plant.

114
The following are the factors on which the boiler efficiency depends :
1. Fixed factors 2. Variable factors.
1. Fixed factors. These are :
(i) Boiler design. It includes the arrangement and effectiveness of the heating surfaces, the
shape and volume of the furnace, the arrangement of flues, the arrangement of steam
and water circulation.
(ii) Heat recovery equipment. It includes the economiser, superheater, air preheater and
feed water heater.
(iii) Built in losses. It includes the heat transfer properties of the settings and construction
materials, flue gas and ash heat losses.
(iv) Rated rate of firing, the furnace volume and heating surface.
(v) Properties and characteristics of fuel burn

115
2. Variable factors. These are :
i. Actual firing rate.
ii. Fuel condition as it is fired.
iii. The condition of heat absorbing surfaces.
iv. Excess air fluctuations.
v. Incomplete combustion and combustibles in the refuse.
vi. Change in draught from the rated, due to atmospheric conditions.
vii. Humidity and temperature of the combustion air.

116
Heat Losses in a Boiler Plant
The following heat losses occur in a boiler plant :
1. Heat lost to flue gases.
2. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion.
3. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel.
4. Convection and radiation losses.

117
1. Heat lost to flue gases.
The flue gases contain dry products of combustion as well as the steam generated due to

Qg = mg  c pg  (Tg − Ta )
combustion of hydrogen in the fuel.
Heat lost through dry flue gases,
where, mg = Mass of gases formed per kg of coal,
cpg = Specific heat of gases,
Tg = Temperature of the gases, and
Ta = Temperature of air entering the combustion chamber of boiler.
Heat carried away by the steam in flue gases, Qs = ms1  ( hs1 − hf1 )
where, ms1 = Mass of steam formed per kg of fuel due to the combustion of H2 in the flue,
hf1 = Enthalpy of water at boiler house temperature, and
hs1 = Enthalpy of steam at the gas temperature and at a partial pressure of steam
vapour in the gas.
This heat lost to flue gases can be reduced by passing the flue gases through the economiser and air
118
preheater.
2. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion.
• The combustion is said to be incomplete if the carbon burns to CO instead of CO2. One kg of
carbon releases 10120 kJ of heat if it burns to CO, whereas, it can release 33800 kJ/kg if it burns to
CO2.
• Heat loss due to incomplete combustion of 1 kg of carbon = 33800 – 10120 = 23680 kJ.
• If CO is present in the flue gases it indicates that combustion of fuel is incomplete. If the
percentages of CO and CO2 in flue gases by volume are known, then carbon burnt to CO instead of
CO2 per kg of fuel is given by

CO  C
mass of carbonburnt toCO =
CO2 + CO
• where, CO and CO2 are expressed as % by volume in flue gases and C as the fraction of carbon in
one kg of fuel.

119
 CO  C
=  23680 kJ / kg of fuel
• Heat lost due to incomplete combustion of carbon per kg of fuel CO2 + CO
• This loss (due to incomplete combustion) can be reduced by supplying excess quantity of air and
giving a turbulent motion to the air before it enters the furnace in order to help the mixing process.
3. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel.
• If mf1 is the mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel used and C is the calorific value of the fuel, then
heat lost due to unburnt fuel, Q = mf 1 C
• In case of solid fuels this loss cannot be completely avoided.
4. Convection and radiation losses.
• As the hot surfaces of the boiler are exposed to the atmosphere, therefore, heat is lost to
atmosphere by convection and radiation.
• The loss of heat due to convection and radiation losses = Heat released per kg of fuel – total of the
heat losses given by eqns.
• These losses can be reduced by providing heat insulation on the boiler surface
120
Causes of Heat Loss in Steam Generators
1. Loss due to moisture in coal :
(i) Excessive wetting down of coal before firing.
(ii) High moisture absorption by coal in yard storage.
2. Loss due to moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen :
Irreducible for any specific fuel. This loss is larger for oil and gas fuels than for coal.
3. Loss due to heat carried away in dry chimney gas :
(i) High excess air as revealed in low CO2 content of flue gas.
(ii) High flue gas temperature.
1. Dirty heating surfaces.
2. Poor water circulation. Scale on water side.
3. Dead gas pockets. Leaky or ineffective baffles.
4. Gas velocity too high.

121
4. Loss due to incomplete combustion :
(i) Insufficient air supply. (ii) Fuel bed in poor condition.
(iii) Undercooling of furnace at low ratings. (iv) Improper setting of boilers.
5. Loss due to combustible in ashpit :
(i) Grate or stoker not proportioned to the kind of fuel used.
(ii) Too high rate of combustion attempted.
(iii) Grates dumped or fuel bed sliced too frequently.
(iv) Furnace temperature is above fusion temperature of ash.
6. Loss from radiation and convection from boiler and setting :
(i) Boiler drums uninsulated. (ii) Wall of setting too thin or of poor quality.
(iii) Furnace refractories in need of repair or renewal.

122
7. Loss due to moisture in the air :

(i) Moisture-laden air as from steam jet.

(ii) High excess air on days of high humidity. This loss is small and frequently included with

several other small losses, usually unaccounted for, such as soot or cinder in the chimney

gas, heat in ashes, etc.

123
1. The steam used by the turbine is 5.4 kg/kWh at a pressure of 50 bar and a temperature of
350°C. The efficiency of boiler is 82 per cent with feed water at 150°C. (i) How many kg of
28100 kJ coal are required/kWh? (ii) If the cost of coal/tonne is Rs. 500, what is fuel
cost/kWh?

124