Government Engineering Academy

Punjab

Introduction to Surveying
January 24, 2022

15th Pre-service Training Course For Assistant Engineers

(28.11.2021 To 18.03.2022)

By:
Engr. Faisal Pervez
Assistant Engineer
Irrigation Department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

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Contents

Introduction to Surveying

Classification of Surveying

Various Instruments used in surveying

Leveling

Triangulation and Traversing

Contouring

Hydrographic Survey

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Contents

Design and layout of simple curve

Photogrammetric Survey

Construction Survey

Tunneling Survey

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ Surveying is the art of

1. measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ Surveying is the art of

2. Measuring angles between lines

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ Surveying is the art of
3. Determining the direction of lines

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 Introduction to Surveying

➢ Surveying is the art of

4. Establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ The data of survey is used to determine
1. Distances
2. Angles
3. Directions
4. Elevations
5. Areas
6. Volumes

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of

1. maps

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 Introduction to Surveying
➢ Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of
✓ profiles
✓ cross sections etc.

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 Importance of Surveying
➢ Surveying is used to identify and map

1. contours of the ground and

2. existing features on the surface of the earth or slightly above or below

the earth surface e.g. trees, buildings, manhole, retaining walls, utility
poles, etc.

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 Importance of Surveying
➢ Surveying helps to prepare cadastral maps showing the boundaries of
the properties and land rights.

➢ For Example: Map of a village which shows the boundaries of all of the
lots within the village.

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 Importance of Surveying
➢ Surveying helps to prepare a contour map to determine the steepness
or gentleness of slopes.
➢ Civil engineers study the contours and find out the nature of various
areas to identify suitable sites for their projects.

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 Importance of Surveying
➢ Earth works can be estimated for civil engineering projects like road works,
railways, dams etc.

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 Importance of Surveying
➢ Quantities of water flow at any point of a river can be found.

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Accuracy of Work:

1. Geodetic Surveying
✓ In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken into account.
✓ Surveys are conducted with a high degree of accuracy.

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Accuracy of Work:
2. Plane Surveying
✓ In plane surveying, the reference base for field work and computations is as
sumed to be a flat horizontal surface.

✓ The error caused by assuming the earth to be a plane area is not serious

if the area measured is small say, within 250km2.

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Accuracy of Work:
2. Plane Surveying

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Use or Purpose of Resulting Maps

1. Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical points that

serve as a reference framework for other surveys.

2. Topographic surveys show the natural features of a country such as

rivers, streams, lakes, forests, hills, etc.

3. Cadastral surveys establish property lines.

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Use or Purpose of Resulting Maps

4. Hydrographic surveys define the shore lines and depth of water bodies

e.g. oceans, reservoirs and lakes.

5. Route surveys are done as a preliminary to construction of roads and

railways.

6. Mine surveys are done above and below the ground to guide mining

operations under ground.

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Equipment's Used
1. Chain survey

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Equipment's Used
2. Theodolite survey

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on Equipment's Used
3. Plane table survey

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Classification Based on the Position of Instruments
1. When measurement is done on the ground by say chain, tape or

electronic distance measuring equipment's it is ground survey

2. When photographic observations are taken from air; it is aerial survey

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 Classification of Surveying
❑ Engineering Survey
1. Reconnaissance Survey

2. Preliminary Survey

3. Location Survey

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Types of chain in common use
1) Metric chains
2) Gunter’s chain or surveyors chain
3) Engineers chain
4) Revenue chain

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Metric chain

✓ Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m.

✓ Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length

✓ Brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are
attached

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Gunter’s Chain ➢ Revenue Chain
✓ Length= 66’ (22 yards) ✓ Length=33’

✓ No of links= 100, Each link= 0.66’ ✓ No of links= 16

✓ Commonly used for measuring
➢ Engineer’s Chain
fields in Cadastral Survey.
✓ Length=100’

✓ No of links=100, Each link = 1’

✓ Used in all Engineering Surveys

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Testing and Adjustment of Chain
• During continuous use, the length of a chain gets altered.
• Its length is shortened chiefly due to the bending of links.
• Its length is elongated either due to stretching of the links and joints and
opening out of the small rings.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Testing and Adjustment of Chain
• For accurate work it is necessary to test the chain time to time.
• The chain can be thus tested by a steel tape or by a standard chain.
• Sometimes, it is convenient to have a permanent test gauge established
where the chain is tested

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Testing and Adjustment of Chain
• When the length of a chain is measured at a pull of 8 kg at 20oC the length
of the chain should measure 20 m ± 5 mm and 30 m ± 8 mm for 20 m and
30 m long chain respectively.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Testing and Adjustment of Chain
Following measures are taken to adjust the length of a chain, If chain is found
to be too long, It can be adjusted by;
✓ Closing up the joints of the rings if found to be opened out
✓ Reshaping damaged rings
✓ Removing one or more small rings
✓ Adjusting the links at the end.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
1. Chains
➢ Testing and Adjustment of Chain
➢ Following measures are taken to adjust the length of a chain, If the chain is
found to be too short
✓ Straightening the bent links
✓ Opening the joints of the rings
✓ Replacing one or more small circular rings by bigger ones.
✓ Inserting new rings where necessary.
✓ Adjusting the links at the end.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
2. Tapes
➢ Cloth or linen tape
✓ Very light, easy to handle
✓ May effect by moisture/Temp.

➢ Metric steel tape

✓ Made of steel
✓ Outer end is provided with a ring for
holding

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 Instruments used in Surveying
2. Tapes
➢ Invar tape

✓ Used for high precision work

✓ Made of alloy of steel and nickel

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 Instruments used in Surveying
3. Arrows
• Arrows are used for counting the number of chains
while measuring a chain line.
• An arrow is inserted into the ground after every
chain length measured on the ground.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
• Ranging rods are used for ranging some
intermediate points on the survey line.
• Ranging rods are generally 2 to 3 m in length and
are painted with alternate bands of black or white
or red and white colour with length of each
equalizing 20 cm.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
The location of any survey station can be known
from long distances only by means of ranging rods.
If the distance is too long, a rod of length 4.0 to 6.0
m is used and is called ranging pole.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
• When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align
intermediate points on chain line so that the measurements are along
the line.
• The process of locating intermediate points on survey line is known as
ranging.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
There are two methods of ranging
1) Direct ranging (If the first and last points are intervisible)
2) Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
1) Direct ranging (If the first and last points are intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
1) Direct ranging (If the first and last points are intervisible)

❖ One Surveyor and one assistant

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
1) Direct ranging (If the first and last points are intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
1) Direct ranging (If the first and last points are intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
2). Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

❖ Two Surveyor and two assistant

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
2). Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

❖ Iterative process

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
2). Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
2). Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
4. Ranging Rods
2). Reciprocal ranging (If the first and last points are not intervisible)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
5. Pegs
• Pegs are made of timber or steel and they are used to mark the position of
the station or terminal points of a survey line.
• Wooden pegs are 15 cm long and are driven into the ground with the help
of a hammer.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
6. Plumb Bob
• Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on the ground.
• It is also used for fixing the instruments exactly over the station point marked
on the ground.
• Plumb bob is thus used as centering aid in theodolites and plane table

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Different types of compasses are;
1. Trough Compass
Used in plane tabling

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Different types of compasses are;
2. Prismatic Compass
Used to measure the WCB of a line

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Different types of compasses are;
2. Surveyor Compass
Used to measure the RB of a line

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Bearing of a line
Bearing is the horizontal angle measured from the north. If the bearing is
measured from true meridian then it is called true bearing and if it is measured
from the magnetic meridian then it is called magnetic bearing.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Magnetic Declination
The difference between true meridian and magnetic meridian is called magnetic
declination.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Whole Circle Bearing
In this system the bearing of a line is measured with the magnetic north in clock
wise direction. The value of bearing thus varies from 0˚ to 360˚.
Its value varies from 0˚ to 360˚, increasing in clockwise direction. Zero is north
direction, 90˚ is east, 180˚ is south, and 270˚ is west.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Quadrantal Bearing
In this system the bearing line is measured eastward or westward from north or
south whichever is near.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
7. Compass
• Fore and Back Bearing

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 Instruments used in Surveying
8. Leveling Staff
• A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium
rod, used with a levelling instrument to determine the difference in height
between points or heights of points above a vertical datum.
• Length of commonly used levelling staff is 14ft or 16ft.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
8. Leveling Staff

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 Instruments used in Surveying
9. Auto Level
• Used in leveling operation
• Used to Determine the R.L of a point with respect a point of known elevation.

More details in
leveling part

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 Instruments used in Surveying
9. Auto Level
• Two peg test:
The two-peg test is used to make sure the line of sight provides an accurate
reading and determine how much of an adjustment is necessary. This should
be done by the installer periodically to make sure the instrument is correctly
leveled so it provides accurate readings

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
• Because of its various uses, the theodolite is sometimes known as
“Universal Instrument”.
• The theodolite is used mainly for accurate measurement of horizontal and
vertical angle up to 10” or 20”, depending upon the least count of the
instrument.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
❑ The following are the different purpose for which the theodolite can be used:
• Measuring Horizontal Angle
• Measuring Vertical Angles
• Measuring Deflection Angles
• Measuring Magnetic Bearing
• Measuring the horizontal distance between two points
• Finding the vertical height of an object
• Finding difference of elevation between various points
• Ranging of a line.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
❑ Theodolites may be of two types

(i) Transit Theodolite

(ii) Non-Transit

❑ In the transit theodolite, the telescope can be revolved through a complete

revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.

❑ In the non transit theodolite, the telescope, cannot be revolved through a

complete revolution in the vertical plane.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Centering
The setting of a theodolite exactly over a station mark is known as centering.

➢ Transiting/Plunging
The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane
through 180o is termed as transiting. Transiting operation is used to change the
face.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Face left
Face left means that the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the left of the

observer at the time of taking reading

➢ Face right
This refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the instrument is on the
right of the observer when the reading is taken.
➢ Changing face
The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of the observer to the
other is known as changing face.
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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Swinging the telescope
This indicates turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. It is called „right swing
‟ when the telescope is turned clockwise and „left swing‟ when the telescope is
turned anticlockwise.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Leveling of theodolite

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Horizontal angle measurements

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Horizontal angle measurements

individual angle
be MoM and should be
In last column the angle should
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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Vertical angle measurements

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Vertical angle measurements

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Horizontal and vertical distance measurements

UH
MH
LH

UH – LH = Staff Intercept UH – MH = MH - LH
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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ Horizontal and vertical distance measurements

f/i=100, f+d=0

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ RL of staff station

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 Instruments used in Surveying
10. Theodolite
➢ RL of staff station

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 Instruments used in Surveying
11. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement)
• Electronic distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument used for
measuring distance electronically between two points through electromagnetic
waves.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
11. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement)

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 Instruments used in Surveying
11. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement)

Now separate EDM are not very popular , instead total Station which have in built
EDM is being used .
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 Instruments used in Surveying
12. Total Station
• A total station integrates the functions of a theodolite for measuring angles,
an EDM for measuring distances, digital data and a data recorder.
• All total stations have similar constructional features regardless of their age
or level of technology, and all perform basically the same functions.

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 Instruments used in Surveying
12. Total Station

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 Instruments used in Surveying
12. Total Station
➢ Main Features
✓ Most accurate and user friendly
✓ Gives position of a point (x, y and z) w. r. t. known point called base point
✓ EDM is fitted inside the telescope
✓ Digital display
✓ On board memory to store data
✓ Compatibility with computers
✓ Measures distance and angles and displays coordinates
✓ Auto level compensator is available
✓ Can work in lesser visibility also
✓ Can measure distances even without prismatic target for lesser distances
✓ Is water proof
✓ On board software are available
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 Instruments used in Surveying
12. Total Station
➢ Auxiliary Equipment's Required
✓ Targets or Prisms to accurately define the target point of a direction
measurement.
✓ A data recorder if one is not integrated into the total station.
✓ A download cable and software on a PC to capture and process the captured
digital data to produce contour and detail maps.

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 Levelling
Levelling: The art of determining the relative heights of different points on or
below the surface of the Earth is known as levelling.

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 Levelling
Reduced Level: The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum line
is known as the reduced level of that point. The reduced level may be positive
or negative according as the point is above or below the datum.
Bench Marks:
These are fixed point or marks of known reduced level determined with
reference to the datum line.

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 Levelling
1. GTS Bench Mark (Great Trigonometric Survey BM):
➢ These bench marks are established by the national agency such as Survey
of Pakistan.

➢ They are established at several places all over the country and are

established with respect to the MSL with highest precision.

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 Levelling
2. Permanent Bench Mark:
➢ These bench marks are fixed in between GTS bench marks by the govt.
agencies such as PWD, Railways, etc.

➢ This BMs are written on permanent objects such as milestones, culverts,

bridges etc.

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 Levelling
3. Temporary Benchmarks:
Stable points established in the course of a survey between established

benchmarks, which may be some distance away.

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 Levelling
➢ Back, Fore and Intermediate Sight Readings:

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 Levelling
3. Back, Fore and Intermediate Sight Readings:

Change Point

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 Levelling
3. Back, Fore and Intermediate Sight Readings:

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 Levelling Types
➢ Simple Levelling
When difference in level between two points is required.

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 Levelling Types
➢ Deferential Levelling: when
(a) The points are a great distance apart,
(b) The difference of elevation between the points is large
(c) There are obstacles between the points.

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 Levelling Types
➢ Fly Levelling:
When differential levelling is done in order to connect a benchmark to the
starting point of the alignment of any project, it is called fly levelling.

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 Levelling Types
➢ Profile Levelling (L-Section):

Center line alignment

will be fixed w.r.t by
noting the FB and BB
of line.

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 Levelling Types
➢ Profile Levelling (L-Section):

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 Levelling Types
➢ Cross Sectional Levelling
• Perpendicular to the center line
• At regular intervals

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 Levelling Types
➢ Cross Sectional Levelling

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 Methods for Reduce Levels
➢ Height of Instrument Method

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 Methods for Reduce Levels
➢ Rise and Fall Method

B.S-F.S=+ve (Rise)
B.S-F.S=-ve (Fall)

New R.L= Old R.L - fall

= Old R.L + rise

Check: ∑B.S – ∑F.S = ∑Rise – ∑Fall = Last R.L – First R.L

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Triangulation
• Used to find area of site

• Triangulation surveying is the tracing and measurement of a series or

network of triangles to determine distances and relative positions of points

spread over an area, by measuring the length of one side of each triangle

and deducing its angles and length of other two sides by observation from

this baseline.

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Triangulation

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Triangulation

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Triangulation

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Traversing
• A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions are
to be measured and the process of surveying to find such measurements
is known as traversing.

• In general, chains are used to measure length and compass or theodolite

are used to measure the direction of traverse lines.

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 Triangulation and Traversing
➢ Traversing

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 Contouring
➢ Contour Line
An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is
known as Contour line.

➢ Contour Map

A map showing contour lines is known as Contour Map.

➢ Contouring

The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of earth is called contouring.

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Contouring

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Contouring

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 Contouring
➢ Contour Interval
• The vertical distance between two contour lines.

• CI is constant for a single contour map.

➢ Horizontal Equivalent

• The horizontal distance between two adjacent contour lines.

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 Contouring
➢ Methods of Contorting (Direct Method)

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 Contouring
➢ Methods of Contorting (Indirect Method)

Method of Squares
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 Contouring
➢ Methods of Contorting (Indirect Method)

Method of X-section
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 Contouring
➢ Methods of Contorting (Indirect Method)

Method of Radial Lines (mostly used)

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Contouring

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Contouring

Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles

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Contouring

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 Hydrographic Survey
❑ Hydrographic surveying is the branch of the survey which deal with any
body of still or running water i.e. a lake, stream or river.

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 Hydrographic Survey
❑ Hydrographic survey are used to define shore line and under water
features.

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Hydrographic Survey

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 Hydrographic Survey
❑ Hydrographic survey comprises all survey made for the determination of;
• Shore line
• Soundings
• Characteristics of the bottom
• Area subjected to scouring and silting
• Depth available for navigation
• Velocity and characteristics of flow of water

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 Hydrographic Survey
❑ Hydrographic survey comprises all survey made for the determination of;

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 Control on Hydrographic Survey
• The first step in making the hydrographic survey is to establish the control,
i.e. both horizontal and vertical control.
• The main objective in hydrographic surveying is to determine the depth of
water at a certain point. (sounding is the measurement of depth below the
water surface).
• For sounding, vertical control is needed and to locate the sounding, a
horizontal control is needed.

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 Horizontal Control on Hydrographic Survey
❑ Horizontal control – Northing & Easting Calculated (X & Y)
• In an extensive survey the primary horizontal control is established by triangulation
(employed for widely separated points) & the secondary one by running the transit
(theodolite) & tape traverse between the triangulation station, the traverse lines
been run to follow the shore line approximately.
• In survey of less extent the primary horizontal control only is required & is
established by running a transit & tape traverse line, sufficiently close to the shore
line.

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 Vertical Control on Hydrographic Survey
❑Vertical Control – Depth Calculated (R.L calculated)
• It is based upon a series of bench mark established near the shore line by levelling
& these serve for setting & checking tides gauges (to find the level of water) to
which the sounding are present.
• Vertical connection may be affected by the determination of the depth of the point
below the water surface. Such determinations are known as sounding.

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Depth Measurements (Soundings):
• The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sounding.
• The object of making sounding is to determine the configuration of the
bottom of the body of water.
• This is done by measuring from boat the depth of water at various points.

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Depth Measurements (Soundings):

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Depth Measurements (Soundings):
Sounding are required for;
• The preparation of charts for navigation.
• Determination of quantity of materials dredged & the area where the
material is to be dredged or where the dredged materials may dumped.
• The design of work i.e. Apron, Embankment wall etc.

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Depth Measurements (Soundings):
Sounding are required for;

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
1. Sounding Boat

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
2. Sounding Rods (or Poles)

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
3. Lead Line

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
4. Sounding Chain

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
5. Sounding Machine
It is very useful when much sounding is to be done.

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
6. Fathometer (used of ocean sounding)

• It is electric device and measure the time required for the sound (impulses)
travel to the bottom of water and back.
• The travel time is converted into depth displayed in either digital or graphic.

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
7. Sextant

It is the most precise hand instrument yet device for measuring angles.

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
8. Signals
• Shore signals are required to mark the ranges (at least two signal are
required for a rang line either on the same bank or on the opposite banks).
• They should be clearly visible for considerable distances.

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
9. Ranges
• The lines on which soundings the taken, are called ranges or range lines.
• They are laid on the shore parallel to each other and at right angles to the
shore line
• Each range line should be marked by means of signals erected at two
points on it.
• The spacing of the range lines ranges from 6m to 30m, depending upon the
object of the survey and the nature of the bottom.

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
9. Ranges

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
9. Ranges

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➢ Equipment's Required for Making Soundings:
• Sounding Party
1. The Surveyor or Chief of the Party
2. The Instrument Man
3. The Recorder
4. The Leadsman
5. The Boat Crew
6. The Signal Man

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➢ Making the Soundings:
• Up to depths of 20m (75 ft), the sounding are made while the boat is in
motion.
• If the sounding is made by sound rods, the leadsman stands in the bow
and plunges it in forward direction far enough that when it reaches the
bottom, it will in vertical position.
• He then reads the rod quickly and calls out the observed reading of each
sounding to the recorder who repeat it and records it as well as the time
and number of the sounding.

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➢ Making the Soundings:

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➢ Making the Soundings:
• The nature of bottom is observed and recorded at intervals in the note
book.
• When the sounding line is used, the leadsman plunges the lead forward at
such that the line will become vertical at point where the sounding is to be
taken when leads reaches the bottom.
• If the water is very deep and still, sounding are taken by stopping the boat
for each sounding.
• For ordinary engineering purposes sounding are taken at 8 to 15 m
intervals. (but for special purposes they may be taken at as close as 2- 3m
intervals)

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➢ Making the Soundings:

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings:
• The location of the survey vessel (Boat) in the horizontal plane when a
particular sounding has been measured is a fundamental requirement for
the hydrographic survey.

• Three Over all methods of position fixing techniques are;

1. Manual
2. Electronic
3. GPS

• The factors governing the selection of the technique to be used relate

primarily to the location of the site, the complexity of the survey area, the
volume of the data collected.

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
1. By Transit and Stadia
• In this method a transit is set up at
point on the range and the stadia
readings are taken on a stadia rod held
on the bottom of the boat at the instant
the sounding is taken.
• The transit can be set up at any shore
line whose position has been
previously fixed.

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
2. By Range and Time Intervals (Constant Vessel Velocity)

• In this method the sounding boat is

rowed at uniform speed along the
range and he sounding are taken at
regular intervals of time
• The method is particularly applicable in
still water

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
3. By Range and One Angle from Shore

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 Hydrographic Survey
➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
4. By Range and One Angle from Boat

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
5. By Two Angles from Shore

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Manual)
6. By Cross Rope

• In this method a wire or rope is stretched

between fixed points on opposite banks
and is marked by means of cloth or metal
tags, at equal intervals along the rope or
wire.
• The boat is rowed to these points and
sounding are taken.
• This is most accurate but most expensive
method. It is used when sounding are to
be taken along the cross-section of a
canal or narrow river.

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (Electronic)
• Electromagnetic Position-Fixing Systems
• EPF systems are usually light-based, as are electronic distance
measurement (EDM) instruments or they are microwave-based.
• EPF systems determine the vessel’s location by the intersection of a
minimum of two range distances measured to shore stations.

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➢ Methods of Locating Soundings: (GPS)
• Global Positioning Systems
• This remarkable positioning development is revolutionizing the way we
determine our geographical location at any moment in time.
• Its impact on marine positioning and navigation will probably be even
greater than on land-based surveys.

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➢ Sounding Plan

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➢ Sounding Plan

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