MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A.Y.: 2020-21

Year/Semester: III/I

Regulation: R18

LECTURE NOTES

ON

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

1. Mr. M.GNANENDRA BABU

 UNIT – I

SYLLABUS

CONTENTS

 Introduction,
 History and Importance of Highways,
 Characteristics of road transport,
 Current road development plans in India,
 Highway development in India,
 Highway planning,
 Highway alignment,
 Engineering surveys for Highway alignment,
 Highway projects,
 Highway drawings and reports,
 Detailed Project Report preparation,
 PPP schemes of Highway Development in India,
 Government of India initiatives in developing the highways and expressways
in improving the mobility and village road development in improving the
accessibility.
 UNIT – I Introduction to Transportation Engineering

Introduction

Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific

principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods from one place to other.
Road transport is one of the most common modes of transport. Roads in the
form of track ways, human pathways etc. were used even from the pre-historic times.
Since then many experiments were going on to make the riding safe and comfort.
Thus road construction became an inseparable part of many civilizations and
empires. In this chapter we will see the different generations of road and their
characteristic features. Also we will discuss about the highway planning in India.
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Basic modes of transportation are
 Land
• Roadway
• railway
 Water
 Air
• Highways
Car, Bus, Truck, non- motorized..etc
• Railways
Passenger and Goods
• Airways
Aircraft and Helicopters
• Waterways
Ships, boats…
• Continuous Flow systems
Pipelines, belts, elevator, ropeway…etc.
• Merits and Demerits: Based on accessibility, mobility, cost, tonnage..

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Airways
• Fastest among all other modes
• More comfortable
• Time saving
• Uneconomical

Waterways
• slowest among all other modes
• It needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance.
• This can be possible between ports on the sea routes or along the river
• Economical
Railways
• The transportation along the railways track could be advantageous by railways
between the stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for long
distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e. road could serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load through unit distance by the railway is only ¼ to
1/5 of that required by road.
• Safety
Highways
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and
speed of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are depend on it
• It requires small investment for the government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotive and wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to flexibility of movement
Scope of highway engineering
• Development, planning and location
• Highway design, geometric and structure
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• Traffic performance and its control

• Materials, construction and maintenance
• Economic, finance and administration
ROLE /IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION
• Economic Development
• Social Development
• Spatial Development
• Cultural Development
• Political Development

History of highway engineering

The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient
times. Roads in Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many
directions helping them in military operations. Thus they are considered to be
pioneers in road construction. In this section we will see in detail about Ancient
roads, Roman roads, British roads, French roads etc.

Ancient Roads
Roads in Ancient India (Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa )
The first mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have
been developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc. The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for
transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded animals required more
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horizontal and vertical clearances than the walking man, track ways emerged. The
invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the development of animal
drawn vehicles. Then it became necessary that the road surface should be capable of
carrying greater loads. Thus roads with harder surfaces emerged. To provide
adequate strength to carry the wheels, the new ways tended to follow the sunny drier
side of a path. These have led to the development of foot-paths. After the invention of
wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need for hard surface road
emerged. Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient civilization
dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found from
Assyrian empire constructed about 1900 BC.

Roman roads
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an
extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. They were a
remarkable achievement and provided travel times across

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Europe, Asia, Minor and North Africa. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good drainage, good
material and good workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some
still exist. Roman roads were always constructed on a firm - formed subgrade
strengthened where necessary with wooden piles. The roads were bordered on
both sides by longitudinal drains. The next step was the construction of the
agger. This was a raised formation up to a 1 meter high and 15 m wide and
was constructed with materials excavated during the side drain construction.
This was then topped with a sand leveling course. The agger contributed
greatly to moisture control in the pavement. The pavement structure on the
top of the agger varied greatly. In the case of heavy traffic, a surface course of
large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were provided. A typical cross
section of roman road is given in Figure 2:1 the main features of the Roman
roads are that they were built straight regardless of gradient and used heavy
foundation stones at the bottom. They mixed lime and volcanic puzzolana to
make mortar and they added gravel to this mortar to make concrete. Thus
concrete was a major Roman road making innovation.

French roads
The next major development in the road construction occurred during
the regime of Napoleon. The significant contributions were given by
Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross section of this road is given in Figure
2:2. He developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and
locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. The pavement used 200 mm
pieces of quarried stone of a more compact form and shaped such that they
had at least one at side which was placed on a compact formation. Smaller
pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces between larger
stones to provide a level surface. Finally the running layer was made with a
layer of 25 mm sized broken stone. All this structure was placed in a trench in
order to keep the running surface level with the surrounding country side.
This created major drainage problems which were counteracted by making
the surface as impervious as possible, cambering the surface and providing
Deep side ditches. He gave much importance for drainage. He also
enunciated the necessity for continuous organized maintenance, instead of
intermittent repairs if the roads were to be kept usable all times. For this he
divided the roads between villages into sections of such length that an entire

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road could be covered by maintenance men living nearby.
British roads
The British government also gave importance to road construction. The
British engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the rst
scienti c road construction method. Stone size was an important element of
Macadam recipe. By empirical observation of many roads,he came to realize
that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken angular stone would provide
the same strength and stiffness and a better running surface than an expensive
pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus he introduced an economical
method of road construction.
The mechanical interlock between the individual stone pieces provided
strength and stiffness to the course. But the inter particle friction abraded the
sharp interlocking faces and partly destroy the effectiveness of the course.
This effect was overcome by introducing good quality interstitial finer
material to produce a well-graded mix. Such mixes also proved less
permeable and easier to compact. A typical cross section of British roads is
given in Figure 2:3.

Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use
of bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most important
developments. Various advanced and cost-effective construction technologies
are used. Development of new equipment’s helps in the faster construction of
roads. Many easily and locally available materials are tested in the
laboratories and then implemented on roads for making economical and
durable pavements.
Scope of transportation system has developed very largely. Population of
the country is increasing day by day. The life style of people began to change.
The need for travel to various places at faster speeds also increased. This
increasing demand led to the emergence of other modes of transportation like
railways and travel by air. While the above development in public transport
sector was taking place, the development in private transport was at a much
faster rate mainly because of its advantages like accessibility, privacy,
flexibility, convenience and comfort. This led to the increase in vehicular
traffic especially in private transport network. Thus road space available was
becoming insufficient to meet the growing demand of traffic and congestion
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started. In addition, chances for accidents also increased. This has led to the
increased attention towards control of vehicles so that the transport
infrastructure was optimally used. Various control measures like traffic
signals, providing roundabouts and medians, limiting the speed of vehicle at
specific zones etc. were implemented.
With the advancement of better roads and efficient control, more and more
investments were made in the road sector especially after the World wars.
These were large projects requiring large investment. For optimal utilization
of funds, one should know the travel pattern and travel behavior. This has led
to the emergence of transportation planning and demand management.

Highway planning in India

Excavations in the sites of Indus valley, Mohenjo-dero and Harappan

civilizations revealed the existence of planned roads in India as old as 2500-
3500 BC. The Mauryan kings also built very
good roads. Ancient books like Arthashastra written by Kautilya, a great
administrator of the Mauryan times, contained rules for regulating tra c,
depths of roads for various purposes, and punishments for obstructing tra c.
During the time of Mughal period, roads in India were greatly improved.
Roads linking North- West and the Eastern areas through gangetic plains
were built during this time.
After the fall of the Mughals and at the beginning of British rule, many
existing roads were improved. The construction of Grand-Trunk road
connecting North and South is a major contribution of the British. However,
the focus was later shifted to railways, except for feeder roads to important
stations.

Modern developments
The First World War period and that immediately following it found a rapid
growth in motor transport. So need for better roads became a necessity. For
that, the Government of India appointed a committee called Road
development Committee with Mr.M.R.Jayakar as the chairman. This
committee came to be known as Jayakar committee.

Jayakar Committee
In 1927 Jayakar committee for Indian road developmentwas

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appointed. The major recommendations and the resulting
implementations were:

 Committee found that the road development of the country has become
beyond the capacity of local governments and suggested that Central
government should take the proper charge considering it as a matter of
national interest.

 They gave more stress on long term planning programme, for a period of 20
years (hence called twenty year plan) that is to formulate plans and
implement those plans with in the next 20 years.

 One of the recommendations was the holding of periodic road conferences to

discuss about road construction and development. This paved the way for the
establishment of a semi-official technical body called Indian Road Congress
(IRC) in 1934

 The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor

transport which includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, and license
fees for vehicles plying for hire. This led to the introduction of a development
fund called Central road fund in 1929. This fund was intended for road
development.

INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

A dedicated research organization should be constituted to carry out

research and development work. This resulted in the formation of
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.

Nagpur road congress 1943

The Second World War saw a rapid growth in road traffic and this led
to the deterioration in the condition of roads. To discuss about
improving the condition of roads, the government convened a
conference of chief engineers of provinces at Nagpur in 1943. The
result of the conference is famous as the Nagpur plan.

A twenty year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was

finalized. It was the first attempt to prepare a co-ordinated road
development programme in a planned manner.
The roads were divided into four classes:

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A. National highways which would pass through states, and places
having national importance for strategic, administrative and
other purposes.

B. State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.

C. District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to
the interior of the district. According to the importance, some are
considered as major district roads and the remaining as other
district roads.
D. Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.

The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the

country within 20 years. They recommended the construction of

star and grid pattern of roads throughout the country.

One of the objectives was that the road length should be increased so as
to give a road density of 16kms per 100 sq.km

Bombay road congress 1961

The length of roads envisaged under the Nagpur plan was achieved by
the end of it, but the road system was deficient in many respects. The
changed economic, industrial and agricultural conditions in the country
warranted a review of the Nagpur plan. Accordingly a 20-year plan was
drafted by the Roads wing of Government of India, which is popularly
known as the Bombay plan. The highlights of the plan were:
 It was the second 20 year road plan (1961-1981)
 The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.

 Rural roads were given specific attention. Scientific methods of

construction were proposed for the rural roads. The necessary
technical advice to the Panchayaths should be given by State
PWD's.

 They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as

to give a road density of 32kms/100 sq.km

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 The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the
plan.

Lucknow road congress 1984

This plan has been prepared keeping in view the growth pattern
envisaged in various fields by the turn of the century. Some of the
salient features of this plan are as given below:
This was the third 20 year road plan (1981-2001). It is also called Lucknow road
plan.
 It aimed at constructing a road length of 12 lakh kilometres by the
year 1981 resulting in a road density of 82kms/100 sq.km
 The plan has set the target length of NH to be completed by the end
of seventh, eighth and ninth five year plan periods.
 It aims at improving the transportation facilities in villages, towns etc.
such that no part of

country is farther than 50 km from NH.

 One of the goals contained in the plan was that expressways should
be constructed on major traffic corridors to provide speedy travel.
 Energy conservation, environmental quality of roads and road safety
measures were also given due importance in this plan.

Characteristics of Road Transport

• It is an accepted fact that of all the modes of transport the transportation,
road transport is the nearest to the people. The passenger and the
goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a
railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone
could serve the remotest villages of the vast country like ours.

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• The characteristics of road transport are briefly listed here

• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars,
buses, trucks. But railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and
wagons.
• Road Transport requires a relative small investment for the
government. Motor vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers
like rail locomotives and wagons.
• Road transport offer a complete freedom to road user to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another and from one road to another
according to the needs and convenience.

• In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time.

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Trains stop at junctions and main stations for longer time.
• Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of
accidents. The road transport is subjected to a high degree of accidents
due to the flexibility of movements offered to the road users.
Derailment of railway locomotives and air crashes of air plane are also
not uncommon.
• Road Transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to
the whole community alike.

• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars,
buses, trucks, pedal cycle and animal drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from
one lane to another and from one road to another according to need and
convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related with the severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the
whole community alike.

Highway alignment and surveys

• The position or layout of centre line of the highway on the ground is

called the alignment.
• It includes straight path, horizontal deviation and curves.
• Due to improper alignment , the disadvantages are,
 Increase in construction
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
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 Increase in accident cost
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the
alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of
costly structure.

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Requirements of highway alignment

 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical
• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two
terminal stations.
• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum problem also easy
for operation of vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of
stability of natural hill slope, embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic
operation.
• Economical-total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle
operation cost should be minimum.

Factors controlling alignment

 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations Additional care in hill roads
 Stability
 Drainage

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 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Resisting length

Obligatory points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town, Mountain pass etc…
 Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass.
Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land etc…
Traffic
• Origin and destination survey should be carried out in the area and the desire
lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow.
• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic flow
patterns and future trends.
Geometric design
• Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also govern
the final alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
• Avoid road intersections near bend
Economy
• Alignment finalized based on total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost
and vehicle operation cost.
Other consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
• Environmental consideration
Topographical control points
• The alignment, where possible should avoid passing through
 Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage
 Flood prone areas
 Unstable hilly features
Materials and constructional features
 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better soil area to minimize pavement
thickness
 Location may be near sources of embankment and pavement materials
Stability
• A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
• The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads on hilly sides causes
steepening of existing slope and affect its stability.
Drainage
• Avoid the cross drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum.

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Geometric standard of hilly road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
Resisting length
• The total work to be done to move the loads along the route taking horizontal
length, the actual difference in level between two stations and the sum of the
ineffective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient. Should keep as low as
possible.

Engineering Surveys for Highway locations

Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys
are to be carried out. The various stages of engineering surveys are
 Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)
 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary survey
 Final location and detailed surveys

Map study:-
• From the map alternative routes can be suggested i the office, if the topographic
map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from the fallowing details
available on the map.
 Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
 Avoiding bend of river
 If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain
pass.
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the
field
Reconnaissance survey:-
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• To examine the general character of the area in field for deciding the most
feasible routes for detailed studies.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed alternative routes of the map in
the field with very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometers,
barometer etc…. To collect additional details.
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this
Surveys are,
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent
structure and other obstruction.
 Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve.
 Number and type of cross drainage structures.
 High Flood Level (HFL)
 Soil Characteristics.
 Geological features.
 Source of construction materials- stone quarries, water sources.

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 Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative routes.

 As a result a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based on
practical considerations observed at the site

Preliminary survey:-
Objective of preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance
and to collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography,
drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the good
alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspect and to
work out the cost of the alternate proposals.
Methods of preliminary survey:
a) Conventional approach-survey party carries out surveys using the required field
equipment, taking measurement, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out soil survey.
 Longitudinal and cross sectional profile
 Plain Terrain : 100 – 200m
 Rolling Terrain : 50m
 Hilly Terrain : 30m
 Other studies
 Drainage, Hydrological survey, soil survey, Traffic and Material
survey
b) Modern rapid approach-
 By Aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs for obtaining the
necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology
 Finalise the best alignment from all considerations by comparative analysis
of alternative routes.
 The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to
be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established on the ground and centre pegs are
driven, checking the geometric design requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50m interval in plane and
rolling terrains and 20m in hilly terrain.
Detailed survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250m and at all drainage
and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout from the level
books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in Plane terrain, 50-75m
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in Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area, 20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined for design of
pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing
detailed plans, design and estimates of project.

Highway project
• Map study
• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary survey
• Location of final alignment
• Detailed survey
• Material survey
• Geometric and structural design
• Earth work
• Pavement construction
• Construction controls
Highway Drawings and Report
 Key map
 Index map
 Preliminary survey plans
 Detailed plan and longitudinal section
 Detailed cross section
 Land acquisition plans
 Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
 Drawings of road intersections
 Land plans showing quarries etc

Preparation of Detailed Project Reports

 DPR (Detailed Project Report) is the primary report for the formulation of the
investment proposal. Investment decisions are taken based on the details
incorporated in the study. The first step in feasibility study is the needs analysis.
The purpose is to define overall objectives of the system proposed to be
designed.
 The second and perhaps the most important thing is system identification. This is
referred to as activity analysis.
 After the preparation of feasibility study report, it is being reviewed by our
experts in the concerned department. In case of any differences, the report is
modified as discussed with experts.
 Preparation of Detailed Project Report is further step in firming up the proposal.
When an investment proposal has been approved on the basis functional report
and the proposal is a major proposal, it would be necessary to detailed project
report to firm up the proposal for the capital cost as well as the various facilities.
 Detailed Project Reports of RBSA are the base documents for further planning

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and implementation of the project.

Public–Private Partnership (PPP):-

A public–private partnership (PPP) is a government service or private
business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of
government and one or more private sector companies. These schemes are
sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or P3.

• PPP involves a contract between a public sector authority and a private party, in
which the private party provides a public service or project and assumes
substantial financial, technical and operational risk in the project. In some
types of PPP, the cost of using the service is borne exclusively by the users of the
service and not by the taxpayer.

• In other types (notably the private finance initiative), capital investment is

made by the private sector on the basis of a contract with government to
provide agreed services and the cost of providing the service is borne wholly

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or in part by the government. Government contributions to a PPP may also be in
kind (notably the transfer of existing assets).

• In projects that are aimed at creating public goods like in the infrastructure
sector, the government may provide a capital subsidy in the form of a one-
time grant, so as to make it more attractive to the private investors. In
some other cases, the government may support the project by providing revenue
subsidies, including tax breaks or by removing guaranteed annual revenues for a
fixed time period.

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Beyond Syllabus
Automated Highway Systems

The demand for overburdened highway system was every time on high. Traffic is jumbled,
drivers are snarling. Why should a routine 20 minute drive; take hours? this is the question every time
we have when we stuck in traffic. While the traffic blockage multiplies the effects of individual
variations in driving performance "as determined by physical abilities, knowledge, experience and,
indeed, personality". Many of us lose control over our plans and schedules; at times we rush as we are
late or to come early; but this either cause accidents or create ill; or sometimes take us recklessness
and bad temper. such situations in turn, makes the highway system even more sluggish, erratic, and
nonresponsive to driver needs.
Let us see how - the Automated Highway System - AHS program help and how it stepped high
in response to the mandate of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 -ISTEA.
There are many precautions and experiments done to develop an automated highway and vehicle
prototype, however this is a known fact that with such experiments the future will be fully automated
and the intelligent vehicles and highway systems can be developed. They will in turn provide the
vision and technology to make highway driving more efficient, safe, and predictable. While in an
automated highway system, a car will be guided by the road rather than by the driver. This will be
done by the Sensors and communication devices which will link the road and the vehicle to maximize
driving performance. In such cases the driver error will be reduced and ultimately the full
implementation be eliminated.

These high-performance highway systems seem as the next major evolutionary stage of
surface transportation, and are expected to be the focus of major U.S. implementation efforts early in
the next century, much like the Interstate Highway System program was the focus of the last half of
this century. Though AHS represents a long-term effort, the most exciting aspect of it is that the
technology is ready now. This technology to automate routine driving functions exists and will be
demonstrated in 1997.
Benefits of AHS
Recent research has proven that the benefits of AHS on the performance of the existing U.S.
transportation system will, over time, be enormous and far-reaching. Over the long term, traffic
overcrowding will be reduced; safety will be improved to produce a virtually collision-free
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environment; driving will be predictable and consistent. More specifically, the advantages of AHS
implementation include the following.
 More vehicles can be accommodated on the highway, and the number of vehicles per hour per
lane can be considerably increased as traffic speeds are standardized and increased and
headway distances are decreased.
 Driving safety will be significantly greater than present; while the human error factor will be
removed.
 High-performance driving can be conducted without regard to weather and environmental
conditions. Fog, haze, low sun angle, rain, blowing dirt, snow, darkness, and other conditions
affecting driver visibility and thus, safety and traffic flow will no longer obstruct progress.
 All drivers using AHS can be safe, efficient drivers. AHS offers enhanced mobility for people
with disabilities, the elderly, and less experienced drivers.
 Fuel consumption and emissions can be reduced. In other way these reductions will be
accomplished because start-and-stop driving will be minimized and because on-board sensors
will be monitored to ensure that the vehicle is operating at top performance. In the long term,
the AHS can support future vehicle force/fuel designs.
 Land can be used more efficiently and roads will not need to take up as much room, since
AHS facilities should allow for more effective use of the right of way.
 More competent commercial operations; and commercial trucking can realize better trip
reliability to support "just-in-time" delivery.
 More proficient transit operations. Transit operations can be automated, extending the
flexibility and convenience of the transit option to increase ridership and service.

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MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A.Y.: 2020-21

Year/Semester: III/I

Regulation: R18

LECTURE NOTES

ON

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

1. Mr. M.GNANENDRA BABU

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS Page 1

UNIT-II HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Overview
The features of the cross-section of the pavement influence the life of the pavement as well as
the riding comfort and safety. Of these, pavement surface characteristics affect both of these.
Camber, kerbs, and geometry of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be
considered in this regard. They are explained brie y in this chapter.
Pavement surface characteristics
For safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the friction
between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light
reflection characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.
Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.
Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction
Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Various factors that affect friction are:
a.Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
b.Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
c.Condition of the tyre (new or old),
d.Speed and load of the vehicle.
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f . The choice of the value
of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient
of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on
The speed and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15. The former is useful in sight distance
calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.

Importance of Highway Geometric Design

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the
positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The
basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost
and environmental damage.

Importance of geometric design

•The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersection.

•The main objective of highway design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation with
maximum safety at reasonable cost.

•Geometric design of highways deals with following elements

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Design Controls and criteria

•Design speed

•Topography

•Traffic factors

•Design hourly volume and capacity

•Environmental and other factors

Design speed

•In India different speed standards have been assigned for different class of road

•Design speed may be modified depending upon the terrain conditions.

Topography

•Classified based on the general slope of the country.

-<10%

-10-25%

-25-60%

->60%

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Traffic factor

•Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users.

•Different vehicle classes have different speed and acceleration characteristics, different
dimensions and weight .

•Human factor includes the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of driver and
pedestrian.

Design hourly volume and capacity

•Traffic flow fluctuating with time

•Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value during the peak hour.

•It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic flow.

Environmental factors

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Pavement surface characteristics

Pavementsurfacedependonthetypeofpavementwhichisdecidedbasedonthe,

•Availability of material

•Volume and composition of traffic

•Soil subgrade

•Climatic condition

•Construction facility

•Cost consideration

The important surface characteristics are:

Friction

•Skidding: when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to their rotation.

•Slipping: when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the
road.

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Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance

•Types of pavement surface

•Roughness of pavement

•Condition of the pavement: wet or dry

•Type and condition of tyre

•Speed of the vehicle

•Brake efficiency

•Load and tyre pressure

•Temperature of tyre and pavement

new tyre with good

threds gives higher friction factor on wet pavement

-efficient of friction varies 0.35 to 0.4 and lateral co-

efficient of friction of 0.15

Pavement unevenness

•Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than uneven surface.

•It affects,

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•It is commonly measure by an equipment call “Bump Integrator”

•Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface
recorded per unit horizontal length.

•250 cm/km for a speed of 100kmph and more than 350 cm/km considered very unsatisfactory
even at speed of 50 kmph.

 Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by

 In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement layers.

 Un-scientific construction practices including the use of boulder stones and bricks as
soiling course over loose subgrade soil.
 Use of inferior pavement material.
 Improper surface and subsurface drainage.
 Improper construction machinery.
 Poor maintenance

Light reflecting characteristics

•Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface

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•The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on wet pavement surface than on dry pavement
particularly in case of black top pavement or flexible pavement.

•Light colored or white pavement or rigid pavement surface give good visibility at night particularly
during the rain, and produces glare or eye strain during bright sunlight.

Highway cross section elements

•Carriageway

•Shoulder

•Roadway width

•Right of way

•Building line

•Control line

•Median

•Camber/ cross slope

•Crown

•Side slope

•Kerb

•Guard rail

•Side drain

•Other facilities

Carriageway:

•It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle, it takes the vehicular loading .

•It may be cement concrete road or bituminous pavement.

•Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the width of the vehicle and the minimum side
clearance for safety.

•As per IRC specification, the maximum width of vehicle is 2.44m,minimum clearance of 0.68 in case of
single lane and 1.02m in case of double lane.

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Shoulder:

•It is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle.

•It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.

•The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of the shoulder would have a
clearance of 1.85m from the pavement edge.

•IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is 2.5 m

•It should have sufficient load bearing capacity even in wet weather.

•The surface of the should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles are discouraged to use the
shoulder as a regular traffic.

•The colour should be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.

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Width of the roadway or formation width:

•It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement including separators if any and the
shoulders.

Right of way:

•It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its alignment.

•It depends on the importance of the road and possible future development.

•It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of adjoining land invariably increases
very much, soon after the new highway is constructed.

Building lane:

•In order to reserve sufficient space for future development of roads, It is desirable to control the
building activities on either side of the road boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the
land.

Control lines:

•In addition to “building line”, it is desirable to control the nature of building up to further
“setback distance”.

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Traffic separators or median:

•The main function is to prevent head on collision between the vehicle moving in opposite
direction.

•Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.

•Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.

•IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m and may be reduce to 3 m where land is
restricted.

•The minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2m.

Cross slope or camber:

•It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water
from the road surface.

•To prevent the entry of surface water into the sub grade soil through pavement.

•To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layer.

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UNIT-II HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

•To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quick as possible and to allow the
pavement to get dry soon after the rain.

•It is expressed as a percentage or 1V: Nh.

•It depends on the pavement surface and amount of rainfall.

Shape of the cross slope:

•Parabolic shape (fast moving vehicle)

•Straight line

•Combination of parabolic and straight line

Too steep slope is not desirable because of the fallowing reasons

•Uncomfortable side thrust and unequal wear of the tyresas well as road surface.

•Problem of toppling over highly laden bullock cart and truck.

•Tendency of most of vehicle travel along the centre line.

Kerb:

•It indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder.

•It is desirable to provide kerbs in urban areas.

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•It is of three types

1-Low or mountable kerb:

•It allows the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty.

•The height of this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with slope to
help the vehicle climb the kerb easily.

2-Semi-barrier kerb:

•It is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the pedestrian traffic is high.

•Height of about 15 cm above the pavement edge with a batter of 1:1 on the top 7.5 cm.

•It prevents parking the vehicle but during emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with
some difficulty.

3-Barrier type kerb:

•It is provided in built-up area adjacent to the foot paths with considerable pedestrian traffic.

•The height of the kerb is about 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter of 1V:0.25H.

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Guard rail

•It is provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is constructed on a fill exceeds 3 m.

•It is also provided on horizontal curve so as to provide a better night visibility of the curves
under the head light of the vehicle.

Road margins

Parking lane:

•These are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking

•As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer for moving vehicle.

•It should have sufficient width say 3m

Lay bay:

•These are provided near the public conveniences with guide map to enable driver to stop clear
off the carriageway.

•It has 3m width, 30m length with 15m end tapers on both sides.

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Bus bays:

•These may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with moving traffic.

•It is located atleast75m away from the intersection.

Frontage road:

•These are provided to give access to properties along an important highway with control access
to express way or free way

•It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by separator.

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Driveway:

•It connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel stations, service stations etc…

•It should be located away from the intersection.

Cycle track:

•It provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on the road is very high.

•A minimum width of 2m is provided for cycle track.

Footpath:

•These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic are heavy.

•To protect the pedestrian and decrease accident.

•Minimum width of 1.5m is provided.

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UNIT-II HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE

The actual distance along the road surface, which a driver from a specified height above
the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects, is known as sight distance

• Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, which a
driver from a specified height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or
moving objects.

OR

• It is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.

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Types of sight distance

There are three types of sight distance

1. Stopping sight distance

2. Overtaking sight distance

3. Sight distance at intersection

1. Stopping sight distance: The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision
with any other obstruction.

The stopping sight distance of a vehicle is the sum of

• A. lag distance
• B. breaking distance

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2. Over taking sight distance: The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite
direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
distance.

3. Sight distance at intersection

• It is important that on all approaches of intersecting roads, there is a clear view across the
corners from a sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicle.

• It is a very important at uncontrolled intersections.

• The area of unobstructed sight formed by the line of vision is called sight triangle.

Intermediate sight distance

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• Intermediate sight distance equal to twice stopping sight distance may be provided.
• The measurement of the intermediate sight distance may be made assuming both the
height of the eye level of the driver and the object to be 1.2 m above the road surface.

DESIGN OFHORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Horizontal Alignment the horizontal alignment consists of straight roadway sections (tangents)
connected by horizontal curves, which are normally circular curves with or without transition
(spiral) curves. The basic design features of horizontal alignment include minimum radius,
transition curves, super elevation, and sight distance. To understand how the minimum radius is
determined, the radius–speed relationship is described first.

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Horizontal Curves
•A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the central line
of a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.

•P = W v²∕gR

•Where,
•P=centrifugeforce,kg
•W=weightofthevehicle,kg
•R=radiusofthecircularcurve,m
•v=speedofvehicle,m/sec
•g=accelerationduetogravity=9.8m/sec

•P/Wis known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor. The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to
v²∕gR
•The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects

ndencytoskidthe vehiclelaterally, outwards

Overturning effect
•The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when Ph = Wb/2, or when P/W =b/2h.
This means that there is danger of overturning when the centrifugal when the centrifugal ratio
P/Wor v²/gRattains a values of b/2h.

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Transverseskidding effect

•P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW

•Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratioP/Wis equal to ‘f ‘. In other words whenthe centrifugal ratio
attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral friction there is a dangerof lateral skidding.

•Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio should
always be less than b/2hand also ‘f’

•‘f’is less than b/2h.-The vehicle would skid and not overturn

•b/2his lower than ‘f’-The vehicle would overturn on the outer side before skidding

Super elevation

•In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve, this transverse
inclination to the pavement surface is known as Super elevation or cant or banking.

•The Super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width.

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Analysis of Super elevation

•The force acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R meters, at speed of
v m/sec are

•The centrifugal force P=Wv²/gR acting horizontal outwards through the centre of gravity, CG

•The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downloads through the CG

•The frictional force developed between the wheels and the pavement counteractions
transversely along the pavement surface towards the centre of the curve

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UNIT-II HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

e =rate of Super elevation=tanӨ

•f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15

•v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec

•R = radius of the horizontal curve, mg = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec²

Maximum Super elevation

•In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less dense materials like straw or
cotton, the centre of gravity of the loaded vehicle will be relatively high and it will not be safe
for such vehicles to move on a road with a high rate of Super elevation. Because of the slow
speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly small in the case ofbullock carts. Hence to avoid
the danger of toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to limit the value of
maximum allowable Superelevation.

•Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of Superelevationin plan and rolling
terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0 %.

•On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevationupto10%.

•On urban roadstretches with frequent intersections, it may be necessary to limit the maximum
Superelevationto 4.0 %.

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Minimum Superelevation

•From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross to drain off the surface
water. If the calculated Superelevationis equal to or less than the camber of the road surface, then
the minimum Superelevationto beprovided on horizontal curve may be limited to the camber of
the surface.

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

•On horizontal corves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is common to widen the
pavement slightly more than the normal width,

•Widening is needed for the following reasons:

ear wheel doesn’t track the front wheel. Known as

‘Off tracking’

lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.

rtake at horizontal curve there is psychological tendency to

maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.

Off tracking

•An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned, when this vehicle
takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do not follow the same path as that of
the front wheels. This phenomenon is called off tracking.

•The required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves depends on the length of
the wheel base of the vehicle ‘l’, radius of the curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.

Analysis of extra widening on curves

•It is divided into two parts;

echanical widening (Wm): the widening required to account for the off tracking due to the
rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical widening

reasons such as , to provide for greater maneuverability of steering at high speed, to allow for the

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extra space for overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for crossing and
overturning vehicles on curve.

•Total widening W = Wps+ Wm

Horizontal transition curves

•When a non circular curve is introduce between a straight and a circular curve has a varying
radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the desired radius of
the circular curve at the other end (curve point) for the gradual introduction of centrifugal force
is known as transition curve.

Objectives for providing transition curve

circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of passengers.

e aesthetic appearance of the road.

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Type of transition curve

•spiral or clothoid

•cubic parabola

•Lemniscate

•IRC recommends spiralas the transition curve because it fulfills the requirement of an ideal
transition curve, that is;

ntrifugal acceleration is consistent

(Ls ᾳ1/R) and calculation and field implementation is very easy.

case-2:Rate of introduction of super-elevation

•If the pavement is rotated about the center line.

Ls=EN/2=eN/2(W+We)

•If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge

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UNIT-II HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Ls= EN= eN(W+We)

•Where W is the width of pavement

•We is the extra widening

•Rate of change of superelevationof 1 in N

Vertical alignment
The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centerline of the road.
The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve and it influence the vehicle speed,
acceleration, sight distance and comfort in vehicle movements at high speed.

Gradient

•It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1vertical unit to x horizontal unit).Sometimes the gradient is also
expressed as a percentage i.e. n% (nin100).

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve. Before
finalizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems

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in the site also has to be considered. Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as possible
because of the difficulty to climb and increase in the construction cost. More about gradients are
discussed below.

Types of gradient

Many studies have shown that gradient up to seven percent can have considerable effect on the
speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably
reduced when long gradients as flat as two percent is adopted. Although, flatter gradients are
desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high. Therefore, IRC has
specified the desirable gradients for each terrain. However, it may not be economically viable to
adopt such gradients in certain locations; steeper gradients are permitted for short duration.
Different types of grades are discussed below and the recommended type of gradients for each
type of terrain and type of gradient is given in table 17:1. Ruling gradient, limiting gradient,
exceptional gradient and minimum gradient are some types of gradients which are discussed
below

Ruling gradient

The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the
grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter
terrain, it may be possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and
sometimes not possible also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by considering a
particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard dimensions. But our
country has a heterogeneous traffic and hence it is not possible to lay down precise standards for
the country as a whole. Hence IRC has recommended some values for ruling gradient for
different types of terrain.

Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of
construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt limiting
gradient. But the length of the limiting gradient stretches should be limited and must be
sandwiched by either straight roads or easier grades.

Exceptional gradient

Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They should be
limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 metres at a stretch. In mountainous and steep
terrain, successive exceptional gradients must be separated by a minimum 100 metre length
gentler gradient. At hairpin bends, the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.

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Critical length of the grade

The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate without undue
reduction in speed is called critical length of the grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable
value. This value depends on the size, power, load, grad-ability of the truck, initial speed, final
desirable minimum speed etc.

Minimum gradient

This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will take care of
the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope for
smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it
depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be
sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found to give satisfactory
performance..

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Beyond Syllabus

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UNIT-III Traffic Engineering and Regulation
MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A.Y.: 2020-21

Year/Semester: III/I

Regulation: R18

LECTURE NOTES
ON
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

1. Mr. M.GNANENDRA BABU

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS Page 1

UNIT-III Traffic Engineering and Regulation
Topics Included
1. Introduction
2. Basic principles
3. Traffic volume, speed and density - Definitions and their interrelationships
4. Traffic Volume studies
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Methods of volume counts
4.3 Presentation of volume data
5. Speed studies
5.1 Types of speeds
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Methods of speed studies

Introduction

 Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics

 These studies helps in deciding the geometric design features, and traffic control for safe and efficient
traffic movement

Traffic Volume/Flow

 Traffic volume (q) is defined as the number of vehicles (n) crossing a section of road per unit time
(t) at any selected period

 Units: vehicles/hour or vehicles/day

n
 Mathematically, q
t
 The volume measurement is carried out by counting the number of vehicles, passing a particular
point in one lane in a defined period

Traffic Speed

 It is defined as the average speed of vehicles moving in the traffic stream

 Speed of one vehicle is defined as the distance traveled by it per unit time

 Unit: km/h or m/sec

d
 Mathematically, v 
t
where, v = speed of the vehicle in m/sec,

d = distance traveled in m, and

t = time in seconds

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UNIT-III Traffic Engineering and Regulation
Density

 Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane

 Unit: Vehicles/km (veh/km)

 One can photograph a length of road , count the number of vehicles in one lane of the road at
that point of time and derive the density as:

nx
k
x
Where, k = Density,

nx = Number of vehicles over distance x

x = Distance

Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow:-

 The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented with the help
of some curves, which are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

Flow-density curve:

 The relation between the density and the corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is referred
to as one of the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship:

1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero, since there are no vehicles on the road
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow increases
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles can’t move. This is
referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density, flow will be zero because
the vehicles are not moving
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is maximum.
This relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve

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 The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow
 The point B refers to the maximum flow and the corresponding density is kmax
 The point C refers to the maximum density kjam and the corresponding flow is zero
 OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O, and the slope of the line OA gives the mean free
flow speed, i.e. the speed with which a vehicle can travel when there is no flow
 Note: Points D and E correspond to same flow but has two different densities
 The slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at density k1 and slope of the line OE will give
mean speed at density k2
 Clearly the speed at density k1 will be higher since there are less number of vehicles on the road

Speed-density diagram
 When density is close to zero, speed will be maximum (called as, free flow speed), and when the
density is maximum (jam density), the speed will be zero
 The most simple assumption is that this variation of speed is linear as shown in the fig. bellow:

Speed-flow curve
 The flow is zero either because there is no vehicles or there are too many vehicles so that they
cannot move
 At maximum flow, the speed will be in between zero and free flow speed

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TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY

 Volume is generally accepted as a true measure of the relative importance of roads and used in
deciding the priority for improvement and expansion
Methods of volume count

Manual • Direct Method

Counting • Indirect Method
Method

Automatic • Contact System

Counting • Contact-less System
Method
1a). Manual method: Direct method
 In this method, the count is taken by persons standing at the roadside and recording passing
vehicles on a form
 Hand tally and manual counters/ enumerators are used to record the count
 The collected data include: the count records of individual vehicles by categories (i.e. a truck or
car) and the direction they are travelling in
Advantages:
 Comparatively cheaper method of counting
 By this method, traffic volume as well as vehicle classification and turning proportions can be
obtained
 Data can be used easily immediately after collection
Disadvantages:
 This method is not practicable for long duration count and when flow is high.
 Error is common especially when volume is high
 Count cannot be cross checked

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 Count cannot be done in bad weather.
1b). Manual method: Indirect method
 In this method, data is collected using video camera. Video is captured for long time and data is
collected later by rewinding.
 Advantages: Besides traffic volume, several traffic parameters can be obtained from recorded
film. Data can be cross checked and quality can be ensured. This method is applicable when
volume is high. It is suitable for non-lane based traffic operation.
 Disadvantages: A suitable elevated place is required for filming operation. Data cannot be used
immediately after collection.

Manual method: Indirect method

2. Automatic methods
 In this method, vehicles are counted automatically without any human involvement
 Types:
a) Contact system based (pneumatic, mechanical, magnetic or piezoelectric method
b) Contact less system based (electrical/optical, ultrasound/ infra red radar, micro wave,
CCTV/video image processing, method etc.)
Advantages:
 This method is suitable for long duration or continuous count.
 Count is not affected by bad weather condition.
Disadvantages:
 It requires strict lane discipline.
 Non motorized vehicles are hard to detect
Equipment used for Automatic counting
1. Contact system

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2. Contactless system

Vehicle numbers are recorder using ultrasound, light beam or other infrared technology

Presentation of traffic volume data

1. Average Daily traffic (ADT):

 ADT is the volume of traffic counted on the roadway over a given time period divided by the
number of days in that time period
 Here, the time period is greater than one day but less than one year
2. Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT):
 Average annual daily traffic is obtained by adding daily traffic counts over one year divided by
365 days.

3. Trend charts
• Shows the hourly, daily or monthly changes in volume through an area
• Useful for planning, future expansion, design and regulation
4. Traffic Flow Maps:
• These show the traffic volume along various routes by using bands proportional to traffic volume
carried
• Thickness of lines represent traffic volume
5. Variations Charts:
 These help in deciding the facilities and regulations needed during peak traffic regulations
6. 30th highest peak hour volume:

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 The transportation links are designed neither for average nor for the maximum volume
 The peak hour volume that is used in design is termed as Design Hour Volume (DHV)
 Traditionally, the 30th highest peak hour is used for design of many rural highways
 This is obtained from a plot between peak hour volumes and the number of hours during a year
exceeding this volume
 30th highest peak hour is the point, where the slope of this curve changes from steep to relatively
gentle
 However, for urban and suburban facilities, the choice of design hour is not critical as the
difference in volume levels is not as great as rural facilities. A design hour in the range of 10th to
20th highest peak hour is chosen for urban facilities.

TRAFFIC SPEED STUDY

Types of Speed:

1. Spot speed:
 Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location
 It is collected using speed gun

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2. Running speed:

 Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is
moving
 It is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration when the vehicle was in
motion.
Journey speed:
 Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points
 It is calculated as ratio of the distance between the two points and the total time taken for the
vehicle to complete the journey including any stopped time
Time mean speed:
 It is the arithmetic mean of spot speeds of individual vehicles
 Thus, it represents the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway over some
specified time period
u i
uTMS  i

N
Where, uTMS = Time mean speed,
ui = Speed of ith vehicle,
N = Number of vehicles
Space mean speed:
 It is the harmonic mean of spot speeds of individual vehicles
 Thus, it is defined as the average speed of vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over
some specified time period

1 N
uSMS  
  1   1 
  ui   N   u
i  i
 i 
Where, uSMS = Space mean speed,
ui = Speed of ith vehicle,
N = Number of vehicles
Methods of speed studies
The speed of vehicles can be measured by:
 using pavement markings
 using speed guns (or the principle of Doppler effect)
 using two closely-spaced sensors, or
 using enoscope or mirror box
 using video camera
1. Using pavement markings:
 In this method, two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart

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 Two observers are required in this method. One observer stands at the starting point to start and
stop the stop watch and the other one stands at end point to give indication to stop the watch when
vehicle passes the end line
 Finally, speed is calculated from the known distance and time.
 Advantages: After the initial installation, no set-up time is required, and markings are easily
renewed
 Disadvantages: Substantial error can be introduced, and this method is only applicable for low
traffic conditions.
2. Using speed guns
(or the principle of Doppler effect):
 The instruments that use the principle of Doppler Effect are of two types: radar-based or laser-
based.
 These instruments are referred to as speed guns
 The speed measured using this equipment is the instantaneous speed of the vehicle and is often
referred as the ‘spot speed’
 When the speed of an object is constantly changing, the instantaneous speed is the speed of an
object at a particular moment (instant) in time
3. Using two closely-spaced sensors:
 Two detectors which can detect the presence of a vehicle are kept at a fixed distance apart
 The detectors record the times at which the axles of a vehicle cross the detectors
 From the difference in times and the distance between the detectors, the speed of the vehicle is
determined
4. Using Enoscope or Mirror box:
 Enoscope consists of a simple open housing containing a mirror mounted on a tripod at the side of
the road in such a way that an observer’s line of sight turned through 900.
 The observer stands at one end of section and on the other end enoscope is placed and measure the
time taken by the vehicle to cross the section

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5. Using video camera:

 A video camera can be used to record the traffic flow over a longitudinal trap length of known
length
 Subsequently, the average speed of a vehicle can be determined by taking the ratio of the trap
length and crossing time of the vehicle
 For heterogeneous traffic, a longitudinal trap of at 25-30 m length is considered

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Numerical 3:
Consider a situation where three cars are traversing a length D at speeds of 20 km/h, 40 km/h, and 60
km/h respectively.
Calculate time mean speed, space mean speed and average travel time of the vehicles.
Solution:
20  40  60
Time mean speed =  40 km/h
3
3
Space mean speed =  32.7 km/h
1 1 1
 
20 40 60
1 D D D
Average travel time =    h
3  20 40 60 
Presentation of speed data

1. Frequency Distribution Table

• From spot speed data, distribution tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups (covering
various speed ranges and number of vehicles in each range)

Example:
Spot Speed
Median Frequency
range
30-32 31 5
33-35 34 18
36-38 37 25
39-41 40 35
42-44 43 27
45-47 46 15
48-50 49 7
51-53 52 3
2. Frequency Distribution Curve
• Speed data are first divided into groups
• For each speed group, the % frequency of observations within the group is plotted versus the
middle (median) speed of the group(s).

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• As shown in the figure, from this curve the modal speed and pace of traffic flow can be
determined.
• Generally the shape of the curve follows the normal distribution curve, this because the most of the
vehicles move on road nearby mean speed and very few deviate from mean speed.
3. Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve
• Graph is plotted with average values of each group on X-axis and cumulative percentage of
vehicles travelling at different speeds, and the following speeds are obtained

• The cumulative frequency distribution curve results in a very useful plot of speed versus the
percent of vehicles traveling at or below the designated speed.
• Following percentile speeds could be estimated from the above graph:
(a) 85th percentile speed:
• It represents the safe speed limit
• It is the speed at which at least 85% of vehicles travel on a roadway
• Thus, only 15% of vehicles exceed the 85th percentile speed
• Drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are considered to drive faster than the safe speed
• It is adopted for Safe speed limit at a zone
(b) 50th percentile speed: It represents the median speed.
(c) 15th percentile speed: It represents the lower speed limit.
(d) 98th percentile speed: Used for checking the requirements of highway geometric design and taken as
“design speed”.
Origin and Destination Study
Origin
 It is the location where a trip begins
 It is described in terms of a street address, a monument (e.g., a well-known location, an office
building, a school, etc.), a street intersection or a district
Destination
 It is the location where a trip ends
 It has similar attributes as the trip origin
Origin-destination
 It describes both ‘ends’ of a single trip. This term is commonly abbreviated to ‘O-D.’

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Objectives of OD Studies:

OD Survey Techniques:
The following are some of the techniques available for conducting an O-D survey:

1. Home Interview Survey

 It is one of the most reliable type of surveys for collection of origin and destination data.
 The information to be collected from the home-interview survey can broadly be classified under 2
groups:
 Household information
 Journey data
Household information Contents

1. Address
2. Size of household
3. Age and sex structure of household

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4. Earning members.
5. No: of motor vehicles owned.
6. Household income etc.

 Based on the data collected from home interview survey, it is possible to relate the amount of
travel to household and zonal characteristics and develop equations for trip generation rates.
 It is impractical and unnecessary to interview all the residents of the study area
 Since travel patterns tend to be uniform in a particular zone, it is sufficient if a sampling procedure
is employed
 Size of sample is determined on basis of population of the study area and according to standards
2. Road-side Interview Survey:
 Road-side interview survey is one of the methods of carrying out a screen-line or cordon survey.
 The road-side interview survey can be done either directly interviewing drivers of vehicles at
selected survey points or by issuing prepaid post cards containing questionnaire to all or sample of
the drivers.
 The survey points are selected along the junction of the cordon-line or screen-line with the roads.
 Less than 5000 population – External cordon is sufficient.

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 For dual carriageways or roads with very little traffic the traffic in both the directions is dealt with
simultaneously.
 In other cases the traffic in 2 directions will be interviewed at different times.
 If the survey covers most of the day it may be sufficient to interview traffic in one direction only
and to assume that the journeys in the opposite direction are the same as the direction interviewed.

3. Post-card Questionnaire Survey:

 In this method, reply-paid questionnaires are handed over to each of the drivers or a sample of
them at the survey points and requesting them to complete the information and return by post.
 The method avoids delay caused to the drivers by direct road-side interview method but suffer
from disadvantage that the response may not be good.
4. Registration Number Plate Survey:
 Registration number plate survey consists of nothing the registration numbers of vehicles entering
or leaving an area at survey points located on the cordon line.
 By matching the registration numbers of vehicles at the points of entry and exit from the area, one
is enabled to identify 2 points on the paths of the vehicle.

5. Tags on vehicles:

 In this method, at each point where the roads cross the cordon line, vehicles are stopped and a tag
is affixed, usually under a windscreen wiper
 The tags for different survey stations have different shapes and/or colour to identify the survey
stations
 The vehicles are stopped again at the exit points where the tags are removed
 The times of entering and leaving the area may be marked on the tags in order to enable the
journey times to be determined
Parking Studies:
1. Parameters of parking and definitions
2. Parking inventory study
3. Parking survey by Patrolling method
4. Analysis of Parking Survey data

A. Parking Studies

Introduction:
 Parking is one of the major problems created by road traffic
 In addition to the space to move, vehicles also require space to park where occupants can be
loaded and unloaded
 Parking studies are conducted to collect the required information about the capacity and use of
existing parking facilities
 Before parking studies can be initiated, the study area must be defined. A cordon line is drawn to
delineate the study area

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1. Parking statistics

A. Parking accumulation

 It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of time

 Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve (the graph obtained by plotting the number of
bays occupied with respect to time)

B. Parking volume
 Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time.
 This does not account for repetition of vehicles
C. Parking load
 Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve
 It can also be obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at
each time interval with the time interval
 It is expressed as vehicle hours
D. Average parking duration
 It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked
E. Parking turnover
 It denotes the rate of the usage of the available parking space
 It is estimated as the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of parking
bays available
 It can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time duration
Example: If there were 10 parking bays used by 100 vehicles in a period of 12 hours, then parking turn-over would
be: 100/10 = 10 vehicles per bay in a period of 12 hours

F. Parking index:
 Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency.
 It is defined as the ratio of number of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available

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Parking load
Parking index = ×100
Parking capacity

2. Parking inventory study

 Various information on the current condition of parking facilities are collected during the
inventory study
 These information include:
 the location, condition, type, and number of parking spaces
 parking rates (if appropriate)
 time limits and other restrictions, if any
 layout of spaces: geometry and other features (such as crosswalks and city services)
 ownership of the off-street facilities

3. Parking usage survey by patrol:

 This survey results in the most accurate and realistic data
 In this survey, every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval (e.g., 15 minutes) and the
license plate number is noted down
 This gives the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was parked in a bay
 This helps in calculating the fare (as the fare is estimated based on the duration for which the
vehicle was parked)
 If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chance of missing short-term parkers
 Limitation: This method is labor intensive

Data Sheet for Parking Usage Study

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Example 1

Question: The parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is shown in table
below. Find the average occupancy, average turnover, average parking duration, parking load, parking
capacity and efficiency of parking lot.

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 Column 1 to 5 is the input data. The parking status in every bay is coded first. If a vehicle occupies
that bay for that time interval, then it has a code 1. This is shown in columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the
tables corresponding to the time intervals 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds.
 Average occupancy is found out as the average of total number of vehicles occupying the bay for
each time interval. It is expressed in percentage.

Average occupancy = [(0.83+0.83+0.83+0.5)/4]*100 = 75%

 Turnover is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that particular hour. For the
first bay, it is counted as 2. Similarly, for the second bay, one vehicle is present throughout that
hour and hence turnout is 1 itself this is being tabulated in column 10 of the table. Total turnover in
all the bays or parking volume= 2+1+1+1+1+1 = 7 vehicles

Average turn-over = (Sum of turn-over)/Total number of bays = 7/6=1.17

 Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time interval time =
[(5+5+5+3)*15]/60= 4.5 vehicle hours
 Average parking duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the vehicles.
It can be calculated as sum of the accumulation for each time interval time interval divided by the
parking volume = ((5+5+5+3)*15)/7 = 38.57 minutes/vehicle.
 Parking capacity = number of bays * number of hours = 6*1 = 6 vehicle hours
 Efficiency = Parking load/Total number of bays = 4.5/6 = 75%.

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 Columns 1 to 5 are the input data. The parking status in every bay is coded first. If a vehicle
occupies that bay for that time interval, then it has a code 1. This is shown in columns 6, 7, 8 and 9
of the table corresponding to the time intervals 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds.
 Turnover is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that particular hour. For the
first bay, it is counted as 3. Similarly, for the second bay, one vehicle is present throughout that
hour and hence turnout is 1 itself. This is being tabulated in column 10 of the table. Average
turnover = (Sum of turn-over)/Total number of bays = 2.25 vehicles/bay
 Accumulation for a time interval is the total of number of vehicles in the bays 1 to 12 for that time
interval. Accumulation for first time interval of 15 minutes =

1+1+1+1+1+0+0+1+1+1+1+1 = 10

 Parking volume = Sum of the turn-over in all the bays = 27 vehicles

 Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time interval time =
[(10+11+9+11)*15]/60= 10.25 vehicle hours

 Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the vehicles. It can be
calculated as the ratio of parking load and parking volume = 10.25/27 = 0.37 hours/vehicle =
22.78 minutes/vehicle

 Occupancy for a time interval is accumulation in that particular interval divided by total number of
bays. For first time interval of 15 minutes, occupancy = (10/12)*100 = 83% Average occupancy is
found out as the average of total number of vehicles occupying the bay for each time interval. It is
expressed in percentage.

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So, Average occupancy = (0.83+0.92+0.75+0.92)/4*100 = 85.42%.

 Parking capacity = number of bays * number of hours = 12*1 = 12 vehicle hours

 Efficiency = Parking load/Total number of bays = (10.25/12) = 85.42%.

Types of Parking

1. On-street Parking

 Parallel parking
 30o parking
 45o Parking
 60o Parking
 Right angle parking
2. Off-street Parking

On Street Parking On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself..

Parallel parking

The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward movement involved
while parking or un-parking the vehicle. Hence, it is the safest parking system from the accident
perspective
It consumes the maximum curb length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can be parked
for a given curb length.
This method of parking produces least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since least road
width is used.
The length available to park N number of vehicles, L= 5.9 N

30o Parking
 In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 300 with respect to the road alignment.
 More vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking.
 Delay caused to the traffic is also minimum in this type of parking

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The length available to park N number of vehicles, L = 5 N + 1.25

45o Parking

 As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked

 Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this type of parking

Length of parking space available for parking N number of vehicles in a given Kerb is L = 3.54 N + 1.77

60o Parking

 The vehicles are parked at 60° to the direction of road.

 More number of vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type.

Length available for parking N vehicles = 2.89N + 2.16

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Right angle parking

 The vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road.

 It consumes maximum width, but curb length required is very little.
 In this type of parking, the vehicles need complex maneuvering and this may cause severe
accidents.
 This arrangement causes obstruction to the road traffic but it can accommodate maximum number
of vehicles for a given curb length.

Length available for parking N number of vehicles is L = 2.5N.

Off-street Parking

 In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some
distance away from the main stream of traffic.
 Such a parking is referred to as off-street parking.
 It may be operated by either public agencies or private firms.

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Accident Studies
Introduction:
 Accident is a very serious issue in road transportation
 It leads to loss of life and property
 Thus, traffic engineers have to undertake a big responsibility of providing safe traffic movements
to the road users
 The rate of accidents can be reasonably reduced by adopting suitable traffic engineering
measures
 Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose preventive measures in terms of
proper design and control
Causative factors of road accidents:
1. Road Users: Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive traffic
situation or traffic sign, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep, etc.
2. Vehicle: Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, lighting system failure
3. Road Condition: Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design: Defective geometric design like: inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting
5. Environmental factors: Unfavorable weather conditions like fog, snow, smoke and heavy rainfall,
which restrict normal visibility and makes driving unsafe
6. Other causes: Improper location of advertisement boards, and gate of level crossing not closed when
required etc.
Measures to increase road safety:
Goal: To develop certain improvement measures for minimizing accident rate
The safety measures are generally divided into three groups:
1. Engineering
2. Enforcement
3. Education
These are called the three ‘E’s of road safety program
Other safety measures include
1. Road safety audit
2. Legislative measures
1. Safety measures related to engineering:

Various engineering measures that may be useful to prevent accidents are:

1. Segregation of traffic
2. One-way streets
3. Visual guidance to driver
4. Road reconstruction
5. Channelization
6. Road signs
7. Street lighting

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8. Improvement in skid resistance
9. Road markings
10. Guide posts with or without reflector
11. Guard rail
12. Driver reviver stop
13. Constructing flyovers and bypass
14. Regular accident studies
1. Segregation of traffic:
 The segregation of different kinds of vehicles effectively minimizes the hazards and discomforts
 The segregation can be achieved in three ways as follows:
i. Physical segregation - by the provision of separate bicycle lanes, pedestrian subways, etc.
ii. Segregation in relation to time – by restricting the entry of certain classes of vehicles
during defined hours
iii. Segregation in relation to direction - by providing one-way systems
2. One-way streets:
 The advantages of one-way streets include increased safety, reduced collisions, and reduced
conflicts for pedestrians and vehicles
3. Visual guidance to driver:

 There is consecutive change of picture in the mind of a driver while he/she is in motion. Hence,
proper visual guidance should be provided to minimize the rate of accident.
 Using the laws of visual perception, certain measures have been suggested:
1. Providing elements that differ from its surrounding by colors and pattern such as shoulder strips,
shoulder covered with grass and edge markings, etc.
2. Providing road side vegetation
3. The visibility of crown of trees from a distant location is also very useful in visual guiding
4. The provision of guard rails of different contrasting colors also takes drivers attention and
prevent from monotonous driving.

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4. Road reconstruction:
 The number of vehicles on the road increases from year to year, which introduces complications in
traffic operations and leads to the growth of accident rate
 This leads to the need of reconstructing road
5. Channelization:
 The Channelization of traffic at intersection separates the traffic stream travelling in different
direction, providing them a separate lane that corresponds to their convenient path
 This spreads the conflict points between crossing traffic streams as far as possible

6. Road sign:
 Road signs ensure safety of the driver himself as well as safety of other vehicles and pedestrians on
road
 Driver should be able to read the sign from a distance so that he/she has enough time to understand
and respond
 It is essential that the road signs are installed and have correct shape, color, size and location
7. Street lighting:
 Street lightning largely contributes to safety during night time
 Installation of good lighting results in 21% reduction in all accidents, 29% reduction in “all
casualties” accidents, 21% reduction in “non-pedestrian casualty” accidents, and 57% reduction in
“pedestrian casualty” accidents.
2. Safety measures related to enforcement

The various measures of enforcement that may be useful to prevent the accident rate include:
1. Speed control: Checks on spot speed of all vehicles should be done at different locations and
timings and legal actions on those who violate the speed limit should be taken
2. Training and supervision: The transport authorities should be strict while issuing license to
drivers of public service vehicles and taxis. Driving license of the driver may be renewed after
specified period, only after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is fit

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3. Medical check: The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals of
time
3. Safety measures related to education

The measures of education that may be useful to prevent accidents include:

1. Education of road users: Road users should be taught the rules of road, traffic signal, and correct
manner of crossing etc.
2. Safety drive: Training courses and workshops should be organized for drivers in different parts of
the country
Legislative measures:
 A good degree of relief from accidents can be obtained by controlling the traffic flow by means of
suitable traffic laws and regulations (IRC: 70-1977)
 Under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 (amended from time to time), adequate measures of traffic
control have been laid down to minimize the rate of accidents, which cover the followings:

 Rules concerning speed of vehicles

 Rules concerning parking of vehicles
 Rules concerning loading and unloading of commercial goods transport vehicles
 Rules concerning motor cycles
 Rules concerning pedal cycles
 Rules concerning hand-carts
 Rules governing animal drawn vehicles
 Rules governing animals on streets
 Rules governing pedestrians
 General rules to promote pedestrian movement on sidewalks

Accident Data Collection

The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection of the
accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data which are filed
by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these parameters:

1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like fatal, serious,
minor
2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident
3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading detail, vehicular
defect.
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics, type of traffic,
traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned) which are the
main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and casualty

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These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following purpose. The purposes are as
follows:
1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large number of accidents
occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors to give insight into
general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc.
Accident Records
Accident records are maintained giving all particulars of the accidents, location other details. These
records are maintained by means of the following:
1. Location files – Used to keep record of the location where accident have taken place within
concerned zone and to identify the locations of high accident incidence. It should maintained by
Police department of the respective jurisdiction.
2. Spot Map – Accident location spot maps show accidents by spots, pins or symbol on the road
map of the locality. A map of suitable scale, say 1mm= 4 to 6 m, may be used for the preparation
of spot maps of urban accidents.

3. Collision Diagram
 A collision diagram permits study and analysis of a particular intersection or curve at
which a number of accidents have occurred.
 These diagrams represent the details of the accident locations (not drawn in scale) and
show approximate path of the vehicles and pedestrian involved in the accident and also other
objects with which the vehicle have collided.

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 Each diagram should include: Drawing of intersection, identification of diagram,
identification of streets.

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4. Condition Diagram
 A condition diagram is a drawing of accident location drawn to scale, showing all the
important physical features of the road and adjoining area.
 Important features are: width of the roadway, shoulders, median, other geometrics details such
as, curves, kerb lines, bridges, culverts, electric posts, trees and details of roadway conditions,
obstruction to vision, property lines, signs, signals etc.
 Condition diagrams indicate view obstructions are contributory causes of accidents.
 A driver proceeding at normal speed on one street should be able to see another vehicle
approaching at normal speed from an intersecting street. Obstructions reduce this ability.
 Standard symbols are used in showing various details.

The dotted lines represent the required visibility triangle; while the shaded portions show the
actual visibility triangle.

Traffic Control Devices

• The various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic is called TCD
• Traffic Signs
• Requirements of traffic control devices
• Communication Tools
• Traffic Signs
• Traffic Signals
• Fixed Time
• Manually Operated
• Traffic actuated
• Pedestrian
• Special Traffic

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• Road Marking
• Pavement
• Kerb
• Object
• Reflector unit
• Delineators
• Traffic Islands
• Divisional
• Channelizing
• Pedestrian loading
• Rotary
• Lights
Traffic Signs
1. Requirements of traffic control devices
Overview:
• Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and
road users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
• The major types of traffic control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings, traffic signals
and parking control.
• Different types of traffic signs are regulatory signs, warning signs and informatory signs.
2. Communication Tools
A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the road user.
These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight. Messages are conveyed
through the following elements.
Color:
• It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device.
• Usages of different colors for different signs are important.
• The most commonly used colors are red, green, yellow, black, blue, and brown.
• These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce specific messages.
• Consistent use of colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of sign board ahead.
Shape:
• It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device. The categories of
• Shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond shape.
• Two exceptional shapes used in traffic signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign and use of
inverted triangle for GIVE WAY (YIELD) sign.
• Diamond shape signs are not generally used in India.
Legend:
• This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends.
• This is an important aspect in the case of traffic signs.
• For the easy understanding by the driver, the legend should be short, simple and specific so that it
does not divert the attention of the driver.

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• Symbols are normally used as legends so that even a person unable to read the language will be
able to understand that.
• There is no need of it in the case of traffic signals and road markings.
Pattern:
• It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing traffic signs.
• Generally solid, double solid and dotted lines are used.
• Each pattern conveys different type of meaning.
• The frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information is recommended so that the
drivers get accustomed to the different types of markings and can instantly recognize them.
Types of Traffic Signs
There are several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide varieties of traffic situations. They can
be classified into three main categories.
Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road users.
Warning signs: These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the drivers to obey
these signs.
Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available ahead, and
the route and distance to reach the specific destinations
A. Regulatory Signs
Regulatory Signs Also called mandatory signs as it is mandatory that the drivers must obey these
signs. If driver fails to obey them, the control agency has right to take legal action against the driver.
The regulatory signs can be further classified into:
Right of way series:
• These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected approaches of an
intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign.

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Right of way series:
• When one minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference should be given to the
vehicles passing through the major road.
• Hence, the give way sign board will be placed on the minor road to inform the driver on the minor
road that he should give way for the vehicles on the major road.
• In case two major roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which
approach the sign board has to be placed.
• Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes in right of way series which requires
the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
Speed series:
• Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road. They include
typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc.
• Speed limit signs are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for many
reasons.
• Separate truck speed limits are applied on high speed roadways where heavy commercial
vehicles must be limited to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons.
Speed series:
• Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed roads like expressways, freeways etc. where
safety is again a predominant reason.
• Very slow vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
Movement series:
• They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers. These include turn signs,
alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc.
• Turn signs include turn prohibitions and lane use control signs.
• Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the movements which all vehicles in the lane must
take.
• Turn signs are used to safely accommodate turns in unsignalized intersections.
Parking series:
• They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions or restrictions, but also
indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked, duration for parking
etc.
Pedestrian series:
• They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the safety of pedestrians
and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.
Miscellaneous:
• Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a "KEEP OF MEDIAN“ sign, signs
indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances,
signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
B. Warning Signs
1. Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition.
2. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of drivers.

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3. The color convention used for this type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a
white background. The shape used is upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders.
4. This type signs are shown figure, such as, right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road, sign
indicating railway track ahead etc.

C. Informative Signs
• Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations.
• These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place.
• The guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
• Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile posts,
service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc.
• Route markers are used to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive
and unique. They are written black letters on yellow background.
• Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to the critical destination points, and to mark
important intersections.
• Distance in kilometers is sometimes marked to the right side of the destination.
• They are, in general, rectangular with the long dimension in the horizontal direction.
• They are color coded as white letters with green background.
• Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination.
• Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such as food, fuel,
medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
• Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background.

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• In below figures we can see some examples for informative signs which include route markers,
destination signs, mile posts, service centre information etc..

Traffic Signals
Definition: Traffic Signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and
proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically.
Advantages of Signals:
• Signal is provided at intersection to manage the traffic flow.
• Signals provide safety to vehicular traffic and pedestrian. They reduce and avoid the accidents.
• Signals are easy to understand compare to traffic police Management at intersection.

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Disadvantages of Signals:
• Fast moving vehicles may cause rear-end collision at signalized intersection
• Improper design of signal cycle length can cause fixed delay.
• Duration off-peak hour unnecessary delay occurs at signalized intersection.
• Fixed Time Signals: are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red, amber and green lights. The timing
demand to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors which are installed at the approaches.
These are very costly.
• Pedestrian Signals: are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road. The vehicular
traffic should be stopped by red or stop signal on the traffic signal of the road.
• Traffic actuated Signals: are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are changed according
to traffic demand to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors which are installed at the
approaches. They are very costly.

B. Road Markings
• Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to the critical destination points, and to mark
important intersections.
 Distance in kilometers is sometimes marked to the right side of the destination.
 They are, in general, rectangular with the long dimension in the horizontal direction.
 They are color coded as white letters with green background.
• Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination.

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• Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such as food, fuel,
medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.

Center Lines
• On undivided two-way roads, the centre line separates the opposing streams of traffic and
facilitates their movements.
• The centre line can be a single broken line, a single continuous solid line (barrier line),
 A double solid line or a combination of solid line and broken line.

Types of lines used to mark lanes.

• The Divided Lines visible in the pictures above are called Lane Lines.
• Single and double solid lines, whether white or yellow, must not be crossed or even straddled.
• They should be treated as a wall on the road.

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Double Lines
• Single and double solid lines, whether white or yellow, must not be crossed or even straddled.
• Double Continuous lines are also used where visibility is restricted in both directions.
• Neither stream of traffic is allowed to cross the lines.
• The Double Continuous Lines can be both in WHITE or YELLOW

Combination Lines
• On a road with two centre lines, of which one is solid and the other broken, the solid line has
significance only it is on the left side of the combination as viewed by the driver.
• In such a case, the driver must be careful not to cross or straddle the centre line.
• If the line on your side is broken, you may cross or straddle it.
Overtake - but only if it is safe to do so.
• If the line on your side is continuous you must not cross or straddle it.

Stop Line
• A stop line is a single solid transverse line painted before the intersecting edge of the road
junction/ intersection.
• This line indicates where you are required to stop when directed by traffic officer, traffic light of
stop sign.
• Where a pedestrian crossing is provided, the stop line is marked before the pedestrian crossing.

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Give Way Line
• The give way line is usually a double dotted line marked transversely at junctions.
• These lines are generally supplemented by a reverse triangle give way sign painted on the road
surface before the dotted lines or by a road sign installed beside the marking.
• Give way to traffic on the main approaching road.

Border Edge Line

• These are continuous lines at the edge of the carriageway and mark the limits of the main
carriageway up to which a driver can safely venture.

Parking Prohibited Lines

• A solid continuous yellow line painted on the kerb or edge of the carriageway along with a "No-
parking" sign indicates the extent of no-parking area.

YELLOW BOX JUNCTION

• These are yellow crossed diagonal lines within the box.
• The vehicles should cross it only if they have a clear space available ahead of the yellow box.
• In this marked area vehicles must not stop even briefly.

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Pedestrian Crossing
• These are alternate black and white stripes painted parallel to the road generally known as zebra
crossing.
• Pedestrians must cross only at the point where these lines are provided and when the signal is in
their favor at controlled crossings.
• You must stop and give way to pedestrians at these crossings.
• Pedestrian crossings are marked to facilitate and give the right of way to pedestrians.

Road Delinerators
• Are devices or treatment to outline the roadway or portion thereof to provide visual assistance to
drivers about the alignment of a road ahead, especially at night.
Types of delineators are:
• Roadway indicators
• Hazard markers
• Object markers

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Traffic Islands
• Are raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through which the
vehicular traffic may be guided.
Types of Islands are:
• Divisional Islands: Divisional islands are dividing the highway in two one way roadways so that
head on collisions are eliminated and accidents are reduced.
• Channelizing Islands: Channelizing islands guide the traffic into proper channel through the
intersection area.
• Pedestrian loading Islands: Pedestrian loading islands are provided at regular bus stops and
similar places for the protection of passengers.
• Rotary Islands: Rotary islands are the large central island of a rotary intersection.
Needs of Islands
• Islands provide self controlled traffic. No need of traffic police to manage the traffic.
• Islands reduce conflicts points hence chances of collision and accident also reduce.

METHODOLOGY of Traffic Signals

The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include the
(1) Phase design
(2) Determination of amber time and clearance time
(3) Determination of cycle length
(4) Apportioning of green time
(5) The performance evaluation of the above design.
The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting movements in an intersection into various
phases, so that movements in a phase should have no conflicts. If all the movements are to be separated
with no conflicts, then a large number of phases are required.
— to illustrate various phase plan options, consider a four legged intersection with through traffic and right
turns. Left turn is ignored

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1. Two Phase Signals
Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the turning movements.
Nonconflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped in a single phase and non-conflicting through traffic 1
and 2 are grouped in the second phase. However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 over some conflicts and
are called permitted right turns.

2. Three Phase Signals

Three phase signals are adopted for a three legged intersection, where there are two conflicting
movements which are right turns for both the roads and two non conflicting movements which are through
movements. The phase plan for this kind of signals is shown in the following figure. From fig. , phase 1
(p1) is provided by only allowing the non conflicting traffic 1, phase 2 (p2) and phase 3 (p3) are provided
by allowing the conflicting traffic 3 and 4 respectively.

3. Four Phase Signals

There are at least three possible phasing options.. Where, flow from each approach is put into a single
phase avoiding all conflicts. This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning
movements are comparable with through movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need to

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share same lane. This phase plan could be very inefficient when turning movements are relatively low..
The non-conflicting right turn flows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third phase. Similarly flows 5 and 6 are
grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very efficient when the intersection geometry permits to
have at least one lane for each movement, and the through traffic volume is significantly high. This is
rarely used in practice. There are five phase signals, six phase signals etc. They are normally provided if
the intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time traffic
conditions.

4. CYCLE TIME
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations, i.e. one complete rotation
through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. In Webster Method corresponding to least total delay to
the vehicles at signalized intersection has been worked out. This is rational approach. The field work
consists of finding
(i) Saturation flow S per unit time on each approach of the intersection and
(ii) the normal flow „q‟ on each approach during the design approach.
The standard values for saturation flow, S according to Webster are given as in the below table.

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1 Overview
An intersection is the area shared by the joining or crossing of two or more roads. Since the main function
of an intersection is to enable the road user to make a route choice, it is a point of decision. Hence the
problems that are encountered by the motorist while passing through an intersection must be recognized
and the design should be in such a way that the driving task is as simple as possible.
Intersection is also a point of large number of major conflicts, besides a point of decision. These conflicts
may be due to the crossing maneuvers of vehicles moving in different directions. Good intersection design
results from a minimization of the magnitude and characteristics of the conflicts and a simplification of
driver route selection process.
2 Classification of Intersection
Intersections are classified depending upon the treatment of crossing conflicts as follows (i) At Grade
Intersection and (ii) Grade Separated Intersection.
2.1 Grade Separated Intersection
It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at intersections by vertical separation of roadways in space.
Grade separated intersection are otherwise known as Interchanges. Grade separated intersections cause
less hazard and delay than grade intersections. Route transfer at grade separations is accommodated by
interchange facilities consisting of ramps. Interchange ramps are classified as Direct, Semi-Direct and
Indirect. Interchanges are described by the patterns of the various turning roadways or ramps. The
interchange configurations are designed in such a way to accommodate economically the traffic
requirements of flow, operation on the crossing facilities, physical requirements of the topography,
adjoining land use, type of controls, right-of-way and direction of movements.
The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate all grade crossing conflicts and to
accommodate other intersecting maneuvers by merging, diverging and weaving at low relative speed. The
relative speed of the conflicting vehicle streams is an important factor affecting the significance of a
conflict. The benefit of providing for low relative speed is twofold. First, events unfold more slowly
allowing more judgment time and second, in case of an impact the total relative energy to be absorbed are
less and hence, the damage is less. In addition, when relative speed is low, the average motorist will
accept a smaller time gap space between successive vehicles to complete his move. This condition
increases roadway capacity.
2.2 Classification of Grade Separated Intersection
One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is between the directional and the non directional
interchange. Directional interchanges are those having ramps that tend to follow the natural direction of
movement. Non directional interchanges require a change in the natural path of traffic flow. A
comprehensive classification plan for grade separated intersection design which includes all possible
geometric patterns has not yet been developed. The design and operational characteristics of each of the
major interchange types are mentioned as follows and are discussed in the following sections.

1. Underpass
2. Overpass
3. Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange

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6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
7. Directional Interchange
8. Bridged Rotary
2.2.1 Underpass
An underpass or a tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for
ingress and egress, commonly at each end. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail
traffic. If an underpass is constructed for pedestrians and/or cyclists beneath a road or railway, allowing
them to reach the other side in safety, then such a construction is termed as a Subway. These are
constructed when it is necessary for pedestrians to cross a railroad or a limited-access highway. Subways
may also be constructed for the benefit of wildlife

2.2.2 Overpass
An overpass also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure that crosses over
another road or railway. A pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing over busy roads without
impacting traffic. And Railway overpasses are used to replace at-grade crossing as a safer alternative.
Overpasses allows for unobstructed rail traffic flow from mixing with vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Stack interchanges are made up of many overpasses.

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2.2.3 Trumpet Interchange

Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at another highway. These involve at
least one loop ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the terminating expressway with the far
lanes of the continuous highway. These interchanges are useful for highways as well as toll roads, as they
concentrate all entering and exiting traffic into a single stretch of roadway, where toll booths can be
installed. Trumpets are suitable at the locations where the side road exists on only one side of the freeway,
and traffic is relatively low. Each entrance and exit consists of acceleration or deceleration lanes at each
end. It requires only one bridge and is the most traditional way of grade separating a three way junction.
The principal advantages are low construction cost and are useful for highways as well as toll roads. But
the limitations in employing trumpet interchanges are it leaves a redundant patch of the land within the
loop, Disorienting to navigate for those driving in the direction that uses the loop. Moreover scaling down
the interchange often results in a more dangerous suffers congestion from articulated lorries that have
tipped over.

2.2.4 Diamond Interchange

The diamond Interchange is the simplest form of grade separated intersection between two roadways. The
conflicts between through and crossing traffic are eliminated by a bridge structure. This particular
intersection has four one way ramps which are essentially parallel to the major artery. The left turn
crossing movement conflicts are considerably reduced by eliminating the conflict with the traffic in
opposite direction. All the remaining left turn conflicts, merging and diverging maneuver conflicts take
place at the terminal point of each ramp. Limitation in application of this design depends on the operations
of these terminals. So, it is suitable for locations where the volume of left turn traffic is relatively low.
The diamond interchange requires a minimum amount of land and is economical to construct. Also,a
diamond interchange generally requires less out-of-the-way travel and vehicle operating costs are less than
those on most other types of interchanges. The single point of exit from the major roadway eases the
problem of signing. This type of interchange requires the least of right-of-way. With these advantages, the

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diamonds appear to be the ideal solution to an intersection problem. But there might be chances of
occurrence of conflicts at the locations where ramps meet the grade separated cross street are to be
considered foe high ramp volumes. Improper design of signal timings at cross streets may result in the
inadequacy of capacity for certain flows.

2.2.5 Cloverleaf Interchange

The full clover interchange eliminates all crossing movement conflicts by the use of weaving sections.
This weaving section is a critical element of cloverleaf design. It replaces a crossing conflict with a
merging, followed some distance farther by a diverging conflict. There are two points of entry and exit on
each through roadway. The first exit is provided before the cross road structure allows right turn
movements. The second exit, immediately after the cross road structure, allows for left turn movements. A
weaving section is created between the exit and entry points near the structure. Sufficient length and
capacity is to be provided to allow for a smooth merging and diverging operation.
Cloverleaf design requires only one bridge. In this respect, it is the cheapest form providing for
elimination of all crossing maneuvers at grade. Although full cloverleaf interchanges eliminate the
undesirable crossing movements of diamond interchanges, they have the disadvantages of greater travel
distances, higher operating costs, difficult merging sections, circuity of travel, large areas for loops, sight
distances to exits at the other side of the bridge, confusion caused by turning right to go left and large
rights-of-way occasioned by the radius requirements necessary for satisfactory speeds on the ramps.
A variation of the cloverleaf configuration is the cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads. With the
collector-distributor roadway, main roadway operations are much the same as in diamond interchange. For
each direction of travel, there is a single point for exits and a single point for entrances. Speed change,
detailed exit directional signing and the storage and weaving problems associated with a cloverleaf are
transferred to the collector-distributor road, which can be designed to accommodate greater relative speed
differences or encourage smaller ones. Although this configuration improves the operational
characteristics of a cloverleaf interchange, the disadvantages of greater travel distances and the
requirement of extra right-of-way are still present. The use of a cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads
is appropriate at junctions between a freeway and an expressway where a diamond interchange would not
adequately serve traffic demand.

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2.2.6 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

This is another variation of the cloverleaf configuration. Partial clover leaf or parclo is a modification that
combines some elements of a diamond interchange with one or more loops of a cloverleaf to eliminate
only the more critical turning conflicts. This is the most popular freeway -to- arterial interchange. Parclo is
usually employed when crossing roads on the secondary road will not produce objectionable amounts of
hazard and delay. It provides more acceleration and deceleration space on the freeway.

2.2.7 Directional Interchange

A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns. These interchanges contain ramps for one or
more direct or semi direct left turning movements. Interchanges of two freeways or interchanges with one
or more very heavy turning movements usually warrant direct ramps, which have higher speeds of
operation and higher capacities, compared to loop ramps. Some designers do not favor entrance of
merging traffic in the left lane, which is a characteristic of most direct-connection bridges. The principal

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limitations of this type of interchange is higher cost of construction and requirement relatively large
amount of land when compared to the diamond interchanges and in some cases than cloverleaf
interchange. Various combinations of directional, semi directional and loop ramps may be appropriate for
certain conditions. They are the basic patterns that use the least space, have the fewest or least complex
structures, minimize internal weaving and appropriate for the common terrain and traffic conditions.

2.3 Design Components

2.3.1 Acceleration Lane
An acceleration lane is defined as extra pavement, of constant or variable width, placed parallel or nearly
so, to a merging maneuver area to encourage merging at low relative speed. The major difference in
opinion concerning acceleration design stems from lack of information on driver performance. Field
observations have indicated that drivers desire to follow the direct path even though extra width or tapered
section is provided. The length of acceleration lanes are determined by two factors: (1) Time required for
drivers to accelerate to the speed of the preferential flow from the speed of entry into the acceleration lane
and (2) Maneuvering time required as a supplement to the sight distance which is provided in advance of
the acceleration lane. Taper distances are based upon a lateral transition time of about 1/3 sec/ft of
displacement.

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Figure 1: Different forms of Acceleration lanes

Figure 2: details of length of acceleration lane

2.3.2 Deceleration Lanes

Deceleration lanes are defined as extra pavement of constant or variable width, placed parallel or nearly
so, to a diverging maneuver area to encourage diverging at low relative speed. The lengths of deceleration
lanes are based on the difference in the speed of traffic of the combined flow (in advance of the collision
area) and the speed at which drivers negotiate the critical diverging channel curve, as well as the
deceleration practices of drivers. These deceleration lane lengths are based on the assumed performance of
passenger vehicles only. Extra allowance must be made for grades and for trucks with different
deceleration characteristics. In the figure below, Form A design is more economical when large speed
differentials are to be overcome. Form B could be advantageous by contrasting pavement colors and Form
C design is more convenient for drivers when small speed differentials are to be eliminated.

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Figure 3: Different forms of Deceleration lanes

Figure 4: details of length of deceleration lane

3 Grade separated intersections

As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the traffic in the vertical
grade. But the traffic need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway line crosses a road, then
also grade separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and interchange. Flyovers
itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When two roads cross at a point, if the road having
major traffic is elevated to a higher grade for further movement of traffic, then such structures are called
overpass. Otherwise, if the major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under
bridge or tunnel, it is called under-pass.
Interchange is a system where traffic between two or more roadways flows at different levels in the grade
separated junctions. Common types of interchange include trumpet interchange, diamond interchange ,
and cloverleaf interchange.
1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange. If one of
the legs of the interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it, then the

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interchange is called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet interchange is shown in
figure 5.

Figure 5: Trumpet interchange

2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a popular form of four-leg interchange found in

the urban locations where major and minor roads crosses. The important feature of this interchange
is that it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow. A typical layout of diamond
interchange is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Diamond interchange

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3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of high
volume and speed intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The main advantage
of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of traffic. In addition, high speed
at intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is that large area of land is required.
Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas. A typical layout of this type
of interchange is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Cloverleaf interchange

At-Grade Intersection
An intersection is an at-grade junction where two or more roads or streets meet or cross.
 Intersections may be classified by number of road segments, traffic controls, and or lane design.
 These are of two types
1. Standard at-grade intersections
2. Round about at-grade intersections.

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Simple intersections
Simple intersections maintain the street’s typical cross-section and number of lanes throughout
the intersection, on both the major and minor streets.
 Simple intersections are best-suited to locations where auxiliary (turning) lanes are not
needed to achieve the desired level-of- service.

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Channelized intersection
Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking etc. and this
method of control is called channelization.
 Channelized intersection provides more safety and efficiency.
 It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in the
carriageway.
 If no channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to reduce the speed while
entering the intersection from the carriageway.

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Design parameters of Intersections
Pedestrians
 Crossings and pedestrian curb cut Ramp Locations
 Walking Speed
 Pedestrian Flow Capacity
 Traffic Control, Yielding and Delay
Bicyclists
 Cross-section- Bicyclists position themselves for their intended destination regardless of
the presence of bike lanes or shoulders.
 Operating Speed- At un signalized intersections, an average bicycle speed of 15 miles per
hour can be assumed on the major project.
 Bicycle Capacity - The number of bicycles per hour that can be accommodated by the
facility under normal conditions.
 Traffic Control - Bicyclists are required by law to obey control devices at intersections.
Therefore, traffic control devices need to account for bicycle activity.

MOTOR VEHICLES
 Design Vehicle
 *The largest type of motor vehicle that is normally expected to be accommodated through
the intersection.
 *At intersections, the most important attribute of design vehicles is their turning radius,
which in turn influences the pavement corner radius and therefore the size of the
intersection.
 *Lane width, another feature related to the design vehicle, has some impact on intersection
design.
 * The design vehicle appropriate for most types of transit service is the “city-Bus” as
defined by AASHTO.

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LEVELS OF INTERSECTION CONTROL
Passive control
 No control
 Traffic signs
 Traffic signs plus marking.
Semi control
 Channelization
 Traffic rotaries
Active control
 Traffic signals
 Grade separated intersections

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UnChannelized intersection
 Intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicles to use any part of
intersection area.
 Hence the un channelized (all-paved) intersections are the lowest class of intersection,
easiest in the design but most complex in traffic operations
 Resulting in maximum conflict area and more number of accidents, unless controlled by
traffic signals or police.

TRAFFIC ISLAND
 A small raised area in the middle of a road which provides a safe place for pedestrians to
stand and marks a division between two opposing streams of traffic. (or)

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 A traffic island is a solid or painted object in a road that channelizes traffic. It can also be a
narrow strip of island between roads that intersect at an acute angle.
 If the island uses road markings only, without raised kerbs or other physical obstructions, it
is called a painted island. Traffic islands can be used to reduce the speed of vehicles driving
through.

TYPES OF TRAFFIC ISLAND

 Divisional Islands: Divisional islands are dividing the highway in two one way roads way
so that head on collision are eliminated and accidents are reduced.
 Channelizing Islands: Channelizing islands guide the traffic into proper channel through
the intersection area.
 Pedestrian loading Islands: They are provided at regular bus stops and similar laces for
the protection of passengers.
 Rotary Islands: A rotary island is the large central island of a rotary intersection.
Rotary Islands
 Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for
the movement of traffic in one direction around a central traffic island.
 The vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in
orderly fashion.

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The advantages of providing a traffic rotary (Roundabout) are as follows:

1. Orderly and disciplined traffic flow is provided by the one-way movement.
2. Frequent stopping and starting of vehicles are avoided.
3. Direct conflict is eliminated.
4. All turns can be made with ease.
5. A rotary is especially suited for intersection legs ranging from 4 to 7.
6. For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no control by police or traffic signals.
7. The capacity of rotary intersection is the highest of all other intersections at grade

The disadvantages of providing traffic rotary (Roundabout) are as follows:

1. Rotary requires comparatively large of land. So where space is limited and costly, the total cost may
be high.
2. Where the pedestrian traffic is large, the rotary by itself cannot control the traffic and needs control by
traffic police. If the vehicular traffic has to stop to allow the pedestrian to cross, the main purpose of
rotary has defected.
3. At the places of mixed traffic, the design of rotary becomes too elaborate and the operation and control
of traffic become complex.
4. Where the angle of intersection of two roads is too acute or when there are more than seven intersecting
roads, rotaries are unsuitable.
5. When the distance between the intersections on important highways is less, a rotary becomes
troublesome.

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6. At the places of mixed traffic, there is a tendency to violate the traffic regulation of clockwise
movement.
7. Where the traffic volume is very low, construction of a rotary cannot be justified.

Design Factors for Rotary Intersection of Roads

There are many factors to be considered while designing traffic rotary as follows:
• Design speed
• Shape of central island
• Radius of rotary roadway
• Weaving angle and weaving distance
• Width of carriageway at entry and exit
• Width of rotary roadway
• Curves at entrance and exit
• Capacity of rotary
• Channelizing islands
• Camber and super elevation
• Sight distance
• Lighting
• Traffic signs
• Pedestrian ways

WIDTH OF THE ROTARY

 IRC suggest that a two-lane of 7m width should be kept as 7m for urban roads and 6.5 for rural
roads.
 Further for a three-lane road ofb10.5m is to be reduced to 7m and 7.5m respectively for urban and
rural roads.
 The width of weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit. The weaving with
is given as,

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CAPACITY
The capacity of rotary is derived from the below formula and it is mainly dependent upon capacity
of individual weaving section.

Where W = width of weaving section

e = average width of entry and width of non-weaving section for the range of e/W
L = weaving length for the range of W/L
Where p = proportion of weaving traffic = (b+c)/(a+b+c+d) = (0.4 < p < 1.0)
a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane
b = weaving traffic turning toward right while entering the rotary
c = weaving traffic turning toward left while leaving the rotary
d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane

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MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A.Y.: 2020-21

Year/Semester: III/I

Regulation: R18

LECTURE NOTES
ON
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

1. Mr. M.GNANENDRA BABU

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UNIT – IV Tests on soils
Introduction

Soil testing is the first step in construction planning to ensure whether the plot of land is suitable
for constructing any structure to avoid dreadful phenomena in future like The leaning Tower of
Pisa.

The type of tests on soil reveals the physical and engineering properties of soil that help to
determine the type of foundation to be laid for construction. Knowing moisture content, mineral
presence, density, permeability and bearing capacity of the soil gives an idea of working
considerations for foundations and earthworks. Like higher sulphur content in the soil requires
cement that provides resistance to sulphur such as Sulphate-resisting Portland Cement (SRPC).

Role of Soil Testing in Foundations

Foundation is the first and important step of construction, a small defect or damage can fail
or collapse the whole building. Foundation acts as a guardian to the building and protects it from
any physical forces emerges in the subsoil. It helps to sustain and maintain the load bearings
from the building to the ground.

The soil should consist of all physical and chemical properties to withstand the weight of the
building. The soil testing and analysis helps to determine the rate of settlement and bearing
capacity of the soil. These tests also help to define the length and depth of the pillars to lay the
foundation.

The water content in the soil can only be known by soil testing, which helps to settle the level
of humidity within the foundation. It's necessary to have a note about soil movements, the way
soil reacts in the presence and absence of water. Generally, soil movement is higher in clay soil
than sandy soil.

Removal of vegetation also plays a very important role, presence of weeds, roots of old cut trees
can cause soil movement in the land. These all factors affect the foundation settlement posing a
threat to the structure.

Types of Soil Testing

If soil is not tested properly, it develops cracks in future and collapse in due course of time.
Various types of tests are executed to know the surface characteristics of soil, and some of them
are briefly explained below:

Moisture Content Test

This test is used to determine the moisture and water content in the soil. Various methods like
Calcium Carbide Method, Oven Drying Method, Sand bath Method, Radiation Method, and
Alcohol Method.

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Of all the methods, Oven Drying method results are most accurate in which the moisture content
is defined as the mass of water that can be removed from the soil by heating at 105 – 110°C.

The water table level is only known from soil testing, which helps to find the level of humidity in
the foundation.

Specific Gravity Test

This test provides information about the degree of saturation of the soil and void ratio. The
void ratio is defined as a ratio of void volume to the volume of the solids present in the soil.

The standard specific gravity of soil ideal for construction should be from 2.65 to 2.85. The soil
should consist of the low-value presence of organic content, porous matter and heavy materials.

Dry Density Test

Density test helps to classify the soil into three types - loose, medium and dense, with the
weight of the soil samples. The lesser the density, the stronger the foundation.

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It can be tested by using sand replacement method, core cutter method and water-displacement
method.

Atterberg Limits Test

It is used to measure the critical water content of the soil. There are plastic limits, liquid limit
and shrinkage limit, which displays the attributes of fine-grained soil at different conditions.

Compaction Test

The most commonly used compaction test is Proctor's test, determines the compaction
characteristics of soil reducing air voids by densification. This test gives information
about maximum dry density and optimum water content of compacted soil.

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These are some of the frequently used soil tests for any structure. Most suitable construction
techniques for any building can be achieved by soil testing, as it is the first step, to begin with. It
is recommended to perform them without any fail to avoid damages and sinking of building in
the future.

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

1. Objective
CBR is the ratio expressed in percentage of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil
mass with a standard circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that
required for corresponding penetration in a standard material. The ratio is usually determined
for penetration of 2.5 and 5 mm . When the ratio at 5 mm is consistently higher than that at
2.5 mm, the ratio at 5 mm is used.
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the
standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%.

For Railway Formation purpose, the test is performed on remoulded specimens which are
compacted dynamically.
The methodology covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
remoulded /compacted soil specimens in soaked state.

2. Apparatus Required

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Fig. 1: CBR Test Apparatus

Consisting of Loading machine with capacity of atleast 5000 kg and equipped with a
movable head or base which enables Plunger of 50 mm dia. to penetrate into the specimen at
a rate of 1.25 mm/ minute.

Fig. 2: CBR Mould with Base Plate, Stay Rod and Wing Nut
Cylindrical mould: Inside dia. 150mm and height 175mm with a detachable perforated base
plate of 235mm dia. and 10mm thickness. Net capacity - 2250 ml; conforming to IS-9669:1980
(Reaffirmed-2016).
Collar A detachable extension collar of 60 mm height.
Spacer Disc 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height along with handle. Weights One
annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in diameter,
with a central hole 53 mm in diameter

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Fig. 3: Compaction Rammer Weight - 4.89 kg with a drop 450 mm.

3. Reference
 IS 2720(Part 16):1987 Methods of test for soils: Laboratory determination of CBR (second
revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
 RDSO report No. RDSO/2009/GE: G-0014 - Guidelines and Specification for Design of
Formation for Heavy Axle Load.
4. Procedure
Preparation Of Test Specimen:
1. Remoulded specimen: The test material should pass 19 mm IS sieve and retained on 4.75
mm IS sieve. The dry density for a remoulding shall be either the field density or the value
of the maximum dry density estimated by the compaction test (Heavy Compaction Test as
per IS 2720 (Part-8) - 1983, for Railway Formation). The water content used for compaction
shall be the optimum water content or the field moisture as the case may be.
2. Dynamic Compaction: A representative sample of the soil weighing approximately 4.5 kg
or more for fine grained soil and 5.5 kg or more for granular soil shall be taken and mixed
thoroughly with water. If the soil is to be compacted to the maximum dry density at the
optimum moisture content, the exact mass of the soil required shall be taken and the
necessary quantity of water added so that the water content of the soil sample is equal to the
determined optimum moisture content.
3. Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the
base. Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
4. Apply Lubricating Oil to the inner side of the mould. Compact the mix soil in the mould
using heavy compaction. i.e. compact the soil in 5 layers with 55 blows to each layer by the
4.89 kg rammer.
5. Remove the extension collar and trim the compacted soil carefully at the level of top of
mould, by means of a straight edge. Any holes developed on the surface of the compacted
soil by removal of the coarse material, shall be patched with the smaller size material.
Remove the perforated base plate, Spacer disc and filter paper and record the mass of the

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mould and compacted soil specimen. Place a disc of coarse filter paper on the perforated
base plate, invert the mould and compacted soil and clamp the perforated base plate to the
mould with the compacted soil in contact with the filter paper.
6. Place a filter paper over the specimen and place perforated plate on the compacted soil
specimen in the mould. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base
material and pavement, to the nearest 2.5 kg. 7. Immerse the mould assembly and weights in
a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours. Mount the tripod for expansion measuring device
on the edge of the mould and record initial dial gauge reading. Note down the readings
every day against time of reading. A constant water level shall be maintained in the tank
throughout the period.
8. At the end of soaking period, note down the final reading of the dial gauge and take the
mould out of water tank.
9. Remove the free water collected in the mould and allow the specimen to drain for 15
minutes. Remove the perforated plate and the top filter paper. Weigh the soaked soil sample
and record the weight.

Procedure for Penetration Test

1. Place the mould assembly with test specimen on the lower plate of penetration testing
machine. To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge weights, 2.5 kg annular
weight shall be placed on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after which the
remainder of the surcharge weights shall be placed.

2. Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load, but in
no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is established.

3. Set the load and deformation gauges to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.

4. Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5
mm.

5. Raise the plunger and detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of
soil from the top 30 mm layer and determine the moisture content.

5. Observation and Recording

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6. Calculation

1. If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to
the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin. Find and record the correct load
reading corresponding to each penetration.

C.B.R. = (PT/PS) X 100

where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load
penetration curve. PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table above.

2. C.B.R. of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration =

3. C.B.R. of specimen at 5.0 mm penetration =

4. The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the
C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater than at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall be taken
as C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be
repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be
taken for design.

7. Graph

Draw graph between Load versus Penetration.

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TESTS ON AGGREGATES and Cement

Specific Gravity of Cement

In this test, we will explain you about,
1. What is Specific Gravity?
2. Why are we calculating this value for cement?
3. Significance of specific gravity of cement
4. Experiment to determine this value
1. What is Specific Gravity of Cement?
Definition – Specific Gravity is just a comparison between the weight of a volume of a
particular material to the weight of the same volume of water at a specified temperature.

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In Simple – It is a value to calculate whether the material is able to sink or float on water.
Every material has some specific gravity. The value is normally in digits like 0.1 – 100.
If the value is less than 1, then the material will float on water. If the
value is greater than 1, then the material will sink.
 3.15g/cc means the cement is 3.15 times heavier than the water of the same volume.
2. Why are we calculating this value for cement?
Normally aggregates are derived from stockpiles, which may be exposed
to various conditions.
If the cement has exposed to extreme moisture content then, the specific
gravity of cement will differ because of the moisture content present in the pores.
 Every material has solid particles and pores which may contain water in it.
 Normally our nominal mix design is based on the value of specific gravity of cement as
3.15. The value will change over time if the cement is exposed to various weather
conditions. So it is essential to determine the specific gravity of cement before using it.
 This is why we are insisted on avoiding old stock cement, which may be affected by the
external moisture content.
3. The significance of specific gravity of cement

As already said, the cement may contain lots of moisture content if it is exposed to various
conditions and humidity.

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We all know that water cement ratio is an important factor. It is directly proportional to
workability and the strength of a bonding. If the cement has already more moisture in it then, the
value of water-cement ratio will actually affect the workability and strength rather than
increasing it.
If the specific gravity of cement is greater than 3.19 then, the cement is either not minced
finely as per the industry standard or it has more moisture content which will affect the mix and
bonding. This is why you find lots of chunks while mixing old stock cement for concrete.

EQUIPMENTS:-

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Le Chatelier flask

Specific Gravity Calculation

Cement specific gravity formula:
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Theory
Specific gravity is ratio of weight of a volume of a particular material to the weight of the same
volume of water at a specified temperature.
Every material has solid particles and pores which may contain water in it.
 Normally nominal mix design is based on the value of specific gravity of cement as 3.15.
The value will change over time if the cement is exposed to various weather conditions.
 So it is essential to determine the specific gravity of cement before using it. We all know
that water cement ratio is an important factor which is directly proportional to
workability and the strength of a bonding.
 If the cement has already more moisture in it then, the value of water cement ratio will
actually affect the workability and strength rather than increasing it.
 If the specific gravity of cement is greater than 3.19 then, the cement is either not minced
finely as per the industry standard or it has more moisture content which will affect the
mix and bonding.
 Standard Le-Chatelier flask conforming to the dimensions shown in figure is used to
determine specific gravity of cement.
 The samples of the cement shall be taken in accordance with the requirements of IS :
3535-1986 and the relevant standard specification for the type of cement being tested.
Observation

 Empty weight of flask with stopper (W1)=_______ gm

 Weight of flask + cement (W2) = _______ gm

 Weight of flask + cement + kerosene (W3) =------ gm

 Weight of flask + kerosene (W4) = ______ gm

 Weight of flask+water (W5) =_____ gm

 Specific gravity of kerosene =0.79

Aggregate tests
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:
• Crushing test
• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Soundness test

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• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test
Crushing test One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under
compressive stress. A test is standardized by IS:2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing
strength of aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of
aggregate in standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions (Figure 22:1).
Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a
cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is
tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the
test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a
compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed
aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is
expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing
value.
Aggregate crushing value = W1/ W2 × 100
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally
be regarded as weak aggregates.

Figure: Crushing test setup

Abrasion test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide
whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is
a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India
(IS:2386 part-IV). The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due
to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length
520 mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Figure 22:2). An abrasive
charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed
in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to
the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and
usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm
for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

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After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed
fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles
abrasion value.
A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

Figure: Los Angeles abrasion test setup

Impact test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup
of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical
guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed aggregate is
allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as percentage of
aggregates passing sieve (W2 ) to the total weight of the sample (W1 ).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2) X 100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn’t exceed 30 percent.
For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent
Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by
conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates,
they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS:2386 part-V. Aggregates of
specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 110oC to a
constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving

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Figure: Impact test setup

out all undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent
when tested with sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution

Shape tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles in it.
Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and stability of
mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Test procedure had been standardized in India
(IS:2386 part-I)

Figure 22:4: Flakiness gauge

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles
whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to
aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. This test is also specified in (IS:2386 Part-I). However there are
no recognized limits for the elongation index.

Specific Gravity and water absorption

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are
required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the
ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because

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the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of
aggregates are used: apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

Figure: Elongation gauge

 Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp , is computed on the basis of the net volume of
aggregates i.e the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

where, MD is the dry mass of the aggregate, VN is the net volume of the aggregates
excluding the volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of water.

 Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk , is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids.Thus

where, VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
 Water absorption, the difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is
nothing but the water-permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of
such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, surface dry condition, with all
permeable voids filled with water. The difference of the above two is MW. MW is the weight
of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition. Thus

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5
to 2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates
normally used in road surfacing.

Bitumen adhesion test

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Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and
free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be
dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing
temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated
aggregates. These problems occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. Several
laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an
aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite
simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours. IRC has specified maximum stripping value of
aggregates should not exceed 5%.

Table: Tests for Aggregates with IS codes

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

This method of test covers the procedure for determining the aggregate
crushing value of coarse aggregate.

Apparatus:

The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing value test consists of the
following:

1. Steel cylinder with open ends and internal diameter 15.2 cm, square
base plate plunger having a piston of diameter 15 cm, with a hole
provided across the stem of the plunger so that a rod could be inserted
for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
2. Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5 cm and height 18
cm.
3. Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1.6 cm
and length 45 to 60 cm.

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4. Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy upto 1 g and IS sieve of sizes 12.5
mm, 10mm and 2.36 mm for sieving the aggregates.
5. Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 10 tonnes, at a
uniform rate of loading of 1 tonne per minute.

Figure 1: Aggregate crushing test apparatus

Precautions:

1. Aggregate should be saturated but with dry surface.

2. All care should be taken to avoid the loss of fines
3. Measure all quantities to the accuracy of 1 in 1000.

Procedure:

1. The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a
12.5 mm IS Sieve and retained on a 10 mm IS Sieve, and shall be
thoroughly separated on these sieves before testing.
2. The aggregate shall be tested in a surface-dry condition. If dried by
heating, the period of drying shall not exceed four hours, the
temperature shall be 100 to 110°C and the aggregate shall be cooled to
room temperature before testing.
3. The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the
cylindrical measure in three layers of approximately equal depth, each

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layer being tamped 25 times with the rounded end of the tamping rod
and finally leveled off, using the tamping rod as a straight-edge.
4. The weight of material comprising the test sample shall be determined
(Weight A) and the same weight of sample shall be taken for the repeat
test.
5. The apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, shall then
be placed between the platens of the testing machine and loaded at as
uniform a rate as possible so that the total load is reached in 10
minutes. The total load shall be 400 kN.
6. The load shall be released and the whole of the material removed from the
cylinder and sieved on a 2.36 mm IS Sieve for the standard test. The
fraction passing the sieve shall be weighed (Weight B).

Observations and Calculations:

The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total sample weight in each test
shall be expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first
decimal place:

𝐵
Aggregate Crushing Value = 𝑥100
𝐴

Where,

A = weight of saturated surface - dry sample, g

B = weight of fraction passing through appropriate sieves, g.

Table 1: Observations and calculations of Crushing Test

S. Trail Number
Details Average
No 1 2

Weight of aggregate sample in the

1 cylindrical measure, A, g

(excluding empty wt of cylindrical

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measure)

Weight of crushed aggregates after

2 passing through 2.36 mm sieve, B,
g

𝐵
3 Aggregate Crushing Value: 𝑥100
𝐴

Results:

The aggregate crushing value of given sample of coarse aggregate is ……….. %.

The aggregate crushing value should not be more than 45 per cent for
aggregate used for concrete other than for wearing surfaces, and 30 per cent
for concrete used for wearing surfaces such a runways, roads and air field
pavements.

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

Aim: This method of test covers the procedure for determining the aggregate
impact value of coarse aggregate.

Apparatus: An impact testing machine of the general form is shown in Figure 2

and complying with the following:

1. A cylindrical steel cup of internal dimensions: Diameter 102 mm,

Depth 50 mm and not less than 6.3 mm thick
2. A metal hammer weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg, the lower end of which
shall be cylindrical in shape, 100.0 mm in diameter and 5 cm long,
with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge, and case-hardened. The
hammer shall slide freely between vertical guides so arranged that
the lower (cylindrical) part of the hammer is above and concentric
with the cup.

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3. Means for raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely between
the vertical guides from a height of 380.0 mm on to the test sample
in the cup, and means for adjusting the height of fall within 5 mm.
4. Sieves-The IS Sieves of sizes 12.5, 10 and 2.36 mm, Tamping Rod,
balance of capacity not less than 500 g, Oven etc.

Precautions:

1. Proper sieve should be used for preparing the sample

2. Please ensure that the metallic cup is tightly bolted
3. The safety lock should always in position
4. Measure all quantities to the accuracy of 1 in 1000.

Procedure:

1. The test sample shall consist of aggregate the whole of which passes a
12.5 mm IS Sieve and is retained on a 10 mm IS Sieve. The aggregate
comprising the test sample shall be dried in an oven for a period of four
hours at a temperature of 100 to 110°C and cooled.
2. The measure shall be filled about one-third full with the aggregate and
tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. The net
weight of aggregate in the measure shall be determined to the nearest
gram (Weight A).
3. The impact machine shall rest without wedging or packing upon the level
plate, block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are
vertical.
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4. The cup shall be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and
the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted by a single
tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
5. The hammer shall be raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the
upper surface of the aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on to
the aggregate. The test sample shall be subjected to a total of 15 such
blows each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
6. The crushed aggregate shall then be removed from the cup and the whole
of it sieved on the 2.36 mm IS Sieve until no further significant amount
passes in one minute. The fraction passing the sieve shall be weighed to
an accuracy of 0.1 g (Weight. B).
7. The fraction retained on the sieve shall also be weighed (Weight C) and, if
the total weight (C+B) is less than the initial weight (Weight A) by more
than one gram, the result shall be discarded and a fresh test made. Two
tests shall be made.

Observation and Calculations:

The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total sample weight in each test shall he
expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place:

𝐵
Aggregate Impact Value = 𝑥100
𝐴

Where,

A = weight of saturated surface - dry sample, gm

B = weight of fraction passing through 2.36 mm IS Sieves, gm

Table 2: Observations and calculations of Impact Test

S. Trail Number
Details Average
No 1 2

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Weight of aggregate sample in the
cylindrical measure, A, g
1
(excluding empty wt of cylindrical
measure)

Weight of crushed aggregates after

2
passing through 2.36 mm sieve, B, g

𝐵
3 Aggregate Crushing Value: 𝐴 𝑥100

Result:

The aggregate Impact value of given sample of coarse aggregate =

The aggregate impact value should not be more than 45 per cent for aggregate used for
concrete other than for wearing surfaces, and 30 per cent for concrete used for
wearing surfaces such a runways, roads and air field pavements.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION OF COARSE

AGGREGATE

Aim: To determine specific gravity and water absorption of a given sample of coarse
aggregate.

Apparatus:An experimental set up of aggregate specific gravity test is shown in Figure

3. The apparatus used for these tests are the following:

1. Balance of capacity – 3 kg to weigh accurate to 0.5 g.

2. An oven to maintain temperature of 1000 C to 1100 C.
3. A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of
convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
4. A container for filling water and suspending basket.
5. An airtight container of capacity similar to that of basket and a shallow tray
and two dry absorbent clothes.

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Figure 3: Experimental setup of aggregate specific gravity test

Precautions:

1. Keep in mind that the saturated surface dry sample is the condition when all
the visible films of water are removed from the sample
2. All the weighing should be done carefully and accurately

Procedure:

1. About 2 kg of aggregate sample is taken and washing them to remove fines and
then placing in the wire basket and immersing in water at a temperature of 220
C to 320 C.
2. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by
lifting the basket 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25
times at the rate of above one drop per second.
3. The basket and the aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for
a period of 24 ± 0.5 hour afterwards.
4. The basket and the samples are weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature 220 C to 320 C.
5. The basket and the aggregates are removed from water and dried with dry
absorbent cloth.

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6. The empty basket is suspended back in water tank and weighed.
7. The surface dried aggregates are also weighed.
8. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven for 24 hours and
thereafter cooled in an airtight container and weighed.

Observations and Calculations

Observed
S.No Details
Values

1 Weight of saturated aggregate and basket in water: W1 g

2 Weight of basket in water: W2 g

3 Weight of saturated dry aggregates in air: W3 g

4 Weight of oven dry aggregates in air: W4 g

5 Apparent Specific Gravity: W4 / [W4 – (W1 - W2 )]

6 Bulk Specific Gravity: W4 / [W3 – (W1 - W2 )]

7 Water Absorption: [(W3 – W4 ) x 100]/ W4

Result

1. The Specific Gravity of a given sample of course aggregate is found to be …….

2. The Water Absorption of a given sample of course aggregate is found to be ……

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

Aim: This method of test is to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregate using
Los Angeles machine.

Apparatus: An experimental set up of aggregate specific gravity test is shown in Figure

4. The apparatus for the standard aggregate impact value test consists of the
following:

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1. Los Angeles abrasion machine and sieves.
2. Abrasive charges, consisting of cast iron spheres approximately 4.8 cm in
diameter of 390 to 445 g in weight are used.
3. The aggregate grading have been standardized as A, B, C, D, E, F and G (can be
seen in Table 3) for this test and the IS specifications for the grading and
abrasive charge to be used (can be seen in Table 4).
IS sieve with 1.70 mm opening is used for separating the fines after the
abrasion test

Figure 4: Experimental setup of Los-Angeles Abrasion

Table 3: Grading of Test Samples

Sieve size Weight of test sample in gm
(square
hole)

Passing Retained
A B C D E F G
(mm) on (mm)

80 63 2500*

63 50 2500*

50 40 5000* 5000*

40 25 1250 5000* 5000*

25 20 1250 5000*

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20 12.5 1250 2500

12.5 10 1250 2500

10 6.3 2500

6.3 4.75 2500

4.75 2.36 5000

*Tolerance of ± 12 percent permitted

Table 4: Selection of Abrasive Charge

Grading No of Steel Weight of charge in gm

balls

A 12 5000 ± 25

B 11 4584 ±25

C 8 3330 ± 20

D 6 2500 ± 15

E 12 5000 ± 25

F 12 5000 ± 25

G 12 5000 ± 25

Precautions:

1. To minimize wear of 1.7mm sieve use a higher grade sieve first

2. No spillage of aggregate should be there for the entire experiment duration
3. Measure all quantities to the accuracy of 1 in 1000.
Procedure:

1. The test sample shall consist of clean aggregate which has been dried in an
oven at 105 to 110°C to substantially constant weight and shall conform to one
of the grading shown in Table 3.The grading used shall be those most nearly
representing the aggregate furnished for the work.

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2. The test sample and the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los
Angeles abrasion testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to
33 rev/ min. For grading A, B,
3. C and D, the machine shall be rotated for 500 revolutions; for grading E, F and
G, it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions.
4. The machine shall be so driven and so counter-balanced as to maintain a
substantially uniform peripheral speed. If an angle is used as the shelf, the
machine shall be rotated in such a direction that the charge is caught on the
outside surface of the angle.
5. At the completion of the test, the material shall be discharged from the
machine and a preliminary separation of the sample made on a sieve coarser
than the l.70 mm IS Sieve.
6. The material coarser than the 1.70 mm IS Sieve shall be washed dried in an
oven at 105 to 110°C to a substantially constant weight, and accurately weighed
to the nearest gram.

Observations and Calculations

Initial weight of the aggregates before testing, W1, g

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm IS sieve after the test W2 , g

Weight of aggregate passed through 1.70 mm IS sieve after the test W3 , g

 W W 
Los Angeles abrasion value:  1 2 100 
 W 
 1 

Result:

The aggregate Abrasion Value of given sample of coarse aggregate is ………. %

The percentage of wear should not be more than 16 per cent for concrete aggregates.

DETERMINATION OF FLAKINESS INDEX AND ELONGATION INDEX OF COARSE

AGGREGATES.

Aim: To determine the Flakiness Index and Elongation Index of coarse aggregates.

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Apparatus: The apparatus consists of a standard thickness gauge and length gauge
can be seen in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively, and IS sieves of size 63, 50, 40,
31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm and a balance to weigh the samples.

Figure 5: Thickness gauge

Figure 6: Length gauge

Precautions:

1. Take the sample by quartering

2. Do not force to pass the particle from the thickness gauge
3. Measure the mass of aggregate retained accurately

Procedure:

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1. Sample - A quantity of aggregate shall be taken sufficient to provide the
minimum number of 200 pieces of any fraction to be tested
2. The sample is sieved with the sieves as mentioned in the Table 5.
3. Separation of Flaky material- Each fraction shall be gauged in turn for
thickness on a metal gauge of the pattern shown in Figure 5, or in bulk on
sieves having elongated slots.
4. Weighing of Flaky Material - The total amount passing the gauge shall be
weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
5. The flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing the various
thickness gauges or sieves, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the
sample gauged.
6. For elongation test, sample is sieved with the sieves as mentioned in the Table
6.
7. Separation of Elongated Material- Each fraction shall be gauged individually for
length on a metal length gauge of the pattern shown in Figure 6.
8. Weighing of Elongated Material - The total amount retained by the length gauge
shall be weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test
sample.
9. The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various
length gauges, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample
gauged.

Observations and Calculations:

Table 5: Observations of flakiness Index

Weight of the Thickness Weight of

Size of Aggregates
fraction Gauge (0.6 aggregates in

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UNIT – IV Tests on soils
consisting of times the each fraction
Passing Retained 200 pieces, kg mean sieve), passing through
through on IS mm thickness gauge,
IS Sieves Sieves kg
(mm) (mm)

63 50 33.90
50 40 27.00
40 25 19.50
31.5 25 16.95
25 20 13.50
20 16 10.80
16 12.5 8.55
12.5 10 6.75
10 6.3 4.89
W= w=

Table 6: Observations of Elongation Index

Size of Aggregates
Length Weight of
Weight of the
Gauge (1.8 aggregates in
Passing Retained fraction
times the each fraction
through on IS consisting of
mean sieve) passing through
IS Sieves Sieves 200 pieces, kg
mm length gauge, kg
(mm) (mm)

63 50 33.90
50 40 27.00
40 25 19.50
31.5 25 16.95
25 20 13.50
20 16 10.80
16 12.5 8.55
12.5 10 6.75
10 6.3 4.89
W= w=

 w 
 100 
W 
Flakiness Index of the aggregate =  

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UNIT – IV Tests on soils
 w 
 100 
W 
Elongation Index of the aggregate =  

where,

w = Weight of aggregates in each fraction passing through thickness/length gauge, kg

W= Weight of the fraction consisting of 200 pieces, kg

TESTS ON BITUMINOUS
PENETRATION TEST ON BITUMEN

Aim: To determine the grade of the given bitumen sample.

Apparatus: The apparatus for the penetration test consists of the following:
1. A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55 mm in diameter and 35
mm or 57 mm in height.
2. A straight, highly polished cylindrical hard steel needle with conical end.
The needle is provided with a shank approximately 3.0 mm in diameter
into which it is immovably fixed.
3. A water bath is maintained at 25 ± 10 C containing not less than 10 liters
of water, the sample is immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from
the top and supported on a perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from of
the bottom of the bath.
4. Penetrometer
5. A small tray which can keep the container fully immersed in water
during the test.

Precautions:

1. Be careful while doing the test as it the bitumen is very hot.

2. The heating should be done very carefully
3. Measure all quantities very accurately.

Procedure:
1. The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 750 C and
1000 C above the approximate temperature at which bitumen softens.
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2. The sample material is then poured into the container to a depth at least
15 mm more than the expected penetration.
3. The sample containers are cooled in atmosphere of temperature not
lower than 130 C for one hour.
4. Then they are placed in temperature controlled water bath at a
temperature of 250 C for a period of one hour.
5. The sample container is placed in the transfer tray with water from the
water bath and placed under the needle of the penetrometer (can be seen
in Figure 7) and determine the penetrations of all samples by taking at
least three measurements on each sample such that the distance of not
less than 100mm apart.

Figure 7: Bitumen penetration test apparatus

Observations and Calculations:

1. Pouring temperature, 0 C = 1300 C
2. Period of cooling in atmosphere, minutes = 60 minutes
3. Room temperature, 0 C =
4. Period of placing samples in water bath, minutes = 60 minutes
5. Actual test temperature, 0 C =

Readings Sample No .1 Sample No. 2

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Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3
Value
Mean

Value
Mean
Penetrometer dial Initial
reading Final
Penetration Value

Result:
Mean Penetration value of the given sample of bitumen =

DUCTILITY TEST ON BITUMEN

Aim: To conduct ductility test on a given bitumen sample.

Apparatus: The apparatus for the ductility test consists of the following:
1. A briquette mould which is made of brass metal. Both ends called clips
possess circular holes to grip the fixed and movable ends of the testing
machine as shown in Figure 8 (a).
2. A water bath is maintained at 270 C containing not less than 10 liters of
water, the sample is immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from the
top and supported on a perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from the
bottom of the bath can be seen in Figure 8 (b).
3. A square-end trowel or putty knife sharpened on end.
4. Ductility machine: It is equipment which functions as constant
temperature water bath and a pulling device at a precalibrated rate.

( a). Briquette mould ( b). Water bath

Figure 8: Ductility testing apparatus

Precautions:

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UNIT – IV Tests on soils
1. Be careful while doing the test as it the bitumen is very hot.
2. The heating should be done very carefully
3. Measure all quantities very accurately.

Procedure:

1. The bitumen sample is method to a pouring temperature (75ºC to 100ºC)

and poured into the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate, where a
solution of glycerin or soap solution is applied at all surfaces of briquette
mould exposed to bitumen.
2. After the sample is poured to the mould, thirty to forty minutes the entire
assembly is placed in a water bath at 27ºC.
3. Then the sample is removed from the water bath maintained at 27ºC and
excess bitumen material is cutoff by leveling the surface using hot knife.
4. After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is
replaced in water bath maintained at 27ºC for 85 to 95 minutes. Then the sides
of mould are removed and the clips are carefully booked on the machine
without causing any initial strain. Two or more specimens may be prepared in
the moulds and clipped to the machine so as to conduct these test
simultaneously.
5. The pointer is set to read zero. The machine is started and the two clips
are thus pulled apart horizontally.
6. While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is
immersed in water at depth of at least 10mm. The distance at which the
bitumen thread of each specimen breaks is recorded (in cm) to report as
ductility value.

Observations and Calculations

1. Grade of bitumen =
2. Poring temperature, 0 C =
3. Test temperature, 0 C =
4. Period of cooling, minutes,
(a) in air = 30 minutes

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(b) in water bath before trimming = 30 minutes
(c) ) in water bath after trimming = 90 minutes

Briquette Number
Test Property Mean Value
1 2 3
Ductility value
(cm)

Results
Mean ductility value of the given bitumen sample =
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN

Aim: To determine the softening point of given paving bitumen as per IS: 1205.

Apparatus: The apparatus for the softening point test consists of the following:
1. It consists of Ring and Ball apparatus as shown in Figure 9.
2. Bath and stirrer: A heat resistant glass container of 85 mm diameter and
120 mm depth is used. Bath liquid is water for material having softening
point below 800 C and glycerine for material having softening point above
800 C. Mechanical stirrer is used for ensuring uniform heat distribution
at all times throughout the bath.
3. Thermometer, steel balls each of 9.5mm and weight of 2.5±0.08gm.

Figure 9: Softening point ring and ball apparatus

Precautions:

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UNIT – IV Tests on soils
1. Be careful while doing the test as it the bitumen is very hot.
2. The heating should be done very carefully
3. Measure all quantities very accurately.

Procedure:
1. The sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 1000 C
above the approximate softening point until it is completely fluid and is
poured in heated rings placed on metal plate which is coated with a
solution of glycerin and dextrin to avoid of sticking of bitumen to the
metal plate.
2. After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is
trimmed and rings are placed in the support.
3. The distilled water is kept at 50 C for 15 minutes after which the balls are
placed in position.
4. The temperature is raised at uniform rate of 50 C per minute with a
controlled heating unit, until the bitumen softens and touches the
bottom plate by sinking of balls and at least two observations are made.
Observations and Calculations
1. Bitumen grade =
2. Approximate Softening point =
3. Liquid used in the bath =
4. Period of cooling in air, minutes = 30 minutes
5. Period of cooling in water bath, minutes = 15 minutes

Table 7: Showing observations of softening point

Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Mean Value

Test property
Ball no. 1 Ball no. 2 Ball no. 1 Ball no. 1
Temperature (0 C) at
which sample touches
bottom plate

Result:

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The mean value of softening point of the given sample:

STABILITY OF THE BITUMEN USING MARSHAL STABILITY

Aim:The resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of

bituminous mixture is measured when the same is loaded at the periphery at 5
cm per minute. This test procedure is used in designing and evaluating
bituminous paving mixes. There are two major features of the Marshall method
of designing mixes namely (i) Density–Void analysis (ii) Stability–Flow tests. The
Marshal stability of the mix is defined as a maximum load carried by a
compacted specimen at a standard test temperature at 600 C. The flow value is
the deformation the Marshall Test specimen undergoes during the loading up
to the maximum load, in 0.25 mm units.

Apparatus:The apparatus required for this test are Mould Assembly, Sample
Extractor, Compaction Pedestal and Hammer, Breaking Head, Loading
Machine, Flow Meter and in additional to these Ovens on hot plates, Mixing
apparatus, Water bath and Thermometers of range up to 2000 C with
sensitivity of 2.50 C. An experimental setup of Marshal Stability test can be
seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Experimental setup of Marshal Stability test

Procedure:
In the Marshal method each compacted test specimen is subjected to the
following tests and analysis in the order listed below:
1. Bulk density determination
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2. Stability and Flow test
3. Density and Void analysis

Preparation of Test Specimen:

The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler material should be
proportioned and mixed in such a way that final mix after blending has the
gradation within the specific range. The specified gradation of mineral
aggregates and bitumen binder is given in Table 8.

Table 8: Gradation of mineral aggregates

Weight of Material
Material
(grams)
M1 432(36%)
M2 108(9%)
M3 636(53%)
Filler - Lime 24(2%)
Total 1200

The aggregates and the filler are to be mixed together in the desired proportion
as per design requirements fulfilling the desired gradation. The required
quantity of the mix is taken so as to produce a compacted bituminous mix
specimen of thickness 63.5 mm approximately.

1. Approximately 1200 g of aggregates and filler shall be taken and heated

to a temperature of 1750 C to 1900 C.
2. The compacted mould assembly and rammer shall be cleaned and kept
preheated to a temperature of 1000 C to 1450 C.
3. The bitumen shall be heated to a temperature of 1210 C to 1380 C and
the require quantity of the first trail percentage of bitumen shall be
added to the heated aggregates and thoroughly mixed using a
mechanical stirrer or by hand mixing with trowel.
4. The mixing temperature of the provided bitumen grade should be about
1600 C.

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5. The mix shall be placed in a mould and compacted by a rammer with
about 75 blows on either side.
6. The compacting specimen should have a thickness of 63.5 ± 3.0 mm.
7. At least two specimens but preferably three specimens should be
prepared in each trial, bitumen content which may be varied at 0.5 %
increments up to 6 or 6.5 %.

Observations and Calculations:

1. Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimens:

The specific gravity values of the different aggregates, filler and bitumen used
are determined first. The theoretical specific gravity of the mix is given by:
100  Wb
Gt 
W1 W2 W3 W4 Wb
   
G1 G 2 G 3 G 4 G bi

where,
Gt = Average specific gravity of aggregates
W1 = Percent by weight of coarse aggregates
W2 = Percent by weight of fine aggregates
W3 = Percent by weight of filler
W4 = Percent by weight of lime
Wb = Percent by weight of bitumen in total mix
G1 = Apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregates
G2 = Apparent specific gravity of fine aggregates
G3 = Apparent specific gravity of filler
G4 =Apparent specific gravity of lime
Gbi= Specific gravity of bitumen

2. Density and Void Analysis:

Soon after the compacted bituminous mix specimens have cooled to room
temperature, the weight, average thickness and diameter of the specimen are
noted. The specimen are also weighed in air and then in water. The bulk

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density value Gb is calculated from the weight and volume. The void analysis is
made according to the following formulae:
100(Gt  Gb )
Vv % 
Gt

Wb 100*Vb
Vb  Gb * , VMA%  Vv  Vb , VFB% 
Gbi VMA

where,
V v = Air voids in the mix, %
Vb = Volume of bitumen
VMA = Void in Mineral Aggregates
VFB = Voids Filled with Bitumen

Density and Void Analysis

Height of Weight (g) Bulk sp.

Sample Bitumen
sample, in in gravity Gt Vv Vb VMA VFB
No content,%
mm air water Gb
1 4.5
2 4.5
AVG 4.5
1 5
2 5
AVG 5
1 5.5
2 5.5
AVG 5.5
1 6
2 6
AVG 6

3. Marshall Stability and Flow Values:

The specimens to be tested are kept in immersed water in a thermostatically
controlled water bath at 600 C (+/-) 10 C for 30 to 40 minutes. The specimens
are taken out one by one and shall be placed in a Marshall Test head and the
Marshall Stability value (maximum load carried in Kg by the specimen before

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failure) and the flow value (the deformation of the specimen undergoes during
loading up to the maximum load in 0.25mm units) should be noted. The
corrected Marshall Stability values of each specimen are to be calculated by
applying the appropriate correction factor.
Mixing temperature =
Number of blows on either side =
Grade of bitumen
Compacting temperature =

Bitumen Stability Value(kg) Flow dial

Correction Flow value
Sample No content reading
factor in 0.25mm
percent in mm
Measured Corrected units
1 4.5
2 4.5
AVG 4.5
1 5
2 5
AVG 5
1 5.5
2 5.5
AVG 5.5
1 6
2 6
AVG 6

The graphs are to be plotted with the values of bitumen content against the
followings:
 Density, Gb
 Marshall stability, Kg
 Voids in total mix, Vv%
 Flow Values (0.25mm units)
 Voids filled with bitumen, VFB%
4.6 Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content:
The optimum bitumen content for the mix design can be found by taking the
average value of the following three bitumen contents found from the graphs of
the test results:

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1. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum stability
2. Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit weight
3. Bitumen content corresponding to median of designed limits of
percent air voids in total mix (4 %)

Job Mix Formula – Results:

Proportion of
Sample by
weight

Aggregate C
Sample
D

Total mineral
aggregate

Total mix

Total mineral aggregate

Bitumen content

Total mix

Specifications (as per IRC):

Specified Experimental
Test Property
Value Value

Marshall Stability, kg 900

Marshall Flow Value,

8 to 16
0.25 mm units

Voids in Total Mix,Vv % 3 to 5

Voids in mineral aggregates Filled with

75-85
Bitumen, VFB %

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Beyond Syllabus
Highway Failures and Maintenance
The investigation implies that there are different types of failures that occur in hyderabad City
which most of them are surface failures. Major failure is not found within this area. The
respective authorities also stated about the presence of this failures and different types of cracks
and potholes mostly occur. The causes of bituminous pavement failures that occur in hyderabad
City are poor quality control, weather condition, heavy traffic load, inadequate structural support,
and excessive moisture in sub-grade. The investigation shows that urgent maintenance is mostly
carried out in hyderabad City compared to routine and periodic maintenance. Therefore, the
quality of the maintenance and standardization of maintenance procedure are not always properly
controlled which causes the roads to undergo early and repeated road maintenance.

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MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A.Y.: 2020-21

Year/Semester: III/I

Regulation: R18

LECTURE NOTES
ON
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

1. Mr. M.GNANENDRA BABU

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Pavement Design

1. Introduction to Pavement Design:

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics,
and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to
wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-
grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose, namely
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This lecture gives an overview of pavement types,
layers, and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to
early failure of pavements affecting the riding quality.

2. Requirement of Pavement:

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

3. Types of Pavement:

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-
to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement,
having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On the contrary,
in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the
pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to
these, composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid

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pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements
are rarely used in new construction because of high cost and complex analysis required.

4. Flexible Pavements:

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Load transfer in granular structure

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible
pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the
concept of layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number
of layers and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in
addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low
quality material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials.
These can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments
generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on
high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-
grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced
should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

4.1 Types of Flexible Pavements:

The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

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 Conventional layered flexible pavement,
 Full-depth asphalt pavement, and
 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials
are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in
lower layers.
Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the
soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not
available.
Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers
in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the
sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and
protect from surface water.

4.2 Typical layers of Flexible Pavement:

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack
coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and
natural sub-grade (Figure 2).

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.

Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and
forms a water tight surface.

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Figure 2: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement

4.2.1 Surface course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete
(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
sub-base and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

4.2.2 Binder course

This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course. The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less
asphalt and doesn’t require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the
surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.

4.2.3 Base course

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and
it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.

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4.2.4 Sub-Base course

The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the
sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base
course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

4.2.5 Sub-grade

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

4.3 Failure of Flexible Pavements:

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile
strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete
specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation
or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to control rutting:
one to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to
a tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature
cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.

5. Rigid Pavements:

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a
wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 3.
Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared
sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer
of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-
base course.

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Figure 3: Typical Cross section of rigid pavement

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 4). Rigid pavements are constructed by
Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer
theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified
version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane
before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and
temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Figure 4: Elastic plate resting on viscous foundation

5.1 Types of Rigid Pavements:

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for
load transfer across joints. They normally have a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the

structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m.

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Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even
after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are achieved

by reinforcement.

5.2 Failure criteria of rigid pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends
on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late,
pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry
through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused during the downward
movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in rigid
pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.

6. Summary:

Pavements form the basic supporting structure in highway transportation. Each layer of
pavement has a multitude of functions to perform which has to be duly considered during the
design process. Different types of pavements can be adopted depending upon the traffic
requirements. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of pavements affecting the
riding quality also.

7. Problems:

1. The thin layer of bitumen coating between an existing bituminous layer and a new
bituminous layer is:
a. Seal coat
b. Intermediate coat
c. Tack coat
d. Prime coat
2. Rigid pavements are designed by
a. Rigid plate theory
b. Elastic plate theory
c. Infinite layer theory
d. Interlocking of aggregates

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8. Solutions:

1. The thin layer of bitumen coating between an existing bituminous layer and a new
bituminous layer is:
a. Seal coat
b. Intermediate coat
c. Tack coat√
d. Prime coat
2. Rigid pavements are designed by
a. Rigid plate theory
b. Elastic plate theory√
c. Infinite layer theory
d. Interlocking of aggregates

Flexible Pavement Design Using IRC Method

Unit V Lecture 5.2

9. Overview:

Indian roads congress has specified the design procedures for flexible pavements based on
CBR values. The Pavement designs given in the previous edition IRC: 37-1984 were
applicable to design traffic upto only 30 million standard axles (msa). The earlier code is
empirical in nature which has limitations regarding applicability and extrapolation. This
guidelines follows analytical designs and developed new set of designs up to 150 msa in IRC:
37-2001. Further, this guidelines improvised where new and alternate materials in the current
design practices incorporated in IRC: 37-2012. A designer can use his sound engineering
judgment consistent with local environment using a semi-mechanistic approach for design of
pavements.

10. Scope:

These guidelines will apply to design of flexible pavements for Expressway, National
Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and other categories of roads. Flexible
pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous surfacing and
granular base and sub-base courses conforming to IRC/ MOST standards. These guidelines
apply to new pavements.

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11. Design Criteria:

The flexible pavements has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains at
critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic model. To give proper
consideration to the aspects of performance, the following three types of pavement distress
resulting from repeated (cyclic) application of traffic loads are considered:

1. Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-grade
deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface.

2. Horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which can
cause fracture of the bituminous layer.

3. Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

While the permanent deformation within the bituminous layer can be controlled by meeting
the mix design requirements, thickness of granular and bituminous layers are selected using
the analytical design approach so that strains at the critical points are within the allowable
limits. For calculating tensile strains at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the stiffness of
dense bituminous macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the analysis.

12. Failure Criteria:

Figure: Critical location in pavement

A and B are the critical locations for tensile strains (ϵt). Maximum value of the strain is
adopted for design. C is the critical location for the vertical subgrade strain (ϵz) since the
maximum value of the (ϵz) occurs mostly at C.

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Fatigue Criteria:
Bituminous surfacing of pavements display flexural fatigue cracking if the tensile strain at the
bottom of the bituminous layer is beyond certain limit. The relation between the fatigue life
of the pavement and the tensile strain in the bottom of the bituminous layer was obtained as

N f  0.7111004  1/  t   1/ M R 

3.89 0.854
(Equation 1)

where, Nf indicates fatigue life in number of standard axles, εt is maximum tensile strain at the
bottom of the bituminous layer, and MR is resilient modulus of the bituminous layer, MPa.

Rutting Criteria:
The allowable number of load repetitions to control permanent deformation can be expressed
as

N r  1.411008  1/  v 
4.5337
(Equation 2)

where, Nr = Number of cumulative standard axles, and  v = Vertical strain in the subgrade

13. Design Procedure:

Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design
charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are
given for subgrade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1
msa to 150 msa for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 0C. The later thicknesses
obtained from the analysis have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage
construction. Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be
chosen for the given traffic and soil strength:
 Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and
 CBR value of subgrade.

14. Design Traffic:

The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of commercial vehicle per day (CVPD)
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)

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5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For the
structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming laden
weight of three tonnes or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of the
initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour
classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the
basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.
Traffic growth rate
Traffic growth rates can be estimated (i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and (ii)
by establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is recommended that
an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.
Design life
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the cumulative
number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is
necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH should be
designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other categories of roads
for 10 to 15 years.
Vehicle Damage Factor
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load
repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The
VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to
region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load repetitions
into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors refer IRC:37
2012. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.

11.1 Vehicle distribution:

A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is

necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the
design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.
 Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane
roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should
be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.

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 Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the
commercial vehicles in both directions.
 Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the
total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
 Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should
be based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual
three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be
60 % and 45 % respectively.

11.2 Design traffic:

The design traffic is considered in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles in the
lane carrying maximum traffic during the design life of the road. This can be computed using
the following equation:

365   (1  r) n   1
  
N  A D F
r
where N is the cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for the design in terms of
million standards axle (msa), A is the initial traffic in the year of completion of construction
in terms of the number of commercial vehicles per day, D is the lane distribution factors, F is
the vehicle damage factor, n is the design life in years, and r is the annual growth rate of
commercial vehicles (r=-0.075 if growth rate is 7.5 percent per annum). The traffic in the
year of completion is estimated using the following formula:
A  P(1  r) x
where P is the number of commercial vehicles as per last count, and x is the number of years
between the last count and the year of completion between the last count and the year of
completion of the project.

15. Pavement thickness design charts:

For the design of pavements to carry traffic in the range of 2 to 150 msa, use below charts of
IRC: 37 2012. The design curves relate pavement thickness to the cumulative number of
standard axles to be carried over the design life for different sub-grade CBR values ranging
from 3 % to 15 %. The design charts will give the total thickness of the pavement for the
above inputs. The total thickness consists of granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous
surfacing. The individual layers are designed based on the recommendations given below.

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16. Pavement composition:

Sub-base
Sub-base materials comprise natural sand, gravel, laterite, brick metal, crushed stone or
combinations thereof meeting the prescribed grading and physical requirements. The sub-
base material should have a minimum CBR of 20 % and 30 % for traffic upto 2 msa and
traffic exceeding 2 msa respectively. Sub-base usually consist of granular or WBM and the
thickness should not be less than 150 mm for design traffic less than 10 msa and 200 mm for
design traffic of 100 msa and above.
Base
The recommended designs are for unbounded granular bases which comprise conventional
water bound macadam (WBM) or wet mix macadam (WMM) or equivalent confirming to
MOST specifications. The materials should be of good quality with minimum thickness of
225 mm for traffic up to 2 msa an 150 mm for traffic exceeding 2 msa.
Bituminous surfacing
The surfacing consists of a wearing course or a binder course plus wearing course. The most
commonly used wearing courses are surface dressing, open graded premix carpet, mix seal
surfacing, semi-dense bituminous concrete and bituminous concrete. For binder course,
MOST specifies, it is desirable to use bituminous macadam (BM) for traffic upto o 5 msa and
dense bituminous macadam (DBM) for traffic more than 5 msa.

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17. Numerical example:

Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data:

1. Two lane carriageway

2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD (sum of both
directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
4. Design life = 15 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per commercial
vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

Solution:

1. Distribution factor = 0.75

2.
3. Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 7.2 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1 =
660 mm
4. Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement Design
Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
a. Bituminous surfacing = 25 mm SDBC + 70 mm DBM
b. Road-base = 250 mm WBM
c. sub-base = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30

18. Summary:

The design procedure given by IRC makes use of the CBR value, million standard axle
concept, and vehicle damage factor. Traffic distributions along the lanes are taken into
account. The design is meant for design traffic which is arrived at using a growth rate.

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19. Problems:

Design the pavement for construction of a new two lane carriageway for design life 15 years
using IRC method. The initial traffic in the year of completion in each direction is 150 CVPD
and growth rate is 5%. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 std axle per
commercial vehicle. Design CBR of subgrade soil=4%.

Solutions

1. Distribution factor = 0.75

2.
3. Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 4.4 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1 =
580 mm
4. Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement Design
Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
a. Bituminous surfacing = 20 mm PC + 50 mm BM
b. Road-base = 250 mm Granular base
c. sub-base = 280 mm granular material.

Theory of Empirical Mechanistic Method

Unit V Lecture 5.3

20. Overview:

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes,
under loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of
materials. Each layer receives loads from the above layer, spreads them out, and passes on
these loads to the next layer below. Thus the stresses will be reduced, which are maximum at
the top layer and minimum on the top of subgrade. In order to take maximum advantage of
this property, layers are usually arranged in the order of descending load bearing capacity
with the highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the
lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.

21. Design procedures:

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For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate
layer thickness and composition. The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load and
temperature variations. Two methods of flexible pavement structural design are common
today: Empirical design and mechanistic empirical design.

17.1 Empirical design

An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experimentation or experience.

Some of them are either based on physical properties or strength parameters of soil subgrade.
An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experimentation or experience.
An empirical analysis of flexible pavement design can be done with or without a soil strength
test. An example of design without soil strength test is by using HRB soil classification
system, in which soils are grouped from A-1 to A-7 and a group index is added to
differentiate soils within each group. Example with soil strength test uses McLeod,
Stabilometer, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test. CBR test is widely known and will be
discussed.

17.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design

Empirical-Mechanistic method of design is based on the mechanics of materials that relates

input, such as wheel load, to an output or pavement response. In pavement design, the
responses are the stresses, strains, and deflections within a pavement structure and the
physical causes are the loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The
relationship between these phenomena and their physical causes are typically described using
some mathematical models. Along with this mechanistic approach, empirical elements are
used when defining what value of the calculated stresses, strains, and deflections result in
pavement failure. The relationship between physical phenomena and pavement failure is
described by empirically derived equations that compute the number of loading cycles to
failure.
18 Traffic and Loading
There are three different approaches for considering vehicular and traffic characteristics,
which affects pavement design.

Fixed traffic: Thickness of pavement is governed by single load and number of load
repetitions is not considered. The heaviest wheel load anticipated is used for design purpose.
This is an old method and is rarely used today for pavement design.

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Fixed vehicle: In the fixed vehicle procedure, the thickness is governed by the number of
repetitions of a standard axle load. If the axle load is not a standard one, then it must be
converted to an equivalent axle load by number of repetitions of given axle load and its
equivalent axle load factor.

Variable traffic and vehicle: In this approach, both traffic and vehicle are considered
individually, so there is no need to assign an equivalent factor for each axle load. The loads
can be divided into a number of groups and the stresses, strains, and deflections under each
load group can be determined separately; and used for design purposes. The traffic and
loading factors to be considered include axle loads, load repetitions, and tyre contact area.

18.1 Equivalent single wheel load

To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or
dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel
load having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress,
deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of finding the
ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as
Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions:
 equalancy concept is based on equal stress;
 contact area is circular;
 influence angle is 45o; and
 soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.
The ESWL is given by:

where P is the wheel load, S is the center to center distance between the two wheels, d is the
clear distance between two wheels, and z is the desired depth.

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Figure 1: ESWL-Equal stress concept

18.1.1 Example 1

Find ESWL at depths of 5cm, 20cm and 40cm for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each. The
center to center tyre spacing is 20cm and distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10cm.

Solution: For desired depth z=40cm, which is twice the tyre spacing, ESWL = 2P=2×2044 =
4088 kN. For z=5cm, which is half the distance between the walls of the tyre, ESWL = P =
2044kN.
For z=20cm,

log 10ESWL = log 10P +

log 10ESWL = log 102044 + =3.511.

Therefore, ESWL = antilog(3.511)= 3244.49 Kn

18.2 Equivalent single axle load

Vehicles can have many axles which will distribute the load into different axles, and in turn
to the pavement through the wheels. A standard truck has two axles, front axle with two
wheels and rear axle with four wheels. But to carry large loads multiple axles are provided.
Since the design of flexible pavements is by layered theory, only the wheels on one side
needed to be considered. On the other hand, the design of rigid pavement is by plate theory
and hence the wheel loads on both sides of axle need to be considered.

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Legal axle load: The maximum allowed axle load on the roads is called legal axle load. For
highways the maximum legal axle load in India, specified by IRC, is 10 tonnes.
Standard axle load: It is a single axle load with dual wheel carrying 80 KN load and the
design of pavement is based on the standard axle load.

Repetition of axle loads: The deformation of pavement due to a single application of axle
load may be small but due to repeated application of load there would be accumulation of
unrecovered or permanent deformation which results in failure of pavement. If the pavement
structure fails with N1 number of repetition of load W1 and for the same failure criteria if it
requires N2 number of repetition of load W2, then W1N1 and W2N2 are considered equivalent.
Note that, W1N1 and W2N2equivalency depends on the failure criterion employed.

Equivalent axle load factor: An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per
pass to a pavement by the ith type of axle relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle
load. While finding the EALF, the failure criterion is important. Two types of failure criteria
are commonly adopted: fatigue cracking and rutting. The fatigue cracking model has the
following form:

where, Nf is the number of load repetition for a certain percentage of cracking, ϵt is the tensile
strain at the bottom of the binder course, E is the modulus of elasticity, and f1,f2,f3 are
constants. If we consider fatigue cracking as failure criteria, and a typical value of 4 for f2,
then:

where, i indicate ith vehicle, and std indicate the standard axle. Now if we assume that the
strain is proportional to the wheel load,

Similar results can be obtained if rutting model is used, which is:

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where Nd is the permissible design rut depth (say 20mm), ϵc is the compressive strain at the
top of the subgrade, and f4, f5 are constants. Once we have the EALF, then we can get the
ESAL as given below.

where,m is the number of axle load groups, Fi is the EALF for ith axle load group, and n i is
the number of passes of ith axle load group during the design period.

18.2.1 Example 1

Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is 100 and
40 KN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load.
Solution: Refer the Table 1. The ESAL is given as ∑ Fini = 3225 kN
Table 1: Example 1 Solution

Axle Load No. of Load Repetition EALF

i Fini
(kN) (ni) (Fi)

1 40 10000 (40/80)4 = 0.0625 625

2 80 1000 (80/80)4 = 1 1000

3 160 100 (160/80)4 = 16 1600

18.2.2 Example 2

Let the number of load repetition expected by 120 kN axle is 1000, 160 kN is 100, and 40 kN
is 10,000. Find the equivalent standard axle load if the equivalence criteria is rutting. Assume
80 kN as standard axle load and the rutting model is Nr = f4ϵc-f5 where f 4 =4.2 and f5 =4.5.
Solution Refer the Table 2. The ESAL is given as ∑ Fini = 8904.94 kN

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Table 2: Example 2 Solution

Axle Load No. of Load Repetition EALF

i Fini
(KN) (ni) (Fi)

1 120 1000 (120/80)4.5 = 6.200 6200

2 160 100 (160/80)4.5 = 22.63 2263

3 40 10000 (40/80)4.5 = 0.04419 441.9

18.2.3 Example 3

Let number of load repetition expected by 60kN standard axle is 1000, 120kN is 200 and 40
kN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load using fatigue cracking as failure criteria according
to IRC. Hint:Nf = 2.21 × 10-4(ϵ t)-3.89(E)0.854
Solution Refer the Table 3. The ESAL is given as ∑ Fini = 6030.81 kN
Table 3: Example 3 Solution

Axle Load No. of Load Repetition EALF

i Fini
(kN) (ni) (Fi)

1 40 10000 (40/60)3.89 = 0.2065 2065

2 60 1000 (60/60)3.89 = 1 1000

3 120 200 (120/60)3.89 = 14.825 2965.081

19 Material characterization
It is well known that the pavement materials are not perfectly elastic but experiences some
permanent deformation after each load repetitions. It is well known that most paving
materials are not elastic but experience some permanent deformation after each load
application. However, if the load is small compared to the strength of the material and the
deformation under each load repetition is almost completely recoverable then the material can
be considered as elastic.

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The Figure 2 shows straining of a specimen under a repeated load test. At the initial stage of
load applications, there is considerable permanent deformation as indicated by the plastic
strain in the Figure 2. As the number of repetition increases, the plastic strain due to each load
repetition decreases. After 100 to 200 repetitions, the strain is practically all-recoverable, as
indicated by ϵr in the figure.

Figure 2: Recoverable strain under repeated loads

19.1 Resilient modulus of soil

The elastic modulus based on the recoverable strain under repeated loads is called the

resilient modulus MR, defined as MR = . In which σd is the deviator stress, which is the
axial stress in an unconfined compression test or the axial stress in excess of the confining
pressure in a triaxial compression test.

In pavements the load applied are mostly transient and the type and duration of loading used
in the repeated load test should simulate that actually occurring in the field. When a load is at
a considerable distance from a given point, the stress at that point is maximum. It is therefore
reasonable to assume the stress pulse to be a haversine or triangular loading, and the duration
of loading depends on the vehicle speed and the depth of the point below the pavement
surface. Resilient modulus test can be conducted on all types of pavement materials ranging
from cohesive to stabilized materials. The test is conducted in a triaxial device equipped for
repetitive load conditions.

19.2 Dynamic complex modulus

When the loading wave form is sinusoidal and if there is no rest period, then, the modulus
obtained is called dynamic complex modulus. This is one of the way of explaining the stress-
strain relationship of visco-elastic materials. This modulus is a complex quantity and the

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absolute value of the complex modulus is called the dynamic modulus. This complex
modulus test is usually conducted on cylindrical specimens subjected to a compressive
haversine loading. The test setup is similar to resiliant modulus. The dynamic modulus varies
with the loading frequency. Therefore, a frequency that most closely simulates the actual
traffic load should be selected for the test.

19.3 Correlations with other tests

Determination of resiliant modulus is often cumbersome. Therefore, various empirical tests

have been used to determine the material properties for pavement design. Most of these test
measure the strength of the material and are not a true representation of the resiliant modulus.
Accordingly, various studies has related empirical tests like CBR test, Tri-axial test etc are
correlated to resiliant modulus.
20 Mechanistic-empirical analysis
Mechanics is the science of motion and action of forces on bodies. In pavement design these
phenomena are stresses, strains, and deflections within a pavement structure and the physical
causes are loads and material properties of the pavements structure. The relationship between
these phenomena and their physical causes is described by a mathematical model. The most
common of them is layered elastic model.

20.1 Advantages

The basic advantages of the Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design method over a purely
empirical one are:
1. It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement
construction
2. It can accommodate changing load types
3. It can better characterize materials allowing for
o better utilization of available materials
o accommodation of new materials
o improved definition of existing layer proportion
4. It uses material proportion that relates better with actual pavement performance
5. It provides more reliable performance predictions
6. It defines role of construction in a better way
7. It accommodates environment and aging effect of materials in the pavement

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20.2 Mechanistic model

Mechanistic models are used to mathematically model pavement physics. There are a number
of different types of models available today (e.g., layered elastic, dynamic, viscoelastic) but
this section will present the layered elastic model.

20.2.1 Layered elastic model

A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains and deflections at any point in a
pavement structure resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models
assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In
other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once the load is
removed. This section covers the basic assumptions, inputs and outputs from a typical layered
elastic model.

20.2.2 Assumptions in layered elastic model

The layered elastic approach works with relatively simple mathematical models and thus
requires following assumptions
 Pavement layer extends infinitely in the horizontal direction
 The bottom layer (usually the subgrade) extends infinitely downwards
 Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges

20.2.3 Inputs

A layered elastic model requires a minimum number of inputs to adequately characterize a

pavement structure and its response to loading. These inputs are:
 Material properties of each layer, like modulus of elasticity (E), Poisson’s ratio (ν),
 Pavement layer thicknesses, and
 Loading conditions which include the total wheel load (P) and load repetitions.

20.2.4 Output

The outputs of the layered elastic model are the stresses, strains and deflections in the
pavements.
 Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement
structure at various points. Stress has units of force per unit area(pa)
 Strain. The unit displacement due to stress , usually expressed as a ratio of change in
dimension to the original dimension (mm/mm )

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 Deflection. The linear change in dimension. Deflection is expressed in units of length
(mm)

20.2.5 Failure criteria

The main empirical portions of the mechanistic-empirical design process are the equations
used to compute the number of loading cycles to failure. These equations are derived by
observing the performance of pavements and relating the type and extent of observed failure
to an initial strain under various loads. Currently, two types of failure criteria are widely
recognized, one relating to fatigue cracking and the other to rutting initiating in the subgrade.
21 Summary
Basic concepts of flexible pavement design were discussed. There are two main design
procedures- empirical and mechanistic empirical design. For design purposes, equivalent
single wheel load and equivalent single axle load concepts are used.
22 Problems
1. A set of dual tyres has a total load of 4090 kg, a contact radius a of 11.4 cm and a
center to center tyre spacing of 34.3 cm. Find the ESWL by Boyd & Foster method
for a depth of 34.3 cm. [Ans: 3369.3 kg]
2. Calculate ESWL by equal stress criteria for a dual wheel assembly carrying 2044 kg
each for a pavement thickness of 5, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cms. The distance between
walls of the tyre is 11 cm. Use either graphical or functional methods. (Hint:
P=2044kg, d=11cm, s=27cm). [Ans: 2044, 2760, 3000, 3230 and 4088]
3. Let number of load repetition expected by 60kN standard axle is 1000, 120kN is 200
and 40 kN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load using fatigue cracking as failure
criteria according to IRC. Hint:Nf = 2.21 × 10-4(ϵ t)-3.89(E)0.854 .

Stresses in Rigid Pavement by Westergards and IRC Methods

27 Overview

As the name implies, rigid pavements are rigid i.e, they do not flex much under loading like
flexible pavements. They are constructed using cement concrete. In this case, the load
carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity ad high modulus of elasticity of the slab (slab
action). H. M. Westergaard is considered the pioneer in providing the rational treatment of
the rigid pavement analysis.

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27.1 Modulus of sub-grade reaction

Westergaard considered the rigid pavement slab as a thin elastic plate resting on soil sub-
grade, which is assumed as a dense liquid. The upward reaction is assumed to be proportional
to the deflection. Base on this assumption, Westergaard defined a modulus of sub-grade

reaction K in kg/cm3 given by K = where Δ is the displacement level taken as 0.125 cm

and p is the pressure sustained by the rigid plate of 75 cm diameter at a deflection of 0.125
cm.

27.2 Relative stiffness of slab to sub-grade

A certain degree of resistance to slab deflection is offered by the sub-grade. The sub-grade
deformation is same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection is direct measurement of
the magnitude of the sub-grade pressure. This pressure deformation characteristics of rigid
pavement lead Westergaard to the define the term radius of relative stiffness l in cm is given
by the equation 1.

(1)

where E is the modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in kg/cm2 (3.0×105), μ is the

Poisson’s ratio of concrete (0.15), h is the slab thickness in cm and K is the modulus of sub-
grade reaction.

27.3 Critical load positions

Since the pavement slab has finite length and width, either the character or the intensity of
maximum stress induced by the application of a given traffic load is dependent on the
location of the load on the pavement surface. There are three typical locations namely
the interior, edge and corner, where differing conditions of slab continuity exist. These
locations are termed as critical load positions.

27.4 Equivalent radius of resisting section

When the interior point is loaded, only a small area of the pavement is resisting the bending
moment of the plate. Westergaard’s gives a relation for equivalent radius of the resisting
section in cm in the equation 2.

(2)

where a is the radius of the wheel load distribution in cm and h is the slab thickness in cm.

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28 Wheel load stresses - Westergaard’s stress equation

The cement concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous and to have uniform elastic
properties with vertical sub-grade reaction being proportional to the deflection. Westergaard
developed relationships for the stress at interior, edge and corner regions, denoted
as σi, σe, σc in kg/cm2 respectively and given by the equation 3-5.

(3)

(4)

(5)

where h is the slab thickness in cm, P is the wheel load in kg, a is the radius of the wheel load
distribution in cm, l the radius of the relative stiffness in cm and b is the radius of the
resisting section in cm

Figure 1: Critical stress locations

29 Temperature stresses

Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in slab
temperature. This is caused by (i) daily variation resulting in a temperature gradient across

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the thickness of the slab and (ii) seasonal variation resulting in overall change in the slab
temperature. The former results in warping stresses and the later in frictional stresses.

29.1 Warping stress

The warping stress at the interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as σti, σte, σtc in
kg/cm2 respectively and given by the equation 7-8.

(6)

(7)

(8)

where E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete in kg/cm2 (3×105), ϵ is the thermal coefficient
of concrete per oC (1×10-7) t is the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the
slab, C x and Cy are the coefficient based on Lx∕l in the desired direction and Ly∕l right angle to
the desired direction, μ is the Poisson’s ration (0.15), a is the radius of the contact area
and l is the radius of the relative stiffness.

29.2 Frictional stresses

The frictional stress σf in kg/cm2 is given by the equation

(9)

where W is the unit weight of concrete in kg/cm2 (2400), f is the coefficient of sub grade
friction (1.5) and L is the length of the slab in meters.

30 Combination of stresses

The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases

 Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region given by σcritical = σe + σte- σf
 Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given
by σcritical = σe + σte + σf

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 Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for the corner region given
by σcritical = σc + σtc
31 Design of joints

31.1 Expansion joints

The purpose of the expansion joint is to allow the expansion of the pavement due to rise in
temperature with respect to construction temperature. The design consideration are:

 Provided along the longitudinal direction,

 design involves finding the joint spacing for a given expansion joint thickness (say 2.5
cm specified by IRC) subjected to some maximum spacing (say 140 as per IRC)

Figure 2: Expansion joint

31.2 Contraction joints

The purpose of the contraction joint is to allow the contraction of the slab due to fall in slab
temperature below the construction temperature. The design considerations are:

 The movement is restricted by the sub-grade friction

 Design involves the length of the slab given by:

(10)

 where, Sc is the allowable stress in tension in cement concrete and is taken as 0.8
kg/cm2, W is the unit weight of the concrete which can be taken as 2400
kg/cm3 and f is the coefficient of sub-grade friction which can be taken as 1.5.

 Steel reinforcements can be use, however with a maximum spacing of 4.5 m as per
IRC.

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Figure 3: Contraction joint

31.3 Dowel bars

The purpose of the dowel bar is to effectively transfer the load between two concrete slabs
and to keep the two slabs in same height. The dowel bars are provided in the direction of the
traffic (longitudinal). The design considerations are:
 Mild steel rounded bars,

 bonded on one side and free on other side

31.3.1 Bradbury’s analysis

Bradbury’s analysis gives load transfer capacity of single dowel bar in shear, bending and
bearing as follows:

where, P is the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in shear s, bending f and
bearing b, d is the diameter of the bar in cm, Ld is the length of the embedment of dowel bar
in cm, δ is the joint width in cm, Fs, Ff, Fb are the permissible stress in shear, bending and
bearing for the dowel bar in kg/cm2.

31.3.2 Design procedure

Step 1

Find the length of the dowel bar embedded in slab Ld by equating Eq. 12 = Eq. 13, i.e.

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(14)

Step 2

Find the load transfer capacities Ps, Pf, and Pb of single dowel bar with the Ld

Step 3

Assume load capacity of dowel bar is 40 percent wheel load, find the load capacity factor f as

(15)

Step 4

Spacing of the dowel bars.

 Effective distance upto which effective load transfer take place is given by 1.8 l,
where l is the radius of relative stiffness.
 Assume a linear variation of capacity factor of 1.0 under load to 0 at 1.8 l.
 Assume a dowel spacing and find the capacity factor of the above spacing.
 Actual capacity factor should be greater than the required capacity factor.
 If not, do one more iteration with new spacing.

31.3.3 Example
Design size and spacing of dowel bars at an expansion joint of concrete pavement of
thickness 25 cm. Given the radius of relative stiffness of 80 cm. design wheel load 5000 kg.
Load capacity of the dowel system is 40 percent of design wheel load. Joint width is 2.0 cm
and the permissible stress in shear, bending and bearing stress in dowel bars are 1000, 1400
and 100 kg∕cm2 respectively.

Solution: Given, P = 5000 kg, l = 80 cm, h = 25 cm, δ = 2 cm, Fs = 1000 kg∕cm2, F f=

1400 kg∕cm2 and Fb = 100 kg∕cm2; and assume d = 2.5 cm diameter.

Step-1: length of the dowel bar Ld

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Solve for Ld by trial and error:

put Ld = 45.00 ⇒ Ld = 40.95

put Ld = 45.95 ⇒ Ld = 40.50

put Ld = 45.50 ⇒ Ld = 40.50

Minimum length of the dowel bar is Ld + δ = 40.5 + 2.0 = 42.5 cm, So, provide 45 cm long
and 2.5 cm ϕ. Therefore Ld = 45 - 2 = 43 cm.

Step 2: Find the load transfer capacity of single dowel bar

Therefore, the required load transfer capacity

Step-3: Find the required spacing: Effective distance of load transfer =

1.8 l = 1.8 ×80 = 144 cm. Assuming 35 cm spacing,

Actual capacity is

Therefore assume 30 cm spacing and now the actual capacity is

Therefore provide 2.5 cm ϕ mild steel dowel bars of length 45 cm @ 30 cm center to center.

31.4 Tie bars

In contrast to dowel bars, tie bars are not load transfer devices, but serve as a means to tie two
slabs. Hence tie bars must be deformed or hooked and must be firmly anchored into the
concrete to function properly. They are smaller than dowel bars and placed at large intervals.
They are provided across longitudinal joints.

Step 1

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Diameter and spacing: The diameter and the spacing is first found out by equating the total
sub-grade friction to the total tensile stress for a unit length (one meter). Hence the area of
steel per one meter in cm2 is given by:

where, b is the width of the pavement panel in m, h is the depth of the pavement in cm, W is
the unit weight of the concrete (assume 2400 kg∕cm2), f is the coefficient of friction (assume
1.5), and Ss is the allowable working tensile stress in steel (assume 1750 kg∕cm2). Assume 0.8
to 1.5 cm ϕ bars for the design.

Step 2

Length of the tie bar: Length of the tie bar is twice the length needed to develop bond stress
equal to the working tensile stress and is given by:

where, d is the diameter of the bar, Ss is the allowable tensile stress in kg∕cm2, and S b is the
allowable bond stress and can be assumed for plain and deformed bars respectively as 17.5
and 24.6 kg∕cm2.

31.4.1 Example

A cement concrete pavement of thickness 18 cm has two lanes of 7.2 m with a joint. Design
the tie bars.

Solution:
Given h=18 cm, b=7.2/2=3.6m, Ss = 1700 kg∕cm2 W = 2400 kg∕cm2 f = 1.5 S b = 24.6 kg∕cm2.

Step 1: diameter and spacing: Get As from

Assume ϕ = 1 cm, ⇒ A = 0.785 cm2. Therefore spacing is = 59 cm, say 55 cm

Step 2: Length of the bar: Get Lt from

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UNIT – V Pavement Design

[Ans] Use 1 cm ϕ tie bars of length of 36 cmi @ 55 cm c∕c

32 Summary

Design of rigid pavements is based on Westergaard’s analysis, where modulus of subgrade

reaction, radius of relative stiffness, radius of wheel load distribution are used. For critical
design, a combination of load stress, frictional stress and warping stress is considered.
Different types of joints are required like expansion and contraction joints. Their design is
also dealt with.

33 Problems

1. Design size and spacing of dowel bars at an expansion joint of concrete pavement of
thickness 20 cm. Given the radius of relative stiffness of 90 cm. design wheel load
4000 kg. Load capacity of the dowel system is 40 percent of design wheel load. Joint
width is 3.0 cm and the permissible stress in shear, bending and bearing stress in
dowel bars are 1000, 1500 and 100 kg∕cm2respectively.

2. Design the length and spacing of tie bars given that the pavement thickness is 20cm
and width of the road is 7m with one longitudinal joint. The unit weight of concrete is
2400 kg∕m3, the coefficient of friction is 1.5, allowable working tensile stress in steel
is 1750 kg∕cm2, and bond stress of deformed bars is 24.6 kg∕cm2.

34 Solutions

1. Given, P = 4000 kg, l = 90 cm, h = 20 cm, δ = 3 cm, Fs = 1000 kg∕cm2, Ff =

1500 kg∕cm2 and F b = 100 kg∕cm2; and assume d = 2.5 cm diameter.

Step-1: length of the dowel bar Ld,

Solving for Ld by trial and error, it is =39.5cm Minimum length of the dowel bar is
Ld + δ = 39.5 + 3.0 = 42.5 cm, So, provide 45 cm long and 2.5 cm ϕ. Therefore Ld = 45 - 3
= 42 cm.

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UNIT – V Pavement Design
Step 2: Find the load transfer capacity of single dowel bar

Therefore, the required load transfer capacity (refer equation)

Step-3 : Find the required spacing: Effective distance of load transfer =

1.8×l = 1.8×90 = 162 cm. Assuming 35 cm spacing,

Actual capacity is

Assuming 40cm spacing, capacity is,

So we should consider 2.52 as it is greater and more near to other value. Therefore provide
2.5 cm ϕ mild steel dowel bars of length 45 cm @ 40 cm center to center.

2. Given h=20 cm, b=7/2=3.5m, Ss = 1750 kg∕cm2 W = 2400 kg∕cm2 f = 1.5 Sb =

24.6 kg∕cm2.

Step 1: diameter and spacing:

Assume ϕ = 1 cm, ⇒ A = 0.785 cm2. Therefore spacing is = 54.57 cm, say

55 cm

Step 2: Length of the bar:

[Ans] Use 1 cm ϕ tie bars of length of 36 cm @ 55 cm c∕c

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UNIT – V Pavement Design
Beyond Syllabus
Coal‐tar‐based pavement sealcoat:

PAHs in urban sources All concentrations in mg/kg (averages of up to 6 studies)

• Fresh asphalt 1.5

• Weathered asphalt 3

• Fresh motor oil 4

• Brake particles 16

• Road dust 24

• Tire particles 86

• Diesel engine 102

• Gasoline engine 370

• Used motor oil 440 Pavement Sealcoat

•Asphalt Based ~ 50

•Coal ‐tar ‐based ~70,000

CMB* source apportionment  Vehicle/traffic related Gasoline and diesel soot and exhaust,
tunnel air, used oil, tires, asphalt wear

 Coal combustion Residential, power plant, and coking plant emissions

 Fuel oil combustion Wood burning Pine-wood soot particles

 Coal-tar-based sealcoat NIST standard, products, scrapings, and pavement dust

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS Page 39