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Key Concepts in Colour

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Years 7-8 Topic

Forces
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KCiC.02 Forces Slide 1
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 ®
Contact Forces
keep it simple science & Field Forces

Force & Effects Force of

of Forces Friction

Mass
&
Weight

Forces
Gravitational
Force
Orbits &
Weightlessness

Electrostatic Magnetic
Force Force

Magnetic
Fields
Electrical Charges

Charging & Discharging

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 What is a FORCE?
®

keep it simple science A force is a PUSH or a PULL.

Force is what causes things to begin moving, or slow down and stop.

When you pull on the rope, a force is

When the club strikes the Your legs push on the transmitted through the rope to pull on
ball, a force pushes to pedals. Wheels go around the box and drag it along
make the ball move. and push on the road.

If something is already moving, force can

make it go faster, or slow down and stop.
Force can also cause a
change of shape. For
Pressing the accelerator makes the engine supply example, in a collision,
more force to the wheels... the car goes faster. forces can change the
Pressing on the brake pedal causes a force in the shape of the things
wheels to slow the car down. involved.
Sometimes, forces can change the temperature. Slide 3 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
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In the car above, the brakes become very hot when KCiC.02 Forces
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 Contact Forces and Field Forces
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All the forces described in the previous slide How can gravity, electrical and magnetic
are “Contact Forces” because they act only if forces reach out through space and apply a
the force is in contact with something. force to things without touching them?

To understand this, we use the “model” of a

For example, if the golf club swings and “force field”.
misses the ball, no force would act on the ball
and it would not move. For example, N S
we imagine
There are also some forces which can act on that a magnet
things without touching them. is surrounded by
an invisible web of forces. If certain things
come within this “field”, a magnetic force will
Gravity push or pull on them.

Electrical Force
“Field Forces” will be studied in more
Magnetic Force detail later in this topic.

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 Measuring Forces
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Force is measured in units called “newtons”, To start getting an idea of how to measure
abbreviated “N”. forces, and some idea of how much 1N of
force is, you might use a spring balance to
A simple way to The newton unit is named after
drag various objects across the bench and
measure some Sir Isaac Newton, an English measure the force required to move them.
forces in the scientist who lived about 300 object,
laboratory is to years ago. He discovered many such as a
pencil case spring balance
use a spring basic ideas about forces. Pull
string
balance.
There are various
models, but they all You should read the balance scale while the
work by a spring object is moving along steadily.
being stretched
when a force pulls If you measure for the same object loaded
on the mechanism. onto a laboratory trolley, you may find it
(They cannot measure requires less force to move it when on
pushes... only pulls.) wheels.
same object,
A number scale allows on a trolley
you to read the size of the spring balance
Spring Pull
force in newtons. string
Balance
Be aware that spring
balances are not totally
accurate or reliable. You’ll find out why, soon!
“Accurate” means that the measurement is
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 Forces Cause Movement
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Here’s a simple experiment you might do, or see demonstrated in class.

Glass rod
Lab. trolley taped to bench You can experiment by:
String
• Adding more hanging masses.
Bench This increases the gravitational
force pulling on the string.
How does this change the movement?
You’ll find that:
• more mass on the string causes
• Adding a large mass to the
Slotted trolley to make it “heavier”, but
“faster” motion of the trolley. masses
are pulled leave the same amount of mass
• More mass on the trolley causes down by hanging on the string.
“slower” motion, for the same force gravitational How does this change the movement?
pulling the string. force
Later, you’ll learn what is really meant by “mass” & “weight”, Slide 6
and how the speed and acceleration of moving objects can be
measured. For now, simply judge things “by eye”.
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 ®

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The Force of Friction A vital contact force.
Sometimes it helps us, sometimes it hinders, but it’s always there.
If you roll a ball across a flat smooth surface, such as Since friction always pushes against the motion,
playing field, it may travel a long way, but gradually it friction always:
slows down and stops.
• slows down a moving object, and
Why? It’s because of “Friction”. • tries to stop any object moving any faster.
Direction of Rolling ball
Friction is why a car’s engine must keep supplying a
Friction Force Direction of
movement force (through the tyres pushing on the road) just to
keep going at a steady speed.
Friction is a contact force which always pushes in the If the engine force (pushing the car forward) is the
opposite direction to the way an object is moving. same strength as friction (pushing backwards) then
the forces “cancel out” and the car travels at a
If a moving object is touching anything, (the ground, constant speed.
the air, anything) there will be friction. Force from the
engine (through the Friction
tyres) pushes car (including air
However, in outer space there is no air, so no friction. this way resistance) pushes
A moving meteor, or spaceship, will keep coasting car this way
along without slowing down.

Even with its engines turned off, the To go faster, the driver must increase the engine
spaceship keeps flying through thrust force so it is bigger than the friction force.
space. There is no friction
to slow it down.
To stop, the driver increases the friction force by
pressing the brakes, and also lets the engine force
die down to nothing.
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 A Little History
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Until about 300 years ago, the concept of “force” had not been thought of in
a scientific way. It seemed “natural” that an apple from a tree would fall down. People
thought that down-on-the-ground was the “natural place” for all things. Things fell down
because they were trying to get to their “natural place”.

Similarly, it was considered “natural” for a

moving object to slow down and stop.
No reason for this... it was just “natural”.

These ideas were overturned by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).

He figured out that all these things were due to forces. A
moving object will keep moving unless a force acts on it.
In everyday situations, things slow down and stop because
friction force stops them. Apples fall down because of
gravitational force.

You will learn more about these things, and Sir Isaac Newton, in future studies.
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Activity 1
The following activity might be completed by class discussion,
or your teacher may have paper copies for you to do.

Forces Student Name .................................

1.
a) What is the simplest definition of “force”?

b) We know that forces can make things move, or stop moving. What are 2 other
changes that can be caused by forces?

c) What is the unit of force?

2. Explain the difference between a contact-force and a field-force.

3.
a) In what direction does the force of friction always act?

b) Explain why it takes much more force to drag a brick across the ground than
to pull the same brick on a wheeled trolley.

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 ®

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Examples of Situations Involving Friction
(or lack of friction!)
Accelerating, Stopping or Turning a Corner
If it wasn’t for friction no vehicle could ever get moving, and if it did, it could never turn a corner or
stop again. Friction between the tyres and the road gives the “grip” which allows the tyres to push
against the road. Without that grip it would be impossible to:

• get a stationary vehicle moving, or

• turn a corner, or
• slow down and stop.

Think about what happens when roads are wet or icy. Cars
skid sideways, or can’t stop and have “rear-end”
collisions. Wet or icy conditions reduce friction and make
driving much more hazardous.

Wheels and Wheel Bearings

It’s good to have friction “grip” between tyres and road, but while you’re cruising
along it’s better to have no friction to slow you down. The rolling action of a wheel
has much less friction than dragging a wheel-less vehicle over the ground.

A “bearing” is a low-friction device which joins a wheel to its axle. This rotates freely
and keeps friction to a minimum, especially if it is well lubricated with grease or oil.
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 More Examples Involving Friction
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Dimples on a Footy Ball Velcro

Traditionally, the ball for Rugby, or League or Perhaps the ultimate in friction! It’s just 2
Aussie Rules was made from leather. When different pads of nylon material, but once they
wet, these could be slippery and cause a lot of are pressed together, friction holds them so
mistakes in the game. that they keep your sneakers on, or your pants
up.
Modern balls are often made of a plastic with
small dimples all over them. Notice that it’s easy to pull them apart by lifting
one side up from the other. However, it is very
This increases the friction between ball difficult to pull them apart sideways.
and hand or boot so there are less handling
errors, even in wet weather.
Velcro
Watch
Band

Cold Hands? Friction Can Help

On a cold day people rub their hands together to warm them up.
Remember that forces can change the movement of an object, or its shape, or even its
temperature. Friction forces often result in an increase in temperature. Rubbing your hands
together creates friction, which causes a rise in temperature, so your hands get warmer.
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 Gravitational Force
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Earlier you learned that there are certain forces that act on things without touching them. These are
the “Field Forces” of Gravity, Electricity and Magnetism. The rest of this topic is all about these.

What Goes Up, Must Come Down Gravity holds the planets in orbit around the Sun, and
If you throw a ball vertically upwards it goes up, and holds entire galaxies together. More on this in a later
then falls vertically down again. If you throw it upwards topic!
at an angle it follows an arc and curves back down to
the ground. Everything is pulled by This is the direction
gravity towards the we call “down”.
The ball, and every other object on or near the Earth is Earth, in the direction The opposite
being pulled toward the Earth by the force of gravity. of the arrows. we call “up”.

Gravity reaches out and pulls on things without

touching them. It’s as if the Earth is surrounded by an
invisible “field” of force which attracts all objects.

How Does Gravity Work?

We still don’t fully understand what causes gravity,
Gravitational force In this diagram, the
but we do know that: orange circles
gets weaker as
you get further represent the “Force
Gravitational Force attracts every object in the Field” of gravity.
Universe to every other object in the Universe. from the Earth

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 Mass and Weight
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keep it simple science Astronaut on the Moon

Mass = 100 kg
Gravity pulls on all objects because of their “mass”. Mass is a Weight = 160 N
measure of how much matter, or how much “substance”, an object (Moon’s gravity is much
contains. less than Earth’s)
Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).

Unfortunately, in everyday life there is confusion about “mass” and

“weight”. When a person says “I weigh 65 kg” they really should
say “My mass is 65 kg... my weight depends on where I am”. Astronaut in Orbit in
Space Shuttle
Weight is the force of gravity acting on your mass. Mass = 100 kg
Since weight is a force it is measured in newtons (N). Weight = zero N
The strength of this force depends on where you are within a
gravitational field, so the same object can have different weights in
different places
Astronaut on
You might do an experiment in class to learn about the Earth’s Surface
relationship between mass and weight here on the Mass = 100 kg
surface of the Earth. Weight = 1,000 N
Mass is always the same.
Weight changes.

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 ®

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Orbits & Being Weightless
Most people know that when the astronauts are up in orbit in the When fired, a cannon ball curves
Space Shuttle (or other spacecraft) they are weightless. downwards until it hits the surface.
If fired faster, it goes further before hitting
Many think that this is because there is no gravity up there in space. the ground.
WRONG! If fired fast enough, the
cannon ball curves
Without gravity, they would not even be able to stay in orbit and would downwards at the same
fly off into deep space. rate as the Earth curves.
EARTH
Gravity & Orbiting It will now circle the
It was Sir Isaac Newton (again!) who first figured out how orbiting is whole Earth!
possible. He imagined a cannon on a very high mountain, firing It is falling down, but
cannon balls horizontally. Study the diagram on the right. cannot hit the surface.

If there is no air
This is how satellites are put in orbit, but using rockets, not cannons.
resistance (no air in
They are not fired straight up, but up at an angle to eventually get them space!) it can orbit
flying parallel to the ground at orbital speed. around and around the
Orbital Speed needed to orbit the
Earth varies with height, but is Earth, always falling due
Then, turn off the engines and let them fall... about 25,000 km/hr to gravity.
gravity holds them in orbit.

All Objects Fall at the Same Rate The paper was slowed down by air resistance,
Try This: so your test wasn’t fair.
Drop a heavy object (e.g.a brick) and a light-weight
object (e.g. a sheet of paper) from the same height at
Scrunch the paper into a ball (this reduces air
the same time. Watch carefully to see which hits the
ground first. resistance) and try the test again.
Without air resistance, all objects fall at the
The brick wins! Heavy things fall faster! Wrong! same rate due to gravity.
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 Weightless in Free Fall
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Your weight is the force pulling you downwards due to gravity. To measure
your weight you allow your weight-force to push against the springs in (say) a
set of bathroom scales.

What if you stood on these scales in an aircraft, then jumped out feet-first with
the scales glued to the soles of your feet? Falling feet-first with the scales still
in position, you read your weight.

The scales read zero! Why?

Simple! You and the scales are both falling at the same rate due to gravity.

Since you and the scales are falling at the same rate, you are not pressing on Parachute
them at all, so they read zero.

The same thing happens to the astronauts in orbit. They are in a free-fall orbit
and while falling they are weightless.They still have their mass, and gravity is
still pulling on them, but there is no weight force.

You can get small changes in your weight by standing on scales in a lift. As the
lift first begins to move down, your weight becomes slightly less. As the lift
first moves upwards your weight becomes a little more.

If you can’t arrange to have scales with you in a lift, just feel the weight
changes... they really happen.

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 ®

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Activity 2
The following activity might be completed by class discussion,
or your teacher may have paper copies for you to do.

Gravity, Mass & Weight Student Name .................................

1. Explain how the gravity of the Earth defines the directions we call “up” and
“down”.

2.
a) In what units do we measure mass?

b) What is meant by “weight”?

c) If you went to the Moon, how would your mass compare to here on Earth?

d) If you went to the Moon, how would your weight compare to here on Earth?

3. A satellite in orbit is actually falling down. Explain this statement.

4. Is it true that there is no gravity in space? Explain.

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 Magnetic Forces
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Magnets are surrounded by an invisible The Earth also has some

force field which acts on some magnetism. The Earth’s magnetic
substances. If certain types of materials field is why a compass can tell us
come within the field they will be directions.
attracted, and pulled by a force. The magnetic field of the Earth is
also important in
Magnets can also repel, or protecting us from
push another magnet dangerous radiations
away. from the Sun, and
produces the beautiful
Magnetism can be created and eerie “aurora”
from electricity, and we which can be seen in
know that all magnetism is the sky from places
actually due to electricity. near the North or
South Poles.
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 Experiments With Magnets
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There are many ways to investigate Investigating the Magnetic Field

magnetism. You may do some as Here’s another simple investigation you might do.
class experiments and/or your
teacher may demonstrate. Paperclip
(on cotton thread tied to a clamp)
attracted towards a magnet

What Can Magnets Attract? To investigate the

You might carry out a simple investigation with a bar
magnetic field, try
magnet to find out what substances are attracted to
magnets. holding a variety of thin
sheets of different
Some people Bar materials where the
think that Magnet dotted line is.
magnets attract Object
anything made of metal. N Try paper, plastic, glass and a
being
tested variety of different metal sheets, N
If you test some different metals, you if available.
will quickly find out that magnets only Try a gauze...
attract “ferrous metals”. (“Ferrous” = iron) it’s metal, but not solid.

Bar Magnet
These are metals containing iron, and include many Can the magnetic field attract the
“steels” (e.g. stainless steel). “Steel” is a metal made paperclip through solid
of iron mixed with some carbon and may include a substances?
variety of other metals mixed in.
Which substances can block the
It’s the iron that a magnet attracts. magnetic field? S
KCiC.02 Forces Slide 18
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 How Magnets Affect Each Other
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If you place a bar magnet on the bench and slowly This is often summarised as follows:
bring another bar magnet towards it you’ll quickly
find out several things: Opposite poles attract.
N Magnets can Like poles repel.
attract each other.
Turn one around Opposite poles attract
S
and they repel
each other. N S N S
They have 2 distinct N S
ends, or “poles”, and N
S N S
the magnetic force is concentrated at the
poles. Same poles repel

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 Finding Directions with a Compass
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Place a bar magnet in a small plastic container and Earth’s Magnetic Field
float it in a tub of water. You’ll see that the magnet and
The Earth’s geographical poles are the points around
floating container will swing arround to always point in
which the Earth rotates on its axis.
a particular direction.
The Earth also acts as if there was a huge bar magnet
inside it and has a magnetic field with north and south
magnetic poles. Magnetic Pole.
S N Geographic Pole. Compasses
Earth’s axis of point to this.
rotation.

The end of the magnet marked “N” always points in the

direction of north.
Equator
The “N” end of the magnet is called the “north-seeking
pole” of the magnet, because it seeks out and points to Earth is
the Earth’s magnetic north pole. surrounded by
a huge
magnetic field
Since the “N” end is attracted towards the Earth’s north
pole, it follows that the “N” end is actually a magnetic
south pole. The magnetic poles are close to, but not in the same
places as the geographical poles.
Confusing?
That’s why it should be referred to as the A compass, of course, points at the magnetic poles.
“north-seeking pole”. This is close to true north and south, but not quite the
same.
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 ®

keep it simple science Electromagnets Power

Pack
Magnetism can be made from electricity. off
on AC
- +
Wrap insulated wire around a bar of soft iron. (a large bolt
DC
will do) Connect to a power pack and turn on an electric
current.
The electric coil
The iron bar becomes instantly magnetic, which you can (called a “solenoid”)
by itself will produce
prove by using it to attract paper clips or similar. a magnetic field. The
iron core just
Turn it off, and most of the magnetism instantly stops. intensifies the field.
(Some may linger for a while.)
Uses of Electromagnets
The electromagnet is one the most useful devices ever invented. Electromagnets are the basis
of the electric generators which we use to make all our electricity in power stations.

Electromagnets are also the main part of all electric motors which we use in power tools ,
machinery,and many household appliances.

Electromagnets are also the main part of speakers in radios,

TVs, public address systems, etc.

The electromagnets in a speaker are able to convert electrical

signals into sound by causing the speaker to vibrate and create
sound waves in the air.
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 Technology Makes Life Easier
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Electromagnets are the basis of some of the of most

important technologies our society depends on...
electrical motors and generators.

These technologies make our life and work easier

and more convenient.

In the Home Factories & Workshops

washing machine power tools
vacuum cleaner machinery
refrigerator conveyors
fans & hair driers pumps & compressors

Each of these devices works because of an electric

motor, which runs on electricity produced by a generator (at a power station).

Think about how each device makes life or work easier

and more convenient.
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 The Magnetic Field
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We can easily see the effects of a magnetic Instead of using paper, your teacher might
field, but we can never actually see the field... demonstrate this using a clear plastic sheet
or can we? on an overhead projector.

Firstly, place a bar magnet inside a plastic bag As well as a single magnet, try using 2
or wrap it in cling film. magnets which are attracting each other,

Then place a sheet of stiff paper over it. N S N S

Sprinkle the paper with powdered iron
granules. Now gently tap the paper and watch or 2 magnets repelling each other.
the pattern develop. N
S N S

The small particles of iron line up Which is this?

with the shape of the magnetic field
and allow you to “see” it.

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 ®

keep it simple science Mapping a Magnetic Field with a Compass

Another way to understand and to “see” a magnetic field is to map it using a compass to find
the direction of the “magnetic field lines” at various points.
Place a solenoid coil on a blank piece of paper and connect
to a power pack on very low voltage. Now place a compass Draw an arrow to show which
way the N-seeking end of the
on the paper and see which direction it points. compass points

Draw an arrow on the paper to show which way the north-

seeking end of the compass points.

Now move the compass to a variety of other places on the

paper and repeat the “mapping”. You might even be able Sheet Solenoid other
to place the compass inside the coil. of compass
paper positions
You may end up with a pattern similar to this sketch.

Can you see from this pattern that the magnetic field
produced by an electrical coil (and an electromagnet)
is more or less the same shape as the field of a bar
magnet?

Can you tell which end of the coil was the N-seeking pole?
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 ®

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Activity 3
The following activity might be completed by class discussion,
or your teacher may have paper copies for you to do.

Magnetic Forces Student Name .................................

1. What are the “rules” about magnets attracting or repelling each other?

2. Apart from other magnets, what substance(s) are affected by magnetic force?

3. One end of a laboratory magnet is always marked “N”. This end is really a
magnetic south pole, so why is it marked “N”?

4.
a) Outline a simple way to make an electromagnet.

b) Why are electromagnets so important in our technology?

5. Outline a simple way to “see” a magnetic field.

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 ® How Scientific “Models” and Theories
keep it simple science Help Us to Understand Things
Sometimes it’s very difficult to understand We explain gravity by imagining that the
strange natural things like gravity, or Earth is surrounded by an invisible force
magnetism. field which attracts mass.

To help us understand such things we use Are these models true and real? Are there
scientific “models”. really invisible force lines everywhere?

For example, the idea of a “Force Field” is a

model to explain how some forces can reach
out through space and push or pull on things A totally
without touching them.
different
Our explanation of N model for
magnetism is that a
magnet is surrounded by
gravity is
an invisible field of described
magnetic forces, and in the next
we use diagrams like
S slide...
this to help visualise
the field.
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 Scientific Models
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keep it simple science cont.

The force-field model is not the only way to explain Einstein’s theory is that mass causes the shape of
gravity. space to be warped or distorted. Moving things still
follow the geometric grid, so near a massive object
Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity” explains gravity in a such as a planet, the space craft follows a curve
totally different way. According to this theory, empty which may lead it down to the planet’s surface, or
space itself has a certain geometry or “shape”. We can into orbit, etc, according to its speed.
model this by imagining a grid which represents the A large mass
“shape” of space itself. Einstein’s theory is distorts the shape
able to explain of space.
Things coasting through things that the
space follow the shape “force-field model”
of space. Moving things of gravity cannot, planet
could include solid such as the
objects such as a bending of light
space craft, or even travelling near
a beam of light. stars.
This curved path is not due to a
force of gravity, but because the
craft follows the warped fabric of
space itself.
Even if a model is not the full reality, it is still useful if it helps us
understand the facts we observe in the Universe.
The “force-field model” of gravity is ideal to explain the facts of
gravity in everyday events here on Earth.
In the wider Universe of massive stars and black holes,
Einstein’s “warped space model” is necessary to explain what we see.
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keep it simple science

Electrostatic Force
In an electric circuit there is a flow, or current, of Electric Charge
electrical charges moving through a conductor. You need to be aware that every substance is made
up of tiny units of matter called atoms.
Materials which are electrical insulators
(e.g. plastic) will not allow a current to flow, Each atom often acts as if it was a tiny solid ball, but
but they can develop an electrostatic charge. in fact it is composed of smaller particles arranged
(“static” = not moving) as in this diagram.
Structure
-
of an
electron (-)
ATOM
Nucleus contains
PROTONS (+) and
NEUTRONS (0)

The little electrons are whizzing around the central

nucleus, like miniature planets around the Sun.
Each hair has (Note: this is NOT a gravitational orbit, )
a static charge
and Each electron, and each proton in the nucleus,
repels every carries a field-force which we call electric charge.
other hair.
There are 2 opposite types of electric charge which
Electrostatic charges can exert a force have been called simply “positive” (+ve) and
(push or pull) on each other and cause “negative” (-ve).
many strange effects.
Electrons carry negative electric charge.
KCiC.02 Forces Slide 28
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 ®

keep it simple science How Things Get an Electrostatic Charge

Normally, the number of electrons and the
number of protons in each atom is exactly electron rubbed
the same. off one atom,
onto another
The +ve charges and the -ve charges
“cancel out” and no electrical effects are
apparent.
This atom still has all its
However, it is very easy to upset this (+ve) protons, but has
balance by transferring electrons from the This atom still has all its
(+ve) protons, but has
gained a (-ve) electron.
atoms of one substance onto the atoms of lost a (-ve) electron. Overall, it now has a
a different substance. (-ve) charge.
Overall, it now has a
(+ve) charge.
Gentle friction is enough. Just rubbing 2
If these substances are electrical insulators, the charges
different substances together can transfer cannot flow away, so the substance stays charged, at
electrons from one to the other. least for a while.The charges can push or pull each
other (FORCE!) because each has a force-field.
KCiC.02 Forces Slide 29
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 ®
Forces Between Electrostatic Charges
keep it simple science How do electrical charges affect each other?
It turns out to be very similar to the pattern of forces between magnetic poles.

Same Charges Repel each other.

Opposites Force pushes them apart.
Attract.
+ Force pulls
them together + +
Getting Charged
To investigate electrostatic charge you will If you rub an ebonite rod (ebonite is a
probably experiment by rubbing different hardened rubber substance) with wool, it
materials together. becomes negatively charged.

One of the best combinations is to rub +

perspex (a clear plastic) with silk. + +
Electrons rubbed off perspex rod. +
Rod becomes positively charged.
Electrons rubbed off wool cloth.
Rod becomes negatively charged.
++++++
Only the (-ve) electrons move.
The (+ve) charges (protons) cannot move
because they are fixed in the nucleus
of the atoms.
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 ®

keep it simple science Electroscopes

An electroscope is a device which detects Why is the Ball Attracted?
electric charge, and allows you to study it. When a charged rod comes near, some electrons in
the ball move, causing a separation of charges.
There are various types of electroscope you
might use, or see demonstrated. The simplest +
type is shown. +
+

Ball Electroscope The rod then attracts the nearer charges, and the ball
This is simply a light-weight ball is pulled towards the rod.
(e.g.polystyrene) hanging on a fine silk
thread. If the rod touches the ball, electrons transfer (rod to
ball) so the ball gets the same charge as the rod.
If no charge is present,
the ball hangs straight down.
Now the ball is repelled
by the rod because
they have the same charge.
If a charged object is nearby,
the ball is attracted to it.

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 Static Discharge
®

keep it simple science

Things can get charged up, and they can also Earthing a Charge
lose their charge again. Often, they lose their The Earth itself is such a huge lump of atoms
charge by a “SPARK” jumping. A spark occurs that it can easily supply electrons to, or accept
when millions of electrons jump through the electrons from, a charged object.
air.
So, if electrons can flow between a charged
A spark discharge always involves electrons object and the Earth, either by sparking or by
jumping from a negatively charged object flowing through a conductor, they will. The
towards a more positively charged object. charged object loses its charge. we say it has
Remember, only the (-ve) electrons can move. been “earthed”, or “discharged”.
You may have Ever been “zapped” as you step from a car?
seen a “van der
Graaf” generator Friction with the air can create a
in action in the static charge on a car, which is
laboratory.
+
insulated from the Earth by its
It develops strong rubber tyres.
+
electrostatic
charges which are As you step out, electrons flow
great for studying
the effects of
+ through you to “earth” the car.
You get an electric shock.
charge, and also In the dark you might
great for making even see sparks!
discharge sparks!
electron flow
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 Lightning
®

keep it simple science

The ultimate in an “earth discharge” is lightning.

electron flow
+ cloud to cloud
Violent winds inside a “thunderstorm” system +
cause static charges to build up in the clouds. + +
+ + +
Some clouds become (+ve) and others (-ve).
electron
Eventually, they may discharge by sparking, flow
either from one cloud to another, or by Earth to
cloud electron
“earthing”. flow
cloud to
As the electrons force their way through the air, Earth
a narrow channel of air is heated to very high
temperature and glows briefly. That is the flash of lightning.
A “lightning rod” protects buildings
The sudden expansion of air in this “super-heated” channel of air creates by providing a conducting pathway
for electrons to flow through.
a shock wave of sound. This shock wave is the sound of “thunder”.
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 ®

keep it simple science

Activity 4
The following activity might be completed by class discussion,
or your teacher may have paper copies for you to do.

Electrical Force Student Name .................................

1. Name the particles within all atoms which carry electric charges. For each,
state what sort of charge the particle has.

2.
a) Describe a simple way to cause an electrostatic charge to develop (say, on a
plastic ruler).

b) Outline how (in general terms) the charge is caused.

c) If it turns out that the ruler gets a positive charge, explain precisely what has
happened at the atomic level.

d) What are the “rules” for how charges attract or repel each other?

3. What is an electroscope?

4. Briefly, what is lightning?

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 ®
How Scientific Knowledge Has
keep it simple science
Changed Our Understanding of the World
Many ancient people thought that thunder and About 30 years later, 2 Italian scientists studied
lightning were caused by angry gods in the sky. electricity in a different way.

In 1752, the American Benjamin Franklin carried out a Luigi Galvani discovered
famous (and incredibly dangerous) experiment. He that freshly dissected
flew a kite into a thunderstorm and collected frog’s legs would twitch and
electrostatic charge from the jump if touched with metal
clouds. wires. He believed that there was
“animal electricity” in them, and in
From this he all living things. He thought
was able to show electricity was a “life force”,
that lightning was possibly of supernatural origin.
electrical and
could be studied Alessandro Volta believed the electricity making the frog’s legs jump
scientifically. was not some supernatural force, but simple chemistry. He began
It no longer experiments to prove his ideas.
needed a
Over a 20 year period, the experiments and arguments went back-and-
supernatural forth until eventually Volta was proven correct.
explanation.
The explanation was that the muscles were still alive and functioning
for a while after being cut from the frog. Electricity from a chemical
Continued next slide reaction involving the metal wires and the frog’s body fluids stimulated
the muscles and made them twitch.

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keep it simple science

How Scientific Knowledge Has
Changed Our Understanding of the World cont.
Alessandro Volta went on to invent the first practical electrical
battery to make usable amounts of electricity. This allowed many
later scientists to study electricity and gradually gain a full
understanding of both static and current electricity. Many
inventions followed, leading to light bulbs, electric motors and
appliances, etc.

In his honour, we have named the electrical unit,

the “volt”, after Alessandro Volta.

The work of Ben Franklin and Volta was the start of a series of
developments which led directly to our modern electrically-
powered world. However, their work led not only to the new
electrical technologies, but helped change the way people
understand the natural world.

People gradually began to see that mysterious

things like lightning, the Universe, or even life
itself, could be understood scientifically without
the need for supernatural explanations.
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