Detailed Land Use Classification in A Rare Earth Mining Area Using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data For Sustainable Agricultural Development
Detailed Land Use Classification in A Rare Earth Mining Area Using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data For Sustainable Agricultural Development
Article
Detailed Land Use Classification in a Rare Earth Mining Area
Using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data for Sustainable
Agricultural Development
Chige Li 1 , Hengkai Li 1, * , Yanbing Zhou 2, * and Xiuli Wang 3
1 Jiangxi Province Education Department, School of Civil and Surveying & Mapping Engineering,
Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou 341000, China; [email protected]
2 Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences,
Beijing 100097, China
3 Jiangxi Province Education Department, School of Economics and Management, Jiangxi University of Science
and Technology, Ganzhou 341000, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (H.L.); [email protected] (Y.Z.)
Abstract: In China, ion-adsorbing rare earth minerals are mainly located in the southern hilly
areas and are important strategic resources. Extensive long-term mining has severely damaged
the land cover in mining areas, caused soil pollution and terrain fragmentation, disrupted the
balance between mining and agriculture, severely restricted agricultural development, and affected
ecological development. Precise and detailed classification of land use within mining areas is crucial
for monitoring the sustainable development of agricultural ecology in these areas. In this study,
we leverage the high spatial and high spectral resolution characteristics of the Zhuhai-1 (OHS)
hyperspectral image datasets. We create four types of datasets based on spectral, vegetation, red
edge, and texture characteristics. These datasets are optimized for multifaceted features, considering
the complex land use scenario in rare earth mining areas. Additionally, we design seven optimal
combination schemes for features. This is performed to examine the impact of different schemes on
land use classification in rare earth mining areas and the accuracy of identifying agricultural land
classes from broken blocks. The results show that (1) the inclusion of texture features has the most
Citation: Li, C.; Li, H.; Zhou, Y.; obvious effect on the overall classification accuracy; (2) the red edge feature has the worst effect on
Wang, X. Detailed Land Use improving the overall accuracy of the surface classification; however, it has a prominent effect on
Classification in a Rare Earth Mining
the identification of agricultural lands such as farmland, orchards, and reclaimed vegetation; and
Area Using Hyperspectral Remote
(3), following the combination of various optimization features, the land use classification yielded
Sensing Data for Sustainable
the highest overall accuracy, at 88.16%. Furthermore, the comprehensive identification of various
Agricultural Development.
agricultural land classes, including farmland, orchards, and greenhouse vegetables, yielded the most
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su16093582
desirable outcomes. The research results not only highlight the advantages of hyperspectral images
for complex terrain classification and recognition but also address the previous limitations in the
Academic Editor: Yingkuan Wang
application of hyperspectral datasets over wide mining areas. Additionally, the results underscore
Received: 31 January 2024 the reliability of feature selection methods in reducing information redundancy and improving
Revised: 29 March 2024 classification accuracy. The proposed feature selection combination, based on OHS hyperspectral
Accepted: 19 April 2024 datasets, offers technical support and guidance for the detailed classification of complex land use in
Published: 24 April 2024 mining areas and the accurate monitoring of agroecological environments.
Keywords: rare earth mining area; agricultural development monitoring; land use classification;
hyperspectral; feature optimization
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
1. Introduction
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The ecological environment in mining areas is closely related to the agricultural
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ development in the area. The sustainable development of agriculture in mining areas can
4.0/). result in sustainable ecological development in the area. Southern China hosts significant
ion-adsorbing rare earth mineral resources in its hilly and mountainous regions. However,
early pool leaching, heap leaching, and in situ leaching processes can lead to soil erosion,
acidification, desertification, and other environmental problems [1,2]. Moreover, chaotic
mining processes lead to important changes in the physical and chemical properties of
soil in mining areas. Consequently, both vegetation and crops not only suffer significant
damage but also obstacles in their natural growth [3].
Agricultural development, whether in farmland, orchards, or other entities like re-
claimed vegetation, is affected by varying degrees of land fragmentation and poor growth
under the current status quo. In addition, there are many other land classes in mines, such
as tailings land, bare land, and sedimentation tanks, among others, which contribute to
the complex land cover classes. Therefore, it is crucial to have a precise understanding
of regional land use information. This is pivotal for correctly distinguishing between
agricultural and industrial land classes in mining areas, monitoring and comprehending
the agroecological environment conditions within these mining zones, and assessing the
overall ecological environment conditions [4,5].
There have only been a few studies on the detailed land use classification of complex
surfaces in mining areas and most of them focused on using existing land use datasets or
multispectral imagery to classify mining areas into simple land classes. For instance, Zhang
Zemin et al. [6] used 100 m spatial resolution land use datasets to study the change in land
use classes in a typical mining area and Jiaxing Xu et al. [7] combined 30 m spatial resolution
OLI satellite images with 30 m spatial resolution to classify a mining area into simple land
classes such as cropland, forest land, industrial and mining land, and water and proposed
a random forest classification method based on a multi-feature combination classification
scheme for remotely sensed images. However, these studies failed to achieve a detailed
classification of complex land classes within mining areas. Hyperspectral remote sensing
datasets, with their high spectral resolution, extensive information content, and multiple
narrow spectral bands, are highly sensitive to minute spectral details. This sensitivity
enables the detailed classification of land use, leveraging its potential to capture intricate
spectral features and differences in land classes [5,8]. Advances in hyperspectral technology
have endowed satellite hyperspectral images, such as those from Zhuhai-1 (OHS), with a
high spatial and spectral resolution, as well as enabling them to provide wide coverage
and large quantities. This capability enables the detailed classification of land use data in
rare earth mining.
However, there are still some problems in recognizing and detecting different kinds
of features using hyperspectral datasets. During the differentiation of complex landforms
or similar species, different landforms or species may present the same spectral features
or a mixed spectral phenomenon in a certain spectral segment [9], which can impact the
classification accuracy. To overcome this situation, many studies have adopted different
methods to extract and classify land classes or species for different study areas. Fei Xing
et al. [10] used a multi-end-element spectral mixing analysis method based on OHS hy-
perspectral imagery to extract and analyze alpine grass cover. Peng Qin et al. [11] used a
U-Net convolutional neural network to extract and use intersection as a basis for classifying
water in OHS hyperspectral imagery extraction and used intersection as the evaluation
index for model training. Guoli Zhou et al. [12] used spectral, topographic, texture, vegeta-
tion index, and other feature variables to construct an XGBoost model and combined this
with OHS hyperspectral datasets for bamboo species identification, achieving better user
accuracy and producer accuracy. Binge Cui et al. [13] proposed a small scene embedding
network (TSE-Net) based on scene representation and an attention mechanism for coastal
wetland small scene classification based on OHS hyperspectral images. Canran Tu et al. [11]
proposed a collaborative classification method fusing OHS hyperspectral imagery and
Gaofen-3 fully polarized synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery for wetland mapping and
achieved robust classification results. Previous studies have shown that whether it is the
extraction of individual landforms or the classification of multiple landforms/species, bet-
ter results can be achieved by using OHS hyperspectral datasets, which fully demonstrates
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 3 of 21
Figure1.1. Geographical
Figure location and
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surfacecondition
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on bare
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or or treatment
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located inareas.areas.
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(Bar)
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mining areas. building
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object
clas: Orc andclas: clas:
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of mining
building class: Roa, artificial
artificial
areas.
Bui, Poo, Gre, and building
building
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class: Roa,
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Note:
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object
object clas:
clas:
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Orc
andand
and Far;
Far;
Far; artificial
artificial
artificial building
building
building class:
class:
class: Roa,
Roa,
Roa, Bui,
Bui,
Bui, Poo,
Poo,
Poo, Gre,
Gre,
Gre, andand
and Sed.
Sed.
Sed.
Note: human-work
Note: human-workobject clas:
object OrcOrc
clas: andand
Far; artificial
Far; building
artificial class:
building Roa,
class: Bui,
Roa, Poo,
Bui, Gre,
Poo, andand
Gre, Sed.
Sed.
2.4.
Note:
2.4.
Note: Research
human-work
Research
Note:
human-workMethod
object
Method
human-workobject clas:
object
clas: Orc
clas: and
OrcOrc
and Far;
and artificial
Far;
Far; building
artificial
artificial class:
building
building Roa,
class:
class: Bui,
Roa,
Roa, Poo,
Bui,
Bui, Gre,
Poo,
Poo, and
Gre,
Gre, and Sed.
and Sed.
Sed.
2.4.
2.4.2.4. Research
Research
Note: Method
Method
human-work
Research Method object clas: Orc and Far; artificial building class: Roa, Bui, Poo, Gre, and Sed.
2.4.2.4.
2.4. Research
Research
Research
Optimizing
Optimizing
Method
Method
Method the the constructed
constructed multiple
multiple feature
feature categories
categories andand their
their associated
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the the constructed
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2.2.2.
bility 2024,Sustainability
16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2024, 16, 3582 7 of 22 7 of 21
Table 2. Cont.
Feature Variable Index Abbreviation OHS Image Calculation Formula Exponential Description
Characterize vegetation coverage and growth
NDVI (b27 − b13)/(b27 + b13)
and health status.
Affected by chlorophyll and leaf tissue
TVI 0.5 × [120 × (b27 − b7) − 200 × (b13 − b7)] abundance, the difference between vegetation
was obvious.
b27−b13 It contains soil regulation coefficient and is
SAVI b27+b13+0.5 × (1 + 0.5)
more suitable for low vegetation cover area.
q The index is based on an assessment of several
b27
MSR
b13 − 1 / b27
b13 + 1
vegetation indices derived from a combination
of two spectral bands.
It is used to estimate and measure vegetation
RVI b27/b13 biomass and is sensitive to high
vegetation coverage.
There was significant correlation with
gNDVI (b27 − b7)/(b27 + b7)
chlorophyll content and leaf area index.
It was responsive to chlorophyll concentration
MACRI [(b27 − b13) − 0.2 × (b27 − b7)] × (b27/b13)
and background reflectance of leaves.
It is sensitive to the change in soil background,
DVI b27 − b13 and the sensitivity to vegetation decreases
when the vegetation coverage is high.
It can be used to estimate leaf area index and
NDRE1 (b19 − b16)/(b19 + b16)
chlorophyll content of plants.
It can be used in fine agriculture, vegetation
NDRE2 (b22 − b17)/(b22 + b17)
stress detection, and so on.
√ Replace the near infrared band in MSR with a
MSRred (b27/b16) − 1/ b27/b16 + 1
valley with a red edge.
Red edge feature It is sensitive to chlorophyll content in
MTCI b20 − b17/b17 − b15
plant leaves.
It is more sensitive to the chlorophyll content
2.5×(b23−b14)−1.3×(b23−b6)
MCARI_red 1.5 × q √ in plants and the higher the value, the higher
(2×b23+1)2 −(6×b23−5× b14)−0.5 the chlorophyll content.
It is correlated with chlorophyll content and
leaf area index of plant canopy and can
IRECI (b22 − b14)/(b16/b19)
quantitatively characterize chlorophyll content
of plant.
Mean
Variance(Var)
Homogeneity(Hom) Calculated based on the first four principal
Contrast(Con) component bands after the original spectral
Texture feature Dissimilarity(Dis) principal component analysis, using window
Entropy(Ent) size: 5 × 5.
Second Moment(Sec)
Correlation(Cor)
select feature indices with a higher separability of features and at the same time avoid
covariance among indices, we utilized the J-M (Jeffreis-Matusita) distance and principal
component analysis for feature variable optimization in the different feature categories.
The J-M distance provides superior results among the many methods for separability
determination [25,26]. It can determine the variability between categories based on the
degree of separation, with values ranging from 0 to 2—the larger the value, the better the
separation. For the training sample set E (i, j = 1, 2,. . ., N, i ̸= j) in two to-be-separated land
classes wi and wj , assuming that mi and mj are the feature means of wi and wj and τ i and
τ j are the feature standard deviations of wi and wj , the mathematical expression of the J-M
distance is as follows:
J = 2 1 − e− B (1)
2 2
1 2 2 1 τi + τj
B= mi − m j + ln (2)
8 τi2 + τj2 2 2τi τj
where J denotes the J-M distance and B denotes the Bachmann distance.
To address variations in differentiation among land classes, we further process the J-M
distance by introducing weighting. These weights are determined based on the criterion
that the more indistinguishable the combination of land classes, the larger the weights,
and vice versa. In this study, we initially categorize land use in mining areas into two
major groups: highly distinguishable artificial and natural land surfaces (Table 1). These
two major categories are then assigned weight values equal to 1. In addition, the artificial
land surface category is divided into two subcategories: artificial objects and artificial
construction. These subcategories are assigned a weight value of 2, particularly for clearly
distinguishable land classes such as farmland and buildings. Finally, weights between land
classes within the same type of land use are assigned values of 3 or 4, determined by the
degree of similarity between features. The weights for specific landform combinations
are presented in Table 4; those not listed carry a weight of 1. We used the weighted J-M
distance to analyze vegetation, red edge, and texture features. Feature variables exhibiting
a strong differentiation of landforms are identified as the preferred characteristics.
where A denotes the feature, W(A) denotes the weight of feature A, m is the number of
iterations, and P(C) denotes the probability that the category is C. diff (A, Ri , Hj ) and diff (A,
Ri ,Mj (C)) denote the difference between the samples Ri and Hj , Mj (C), respectively, with
respect to A, which is defined as follows:
R1 [ A]− R2 [ A]
max( A)−min( A)
, i f A is continuous
di f f ( A, R1 , R2 ) = 0, i f ( A is discrete) and ( R1 [ A] = R2 [ A]) (4)
1, i f ( A is discrete) and ( R1 [ A] ̸= R2 [ A])
where H(x) denotes the combination of classification models, hi denotes the decision tree
classification model, Y denotes the output variable, and I(◦ ) is the indicator function.
2.4.5. Accuracy Verification
In order to compare the effects of incorporating different features on the accuracy
of feature classification, this study evaluates the overall accuracy by using the confusion
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 11 of 21
matrix. The confusion matrix can help evaluate the accuracy by comparing the degree of
confusion between the classification results and the actual measurements and includes the
overall accuracy (OA), Kappa coefficient, producer’s accuracy (PA), and user’s accuracy
(UA). Among them, the overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient are used to evaluate the
overall performance of the classifier and the producer’s accuracy and user’s accuracy are
used to evaluate the misclassification and omission indicators of a particular class.
∑iK=1 Nii
OA = (6)
N
3. Results
3.3.1. Feature Optimization Results
Results
3.1.1.
3.1. Determination
Feature of Spectral Features
Optimization Results
3.1.1. Determination of Spectral
Spectral features wereFeatures
calculated and downscaled using principal component analysis. The
Spectral features
contribution of eachwere calculatedcomponent
principal and downscaled wasusing
usedprincipal componentto
as a benchmark analy-
rank them cumulatively,
sis. The contribution of each principal component was used as a benchmark to rank them
as shown in Figure 3, where the horizontal coordinates indicate the new spectral bands generated
cumulatively, as shown in Figure 3, where the horizontal coordinates indicate the new
by thebands
spectral principal component
generated analysis
by the principal of the original
component analysisspectral features
of the original andfea-
spectral the vertical coordinates
tures and the vertical coordinates indicate the cumulative contribution of the new spectralinformation. Among
indicate the cumulative contribution of the new spectral bands to the image
bands
them, to the
theimage information.
cumulative Among them,
contribution ratetheofcumulative contribution
the first principal rate of the first
component to the fourth principal
principal component to the fourth principal component increases more in relative order
component increases more in relative order and, from the fourth principal component onwards,
and, from the fourth principal component onwards, the growth rate of the contribution
thedecreases
rate growthand ratetheof the contribution
contribution rate valuerate decreases
stabilizes and Therefore,
above 0.997. the contribution
this studyrate value stabilizes
above
finally 0.997.
selects theTherefore, this study
first four principal finally selects
components the first
as the result of thefour
finalprincipal components as the result
spectral feature
of the final spectral feature preference.
preference.
Figure 3. Cumulative
Figure contribution
3. Cumulative rate of principal
contribution components.
rate of principal components.
3.1.2. Determination of Vegetation Features
3.1.2. Determination of Vegetation Features
The 12 vegetation indices were subjected to weighted J-M distance calculations and
The
principal 12 vegetation
component indices
analysis and were
the results aresubjected to weighted
shown in Figures J-M 4distance
4 and 5. Figure shows calculations and
principal
that component
most of the vegetation analysis and
indices have thedivisibility
good results are shown and
of features in Figures
some of 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows
them
have
thatoutstanding
most of thedivisibility of specific
vegetation features
indices havebut good
that the divisibility ability
divisibility of TVI, and some of them
of features
DVI, RDVI, and TCARI for the land classes is not ideal, which is in line with the fact that
although they are sensitive to the content of chlorophyll and so on, most of the land classes
are construction land, mining land, etc. [35]. Figure 5 shows that the correlation coefficient
between NDVI and SAVI is close to 1, which is a strong correlation between the two, and
therefore, NDVI was preferred considering that it has a better ability to characterize the
surface reflectance of the features than SAVI [36]. MCARI was not considered because it
had a strong correlation with most of the indices. Therefore, the vegetation characteristics
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 12 of 21
have outstanding divisibility of specific features but that the divisibility ability of TVI,
DVI, RDVI, and TCARI for the land classes is not ideal, which is in line with the fact that
although they are sensitive to the content of chlorophyll and so on, most of the land classes
are construction land, mining land, etc. [35]. Figure 5 shows that the correlation coefficient
between NDVI and SAVI is close to 1, which is a strong correlation between the two, and
therefore, NDVI was preferred considering that it has a better ability to characterize the
surface reflectance of the features than SAVI [36]. MCARI was not considered because it
had a strong correlation with most of the indices. Therefore, the vegetation characteristics
were finally filtered to GCVI, EVI, NDVI, MSR, RVI, and gNDVI.
Figure 4. JM
Figure 4. distance weightsweights
JM distance and detailand
curves of each
detail feature
curves ofoneach
different ground
feature on classes. (“a”ground classes. (“a”
different
shows the index curve with significantly worse JM weighted value in the vegetation index; “b” is
shows
the the index
exponential curve
curve with with significantly
significantly worse JM
worse JM weighting weighted
value in the redvalue in the“c”vegetation
edge index; shows index; “b” is the
the exponential curve
exponential curve with significantly
with poor JM
significantly weighting
worse in the texturevalue
JM weighting index.).
in the red edge index; “c” shows the
exponential curve with significantly poor JM weighting in the texture index.).
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 13 of 21
Figure 5. The correlation between the features of heat maps and high values of specific parts.
Figure 5. The correlation between the features of heat maps and high values of specific parts.
3.2. Importance3.2.
Ranking of Characteristic
Importance Variables
Ranking of Characteristic Variables
The Relief-F algorithm wasalgorithm
The Relief-F used to evaluate
was usedand sort the importance
to evaluate and sort the of all the feature
importance of all the featu
variables. Thevariables.
results are
The results are shown in Figure 6: texture index mean highest
shown in Figure 6: texture index mean had the score score a
had the highest
and was muchwas higher
muchthan the other
higher than indexes,
the otherreaching
indexes,0.1200. The0.1200.
reaching vegetation index SAVI,index SA
The vegetation
gNDVI, and NDVI decreased successively. NDRE1, the red index, secured
gNDVI, and NDVI decreased successively. NDRE1, the red index, securedthe fifth position.
the fifth po
The vegetationtion.
indexThe vegetation index in the upper and middle reaches of the scoreother
in the upper and middle reaches of the score was higher and the was higher a
texture indexesthe
except
otherthe meanindexes
texture were mostly
except in
thethe middle
mean werereaches
mostlyofinthe
thescore.
middle The indexof the sco
reaches
of the downstream
The index of the downstream region is the red edge index and vegetationred
region is the red edge index and vegetation index and half of the index and h
edge index is in this region. After comprehensive consideration, the importance of feature
tively small portion and, therefore, the red edge features failed to add constructively to
the distinction between land classes. Additionally, the mining area encompasses various
features such as farmland, greenhouse vegetables, sedimentation tanks, and bare ground,
where texture information is more pronounced. Particularly, the texture features not only
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 demonstrate a certain advantage in the detailed identification of plastic greenhouses 14 of 21 [38]
but also improve the classification and identification accuracy of texture information-rich
land classes [24], providing a distinct advantage in the identification of land classes within
variables was ranked
mining areas. This isinconsistent
descendingwith
order as texture
the follows:index
texture feature, vegetation
“MEAN” feature,
being ranked first and
and red edge feature.
being significantly higher than the other indexes.
Among the
3.3. Accuracy three types
Evaluation of feature
of Land variables selected,
Use Classification in Miningthe Area
feature importance of the
red-edge feature ranked last, which is related to the actual land class categories in the study
This study adopts overall accuracy, Kappa coefficient, producer’s accuracy, and
area: the most different spectral characteristics of green vegetation and other features is the
user’s accuracy
significant increaseasinthe evaluation
reflectance indexes
in the red-edgeof band
the land
[37].use classification
However, results of mining
the image-capturing
areaswas
time andDecember,
compares whenthe classification
some crops results of the seven
were processed intoschemes;
greenhouse the vegetables
classification
to accu-
ensure their continued growth and the land classes in the complex parcels in mining areas8, and
racy and classification results of the schemes are shown in Table 5, Figures 7 and
the confusion
mostly consistedmatrix of the scheme
of buildings, with the
bare ground, best classification
sedimentation results
tanks, and otherisconstruction
shown in Figure
9. TheThe
land. overall classification
vegetation land classaccuracy is the land
in the overall lowest when
class only using
accounted the spectral
for a relatively features
small
portion and, therefore,
after principal componentthe red edge features
analysis of the failed
original to add constructively
spectrum to the distinction
for the extraction of rare earth
between land classes;
mining area classes. Additionally, the mining
the overall accuracy andarea encompasses
Kappa coefficient various features
are only suchand
83.59% as 0.51,
farmland, greenhouse vegetables, sedimentation tanks, and bare ground,
respectively. Schemes 2, 3, and 4, respectively, include the vegetation features, red edgewhere texture
information is more pronounced. Particularly, the texture features not only demonstrate a
features, and texture features after feature optimization on the basis of the spectral
certain advantage in the detailed identification of plastic greenhouses [38] but also improve
the classification and identification accuracy of texture information-rich land classes [24],
providing a distinct advantage in the identification of land classes within mining areas.
This is consistent with the texture index “MEAN” being ranked first and being significantly
higher than the other indexes.
Figure7.7.Results
Figure Resultsofofland
landuse
useclassification
classificationunder
underdifferent
differentschemes.
schemes.
Sustainability2024,
Sustainability 2024,16,
16,3582
x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
16 of 22
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
Figure8.8.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofoffeature-specific
feature-specificclassifications
classificationsofofland
landuse
useclassifications
classificationsunder
underScheme
Scheme5.5.
Figure 8. Comparison of feature-specific classifications of land use classifications under Scheme 5.
Figure 9. Scheme 5 confusion matrix for land use classification. (The red numbers represent the
Figure 9.ofScheme
number 5 confusion
pixels 5correctly matrix for
classified land useuseclassification. (The red numbers representand
the
Figure 9. Scheme confusion matrixforforeach
landland classification
use classification. in red
(The Scheme 5. Commission
numbers represent the
number
Omission of pixels correctly classified for each land use classification in Scheme 5. Commission and
number of represent
Omission
the misclassification
pixels correctly andland
classified for each missed
useclassification
classificationerrors for each
in Scheme land-use category
5. Commission and
in Scheme represent the misclassification
5, respectively, and indicating
with lighter colors missed classification errors
smaller errors.). for each land-use category
Omission
in Schemerepresent the misclassification
5, respectively, and missed
with lighter colors classification
indicating errors for each land-use category
smaller errors.).
in Scheme 5, respectively, with lighter colors indicating smaller errors.).
Table 5. Precision statistics of the classification results of each scheme.
Table 5. Precision statistics of the classification results of each scheme.
Classifications Overall, the feature
Scheme preference
1 Scheme methodScheme
2 Scheme3 used by4 the Institute
Scheme not only
5 Scheme 6 effectively
Scheme 7
Classifications improves theScheme 1 of
accuracy Scheme
the 2 Scheme3
detailed Scheme
classification of 4 Scheme
land use in 5 Scheme
mining 6 but
areas Scheme 7
also ac-
Overall Accuracy 83.59% 85.56% 84.52% 86.68% 88.43% 88.26% 88.16%
Overall Accuracy curately extracts
83.59% 85.56%
agricultural 84.52%
land classes 86.68%
such as farmland,88.43% 88.26% vegetation,
orchards, reclaimed 88.16%
Kappa coefficient 0.51 0.55 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.59 0.61
Kappa coefficient and greenhouse vegetables0.55
0.51 from complex0.53 land classes,
0.58 thus supporting
0.62 the
0.59understanding
0.61
and PA%
monitoring 82.06
of 81.29 development
agricultural 83.59 82.36mining85.74
within areas. 80.21 84.97
Buildings PA% 82.06 81.29 83.59 82.36 85.74 80.21 84.97
Buildings UA% 57.47 63.70 52.40 63.25 58.84 66.88 56.07
UA% 57.47 63.70 52.40 63.25 58.84 66.88 56.07
PA% 25.48 26.44 25.00 35.58 38.94 17.79 31.73
Sedimentation tank PA% 25.48 26.44 25.00 35.58 38.94 17.79 31.73
Sedimentation tank UA% 12.83 15.71 15.25 16.37 24.92 14.23 21.36
UA% 12.83 15.71 15.25 16.37 24.92 14.23 21.36
Pool PA% 82.82 86.50 68.71 74.85 61.96 68.71 67.48
Pool PA% 82.82 86.50 68.71 74.85 61.96 68.71 67.48
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 17 of 21
4. Discussion
Hyperspectral datasets have multiple narrow bands and contain a large amount of
information, enabling more accurate and detailed feature variables to be obtained. Based
on the OHS hyperspectral datasets, four kinds of feature datasets were constructed: spec-
tral, vegetation, red edge, and texture features. J-M distance calculation and principal
component analysis were carried out for the indices of the different feature categories.
This process aimed to uncover the separability of feature indices to land classes and assess
the covariance between feature indices within the same land classes. This approach was
employed to achieve a more rational and detailed feature preference. The Relief-F algorithm
was used to rank the importance of features, excluding spectral features, and a more precise
and detailed feature preference was obtained from the overall features. This approach
provided feature preference results from an overall perspective, enabling an analysis to
identify the most effective feature categories for the detailed classification of land use in
mining areas. Based on the above analysis method, seven different combinations of feature
variables were designed and the effects of different indices on classification accuracy in
different schemes were analyzed using an RF algorithm to explore the feature preference
combinations applicable to land use classification in mining areas and for agricultural
land class identification. The study results indicate that after feature optimization, all
features of each category attain varying degrees of improvement in classification accuracy
(Table 5). (1) Texture features exert the most pronounced effect on overall accuracy across all
categories, consistent with their high significance in feature importance analysis. Notably,
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 18 of 21
impact on classification accuracy [43]. To address this situation, many researchers have used
different feature preference methods for dimensionality reduction, such as Mahdianpari
et al. [44] who used the J-M distance to quantitatively analyze the separability of different
types of wetlands under different features; they then classified the land classes after feature
selection based on the separability results, which resulted in robust classification accuracy.
Md Rashedul et al. [45] combined MMF and mRMR methods for the dimensionality reduc-
tion in feature variables. Hao Yufeng et al. [46] and Fushuyu et al. [47] performed variable
optimization for wetland classification through the Relief-F algorithm and RFE algorithm,
respectively. Xiang Songyang et al. [30] selected features involved in hyperspectral image
classification by constructing the ReliefF-RFE feature selection algorithm. Although all of
the above studies used feature selection methods to derive effective preferred features, most
of them only considered land class separability or feature relevance individually. In this
study, we comprehensively considered the separability of land classes and the covariance
between features, not only analyzing each class of features individually for feature selection
but also mining the feature indices of different feature classes that are applicable to the
detailed classification of mining areas. We then ranked the importance of feature class
indices other than the spectral features to analyze the most important feature classes in
terms of the detailed classification of a wide range of mining areas. By designing a multi-
program format and using RF algorithms to explore the effects of the optimal combination
of feature indices after the above multi-faceted analysis, we effectively explored the optimal
feature classes and feature combination programs for detailed and large-scale land use
classification in mining areas and the identification of agricultural land classes such as
farmland. The study results indicate that the proposed feature preference method enhances
both the fine classification of land use and the identification of agricultural land classes.
This technique aids in monitoring agricultural development in mining areas and advancing
sustainable agriculture and ecological practices.
5. Conclusions
The primary aim of this research is to leverage hyperspectral imagery in constructing
diverse feature sets and employ a range of feature selection methods to pinpoint the
most suitable combination of features for rare earth mining areas. This endeavor seeks
to facilitate the refined classification of land use within expansive and intricate mining
territories, enabling the accurate identification of agricultural land types like farmland,
orchards, and reclaimed vegetation from fragmented data. Such efforts are instrumental in
advancing agricultural development monitoring, guiding sustainable agricultural practices,
and fostering ecological sustainability. The results show that
(1) The feature preference method combining J-M distance and principal component
analysis provides a better feature combination scheme from the perspective of land class
separability and feature correlation. It improves the accuracy of land use classification in
mining areas and agricultural land class identification significantly;
(2) Ranking the importance of the other three categories of features, excluding spectral
features, shows that the degree of importance of features in the land use classification of
rare earth mining areas is as follows: texture index, vegetation index, and red edge index;
(3) Combining the indices of the four features after feature optimization yielded the
most significant improvement in land use classification accuracy for mining areas, reaching
88.43%, with a Kappa coefficient of 0.61. This performance not only surpasses the overall
classification accuracy achieved using a single feature but also simultaneously results in an
effective increase in classification accuracy for specific farmland classes such as farmland,
orchards, reclaimed vegetation, and greenhouse vegetables.
Using hyperspectral datasets and feature selection methods, this study has led to
enhanced accuracy in fine land surface coverage classification in mining areas and the
identification of agricultural land classes. It lends technical support for monitoring agri-
cultural conditions in mining areas and promoting sustainable development. However,
the extent to which these results can be applied to other mining areas remains uncertain.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3582 20 of 21
This uncertainty arises from the limitations imposed by the study area’s environment, the
classification of land classes, the time period, and other factors. Therefore, in the future,
more study areas can be added to further explore the universality of the research methods
and results.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, and review and editing, H.L.; Experiment
construction, method implementation, software, and writing—original draft, C.L.; result calibration,
Y.Z.; Investigation and data curation, X.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
number 42161057”, and the Jiangxi Province Graduate Innovation Special Fund Project, grant number
YC2023-S615.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data in this article can be obtained by reasonably contacting the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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