Foundation Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alaa M Shaban, PhD

Soil Mechanics - II

Plasticity and Moisture Content of Cohesive Soils

Atterberg limits are excellent indicators that describe the relationship between consistency and
moisture content of the fine-grained soil. Figure 1 illustrates the changes in consistency of the
cohesive soil with changing its moisture content.

Liquid State - Deforms Easily

Increase in Moisture Content

Liquid Limit (LL)

Plastic State - Deforms without Cracking

Plastic Limit (PL)

Semisolid State - Deforms permanently

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

Solid State - Breaks before it will deform

Figure 1: Atterberg Limits of Fine-Grained Soils

▪ Liquid Limit: is a moisture content at which a soil changes from a plastic state to a liquid
state.
▪ Plastic Limit: is a moisture content at which a soil changes from a semisolid state to a
plastic state.
▪ Shrinkage Limit: is a moisture content at which a soil changes from a solid state to a
semisolid state.
A soil property which relates between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is defined as a
plasticity index (PI or Ip). The plasticity index is the amount of water that must be added to
change soil’s moisture content from plastic limit to liquid limit:
PI = LL − PL
Another parameter which can be used to describe the relative consistency of fine-grained soil
is called a liquidity index. Table 1 shows the relationship between liquidity index and in-situ
soil behavior of the soil. The liquidity index is given as follows:
w − PL
LI =
LL − PL
▪ If a soil has LI > 1, field moisture content is greater than the liquid limit of the soil.
▪ If a soil has LI < 0, field moisture content is less than the plastic limit of the soil.
▪ If a soil has LI = 1, field moisture content is equal to the liquid limit of the soil.
▪ If a soil has LI = 0, field moisture content is equal to the plastic limit of the soil.
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Foundation Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alaa M Shaban, PhD

Table 1: In-situ Behavior of Cohesive Soils based on LI

LI ˂ 0 Brittle
0 ˂ LI ˂ 1 Plastic
LI ˃ 1 Viscous (Liquid)

The swelling potential of fine-grained soils can be identified using a correlation model which
relates the plasticity index of the soil with the percentage of clay particles finer than 2 𝜇𝑚 (i.e.,
0.002 mm). Table 1 shows typical values of the activity for different clay minerals. The
correlation equation is given by:
PI
A=
% of clay fraction

Table 2: Swelling Potential of Cohesive Soil

A ˂ 0.75 Inactive Clay
0.75 ˂ A ˂ 1.40 Normal Clay
A ˃ 1.40 Active Clay

Table 3: Typical Activities of Clay Minerals

Mineral Activity (A)

Smectites 1–7
Illite 0.5 – 1
Kaolinite 0.50
Halloysite (4H2O) 0.50
Halloysite (2H2O) 0.10
Attapulgite 0.50 - 1.2
Allophane 0.50 - 1.2

EX-1:
A soil has the following Atterberg limits and natural water content. Determine the PI and LI
and comment its general activity.

𝐰 = 𝟐𝟕% 𝐋𝐋 = 𝟏𝟑 𝐏𝐋 = 𝟖 % of Clay Fraction = 3

Solution:
PI = LL − PL = 13 − 8 = 5
w − PL 27 − 8
LI = = = 3.8 > 1 (Viscous)
LL − PL 13 − 8
PI 5
A= = = 1.67 > 1.4 (Active)
% of clay fraction 3

The soil is very sensitive and highly active.

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Foundation Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alaa M Shaban, PhD

Pore water Pressure: There are two types of pore water pressures:

1) Hydrostatic pore water pressure which is caused by the gravity force acting on the soil’s
voids filled with water
2) Excess pore water pressure which is caused by the external normal and/or shear forces that
changes the size of the voids.

Soils Stresses: There are typically two types of the stresses in the soil:

1) Geostatic Stresses are caused by the gravity forces and they are classified into two sources:
▪ Total vertical stress is the vertical component of forces that is carried by soil particles and
voids of the soil. The total vertical stress can be expressed as:

σ = ∑ γH
where:
𝛾: Unit weight of the soil
H: Thickness of the soil stratum

▪ Effective vertical stress is the vertical component of forces that is only carried by solid
particles of the soil. The effective vertical stress can be expressed as:

σ́ = σ − u = ∑ γH − ∑ 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑤
where:
𝑢: Pore water pressure
𝛾𝑤 : Water unit weight
𝑧𝑤 : Depth of groundwater

The ratio of horizontal to vertical effective stress in the soil can be defined as the coefficient of
lateral earth pressure (Ko) which is given as:
σx́
K𝑜 =
σź
The coefficient of lateral earth pressure can also be computed as a function of effective stresses.
Typical values of Ko range from 0.35 to 0.70 for normally consolidated soil, and from 0.20 to
0.60 for over-consolidated soil. This parameter can be determined from either in-situ testing
methods or laboratory testing methods. Also, so many empirical equations were developed to
predict the (𝐾𝑜 ), whereas the most common formula used in geotechnical engineering is given
as follows:
́
K o = (1 − sinϕ́)OCRsinϕ

2) Induced Stresses are caused by the external forces transmitted from structural foundations.

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Foundation Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alaa M Shaban, PhD

EX-2:
The soil profile beneath a certain site consists of 5.0 m of silty sand underlain by 13.0 m of
clay. The groundwater table is at a depth of 2.8 m below the ground surface. The sand has a
unit weight of 19 kN/m3 above the groundwater table, and 20 kN/m3 below the groundwater
table. The clay has a unit weight of 15.7 kN/m3, an effective friction angle of 35o, and an over-
consolidation ratio of 2.0. Compute 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑧́ , and 𝜎𝑥́ , at a depth of 11.0 m.

Solution:

σz = ∑ γH = (2.8 × 19) + (2.2 × 20) + (6.0 × 15.7) = 191.4 kN⁄m2

𝜎𝑧́ = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑢 = 191.4 − (2.2 + 6) × 9.81 = 110.96 kN⁄m2
́
K o = (1 − sinϕ́)OCRsinϕ = (1 − sin 35) × 2sin 35 = 0.635
𝜎𝑥́ = 𝜎𝑧́ × 𝐾𝑜 = 110.96 × 0.635 = 70.46 kN⁄m2
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥́ + 𝑢 = 70.46 + 80.44 = 150.9 kN⁄m2

EX-3:
For the soil profile shown in the figure below, find the total vertical stress, pore water pressure
and vertical effective stress.

𝐤𝐍
𝛄 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟓
𝐦𝟑

𝐤𝐍
𝛄 = 𝟐𝟏
𝐦𝟑

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 Foundation Engineering ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alaa M Shaban, PhD

Solution:

▪ At elevation (Zero):
σz = 0, u = 0, σ́ z = 0

▪ At elevation (-4.0 m):

σz = ∑ γh = 4 × 19.5 = 78 kPa

u = ∑ γ𝑤 h𝑤 = 4 × 9.81 = 39.24 kPa

σ́ z = σz − u = 78 − 39.24 = 38.76 kPa

▪ At elevation (-11.0 m):

σz = ∑ γh = 78 + 7 × 21 = 225 kPa

u = ∑ γ𝑤 h𝑤 = 39.24 + 7 × 9.81 = 107.91 kPa

σ́ z = 225 − 107.91 = 117.09 kPa

Shear Strength
The shear strength of the soils primarily relies on internal friction between soil particles. The
strength produced from this interaction can be classified into two categories based on soil types:
friction strength, and cohesive strength. The shear strength of the soil can be described using
the Mohr-Coulomb Failure criterion:
𝑠 = 𝑐́ + 𝜎́ tan 𝜙́
where;
𝑆: Shear strength
𝑐́ : Effective cohesion coefficient
𝜎́ : Effective stress acting on the shear surface
𝜙́: Effective angle of internal friction

The shear strength parameters are determined from performing special laboratory tests,
including: [1] Direct Shear Test – ASTM D3080, [2] Unconfined Compression Test – ASTM
D2850, and [3] Triaxial Shear Test – ASTM D1266.
Shear Strength

Ø Angle of Internal Friction

Cohesion Coefficient
c

Vertical Stress

Figure 2: Mohr- Coulomb Model

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