19CSE203: Digital Electronics

Introduction

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 Digital Electronics & Systems

• TEXT BOOK: Stephen Brown, Zvonko Vranesic,

“Fundamentals of Digital logic with Verilog Design”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, Special Indian
Edition, 2007.

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 Course Objectives
• To understand the fundamentals of Boolean Logic and the
building blocks of digital circuits
• To introduce the abstraction of simple practical problems
into Boolean Logic and their efficient implementation and
to introduce the fundamentals of design with
combinational and sequential subsystems

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 Course Outcomes
• CO1: Able to frame Boolean equations for solving a
simple real-life problems and realize them using gate-level
building blocks
• CO2: Able to apply minimization techniques for efficient
Boolean logic implementation
• CO3: Able to realize digital blocks using combinational
and sequential subsystems
• CO4: Able to design using state machine descriptions for
practical real-life engineering problems

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 Syllabus
Unit 1 Introduction to logic circuits - Variables and functions, inversion - Truth
tables - Logic gates and Networks - Boolean algebra - Synthesis using gates -
Design examples - Optimized implementation of logic functions - Karnaugh
map - Strategy for minimization - Minimization of product of sums forms -
Incompletely specified functions - Multiple output circuits - Tabular method
for minimization - Number representation and arithmetic circuits: Addition of
unsigned numbers - Signed numbers - Fast adders.
Unit 2 Combinational circuit building blocks - Multiplexers - Decoders -
Encoders - Code converters - Arithmetic comparison circuits - Sequential
circuit building blocks - Basic latch - Gated SR latch - Gated D latch - Master
slave and edge triggered - D flip-flops - T flip-flop - JK flip-flop - Registers -
Counters - Reset synchronization - Other types of counters.
Unit 3 Synchronous sequential circuits - Basic design steps - State assignment
problem - Mealy state model - Serial adders - State minimization -
Introduction to Asynchronous sequential circuits – Introduction to CMOS
logic.

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INTRODUCTION
 ANALOG VS DIGITAL

• Analog devices and systems: Process analog signals (time-

varying signals that can take any value across a continuous
range known as dynamic range)
• Digital devices and systems: Process digital signals
(analog signals that are modeled as having at any time one
of two discrete values)

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 Digital Systems
Digital vs. Analog Waveforms

+5 +5

1 0 1
V V
Time Time

–5 –5

Digital: Analog:
only assumes discrete values values vary over a broad range
continuously

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 Digital Systems cntd..
• A digital signal is a signal that can only have discrete
values in time
– Most common are binary digital signals, where only
two values are allowed often designated as 0 and 1
• The opposite is analog signals that can take infinite values

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Number systems
Hexadecimal number
D5A1
 Digital Hardware Systems
Boolean Algebra and Logical Operators

Algebra: variables, values, operations

In Boolean algebra, the values are the symbols 0 and 1

If a logic statement is false, it has value 0
If a logic statement is true, it has value 1

Operations: AND, OR, NOT

X Y X AND Y X Y X OR Y X NOT X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

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Variables & Functions

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 Representations of Digital Design:
Switches

Normally Open

A switch connects two points under control signal.

• when the control signal is 0 (false), the switch is open

• when it is 1 (true), the switch is closed

We will use Normally open switch in our discussion

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A switch connects two points under control signal.

• when the control signal x is 0 (false), the switch is open

• when it is 1 (true), the switch is closed

x = 0 x = 1

(a) Two states of a switch

(b) Symbol for a switch

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 S
Battery Light
L=1 =>
x
Light is ON

(a) Simple connection to a battery

S
Power
supply x Light

(b) Using a ground connection as the return path

Figure : A light controlled by a switch.
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 Logic expression/Logic Function

State of Light is function of input variable x.

• L=1 if x=1
• L=0 if x=0
L(x)=x
L(x)=x is a logic expression/function
Here only one switch was controlling Light.
If there are two switches then?

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 S S
Power x1
supply x2 Light

(a) The logical AND function (series connection)

x1

Power
supply S Light

x2

(b) The logical OR function (parallel connection)

Figure : Two basic functions.
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Series Connection => logical AND operation

The symbol
. Is called
AND
operator

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Parallel Connection => logical OR operation
Symbol + is
called OR
operator

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Here three switches are controlling the light in more complex way.
Can you identify the relation?

X1
S
Power
supply S X3 Light

X2

Figure: A series-parallel connection.

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Here the series parallel connection of switches realizes the logic function

X1
S
Power
supply S X3 Light

X2

Figure : A series-parallel connection.

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 Try implementation using switches

• (A+B).(C+D)
• A.(B+C).D

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LECTURE 2

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• Till now we saw some positive action takes place when a
switch is closed, such as turning the light on.
• It is equally interesting and useful to consider the
possibility that a positive action takes place when a switch
is opened

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Complement Operation (Inversion)

Power
supply x S Light

Figure : An inverting circuit.

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Complement Operation

Symbol – over a variable called

NOT operator.

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 Try implementation using switches

• ((A.B)+C).(D)
• (A+B)’

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 Truth Tables
Useful aid for giving information for a logic function.

Figure: A truth table for the AND and OR operations.

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Truth Table for 3 input variables

Figure : Three-input AND and OR operations.

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 Logic Gates

❖ Three basic logic operations can be used to implement

logic functions of any complexity.
❖ Each logic operation can be implemented using Logic
Gate.
❖ A logic gate has one or more inputs and one output that is
a function of its inputs.
❖ It is often convenient to describe a logic circuit by
drawing a circuit diagram, or schematic, consisting of
graphical symbols representing the logic gates.

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 x1
x2
x1
x1 ×x2 x1 ×  ×xn
x2 ×
x2

xn

(a) AND gates

x1
x2
x1
x1 + x2 x 1 + x2 +  + xn
x2

xn

(b) OR gates

x x
Figure: The basic gates.
(c) NOT gate
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A Larger circuit is implemented by Network of
Gates

x
1
x
2
f = ( x + x ) ×x
x 1 2 3
3

Figure: The function from Figure of switches .

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 Analysis vs Synthesis of Logic Networks

• Analysis Process: For an existing logic network, it

must be possible to determine the function
performed by the network. This task is referred
to as the analysis process.
• Synthesis Process: The reverse task of designing a new
network that implements a desired functional behavior is
referred to as the synthesis process.
• The analysis process is straightforward and much simpler
than the synthesis process

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Analysis example

Check how signal A &B

Are changing with input
x1 & x 2

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 Timing Diagram: Functional Behavior

Check how signal A &B

Timing diagrams are useful for indicating Are changing with input
the functional behavior of logic circuits x1 & x 2
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Functionally Equivalent Networks

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 Truth table with 4 input variables

• we can also construct truth

tables for any function.

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LECTURE 3

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 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean Algebra
– Axioms of Boolean Algebra
– Single Variable Theorem
– Two and Three variable Properties
– Complements and Duals

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 Boolean Algebra

• In 1849 George Boole published a scheme

for the algebraic description of processes
involved in logical thought and reasoning .
Subsequently, this scheme and its further
refinements became known as Boolean
algebra.
• It was almost 100 years later that this
algebra found application in the
engineering sense. In the late 1930s
Claude Shannon showed that Boolean
algebra provides an effective means of
describing circuits built with switches .The
algebra can be used to describe logic
circuits. 38
 Boolean Algebra:Axioms
1a
1b

2a
2b

3a
3b

4a
4b
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Boolean Algebra: Single Variable Theorems
5a
5b

6a
6b

7a
7b

8a
8b

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 Principle of Duality
• Given a logic expression, its dual is obtained by replacing all +
operators with · operators, and vice versa, and by replacing all
0s with 1s, and vice versa.
• The dual of any true statement (axiom or theorem) in Boolean
algebra is also a true statement.
A+ 0 = A A. 1 = A

(a+ b. c)+e (a. (b + c)).e

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 Boolean Algebra: Two & Three variable
Properties
10a
10b

11a
11b

(22)
12a
(23)
12b

13a
13b
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Boolean Algebra: Two & Three variable
Properties

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 Boolean Algebra: DeMorgans Theorem

15a
15b

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Proof of DeMorgan’s Theorem using
TruthTable

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Proof of DeMorgan’s Theorem using
TruthTable

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 Boolean Algebra: Two & Three variable
Properties

Proof of 16a
x +x’ y = (x + x’)(x + y) = 1· (x + y) = x + y
• Use 12b(distributive ) 8b 6a
Proof of 16b
x . (x’+ y) = x . x’ + x . y = 0 + x . y = x . y
Use 8a 6b

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 Boolean Algebra: Two & Three variable
Properties
17a
17b
Proof for 17a
Consensus Theorem gives us the relationship
XY + X’Z + YZ = XY + X’Z
Note that in doing the reduction the first step is to add 1 to
the YZ term. That 1 is in the form, (X+X’).

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 Boolean Algebra: Two & Three variable
Properties
Proof for 17b

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 Other examples
Simplify the following-
1. XY+XY’ = X(Y + Y’) = X·1 = X
• Use 12a(distributive ) 8b 6a

2. X· (X+Y)=X·X+X·Y= X+XY=X(1+Y)=X·1=X
• Use 12b(distributive) 7a 12a 5b

3. (X+Y) ·(X+Y’)=XX+XY’+XY+YY’=
X+XY’+XY+0=X(1+Y’+Y)=X·1=X

4. X(X’+Y) = XX’+XY = 0 + XY = XY

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Simplify the logic function-

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 Examples

Simplify the following logic functions.

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LECTURE 4

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 Examples
• Simplify F=X’YZ+X’YZ’+XZ

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 Affect on implementation
• F = X’YZ + X’YZ’ + XZ

• Reduces to F = X’Y + XZ

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• Try

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• Solution:

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 Complement of a function
• In real implementation sometimes the complement of a
function is needed. Have F=X’YZ’+X’Y’Z

a.b=a+b

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 How Duals and Complement are related
• What is meant by the dual of a function?
– The dual of a function is obtained by interchanging OR
and AND operations and replacing 1s and 0s with 0s
and 1s.
• Shortcut to getting function complement
– Starting with the equation on the previous slide
– Generate the dual F=(X’YZ’)+(X’Y’Z)
– Complement each literal to get:
– F’=(X+Y’+Z)(X+Y+Z’)

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Synthesis of simple circuits

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Synthesis using AND,OR, NOT Gates

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Sum of Products Canonical form

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Two Variable Minterms

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 Simple problem of synthesis
• Assume that x1 and x2 represent the states of two switches,
either of which may produce a 0 or 1.
• The function of the circuit is to continuously monitor the
state of the switches and to produce an output logic value 1
whenever the switches (x1, x2) are in states(0, 0), (0, 1), or
(1, 1). If the state of the switches is (1, 0), the output
should be 0.
• We can express the required behavior using a truth table,

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Canonical SOP –implementation using Logic
Gates

The process whereby we begin with a description of the desired

functional behavior and then generate a circuit that realizes this
behavior is called synthesis.

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Canonical SOP expression can be reduced
using Boolean Algebra

1. Using 7b,third Product term is replicated

2. Using the commutative property 10b to interchange

the second and third product terms gives

3.The distributive property 12a

4.Using 8b and 6a

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Cost = No. of Logic gates +
No. of inputs to gates

Cost = 6 + 11 = 17

Cost = 2 + 3 = 5

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LECTURE 5

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Three Variable Minterms

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• Consider three variable function and synthesize the circuit
for it.

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• Consider three variable function and synthesize the circuit
for it.

Canonical SOP expression

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• Draw circuit diagram
• Reduce it and again draw the reduced circuit diagram.
• Compare the cost-A good indication of the cost of a logic
circuit is the total number of gates plus the total number of
inputs to all gates in the circuit.

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 Example

Another example:

A B Cin Sum Cout Sum = A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Cout = A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin

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Product of Sum Canonical Form

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Maxterms

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 Maxterms
• The principle of duality suggests that if it is possible to
synthesize a function f by considering the rows in the truth
table for which f = 1, then it should also be possible to
synthesize f by considering the rows for which f = 0.
• This alternative approach uses the complements of
minterms, which are called maxterms.

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• Consider three variable function and synthesize the circuit
for it using Maxterms.

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• Consider three variable function and synthesize the circuit
for it using Maxterms

Canonical POS expression

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Reduce it and draw circuit diagram

Using 14b-combining property

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Q1> Write the function in canonical SOP form.
Q2> Simplify the function in SOP form.
Q3>Write corresponding Maxterm list-canonical POS form.
Q4>Reduce canonical POS expression.

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84
Find minimum cost SOP expression for this
function

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Try this problem: Write Truth Table and draw
circuit diagram

The required behavior is that the light should be on only if one,

but not both, of the toggle switches is in the top position.

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Truth Table and Circuit diagram

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 Synthesis Example

A circuit that controls a given digital system has three inputs:

x1, x2, and x3.It has to recognize three different conditions:
• Condition A is true if x3 is true and either x1 is true or x2 is
false
• Condition B is true if x1 is true and either x2 or x3 is false
• Condition C is true if x2 is true and either x1 is true or x3 is
false
The control circuit must produce an output of 1 if at least two
of the conditions A, B, and C are true. Design the simplest
circuit that can be used for this purpose.

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