B.Tech.

Project

On

Stearic Acid Ethoxylate

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree

of

B.Tech.
in

Chemical Engineering
By
Ankit Verma (U20CH119)
&
Chirag Jain
(U20CH099)

Under the supervision of

Dr. Jigisha Parikh
(Assistant Professor)

Department of Chemical Engineering

Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat- 395007
2023-24

1
 Department of Chemical Engineering
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
2023-24

Certificate
This is to certify that the B.Tech. seminar, entitled “Stearic Acid Ethoxylate” submitted by Ankit
Verma (U20CH119) & Chirag Jain (U20CH099) in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
“B.Tech. in Chemical Engineering” of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology,Surat,
is a record of his own work carried out under my supervision and guidance.

Supervisor:
Dr. Jigisha Parikh

Date: 08/12/2023

2
 Department of Chemical Engineering
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
2023-2024

Examiner’s Certificate of Approval

This is to certify that the B.Tech. credit project, entitled “Stearic Acid ethoxylate” submitted by
Ankit Verma (U20CH119) & Chirag Jain (U20CH099) in partial fulfillment for the award of the
degree of “B.Tech. in Chemical Engineering” of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of
Technology, Surat, is hereby approved.

Examiners:

1. Examiner 1
2. Examiner 2
3. Examiner 3

Date: 08/12/2023

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 Acknowledgement
Little achievements often require long, tortuous effort and bitter experiences including some
sacrifices. And this is only possible when the almighty GOD keeps his handful of blessings on the
head of anybody.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my guide Dr.Jigisha Parikh, Senior Professor,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
for encouraging me to undertake this project as well as providing me all the necessary guidance
and inspirational support throughout this seminar work.

I would like to extend my thanks from bottom of my heart to all those who helped me in
completion of this project report.

Date: 08/12/2023 Ankit Verma Chirag Jain

(U20CH119) (U20CH099)

4
 Abstract

The report presents a detailed study of the industrial production of Stearic acid
Ethoxylate (SAEO), a versatile organic compound used in various applications
such as gas purification, detergents, herbicides, and textiles.

The report covers the demand and supply analysis of SAEO in the global and
Indian markets, the process selection and description based on the SRI process,
the material and energy balance calculations, and the equipment design and cost
estimation.

The report also discusses the thermodynamics and mass of the reactions
involved, the plant layout and location, the safety and environmental issues, and
the references used for the study.

The report aims to provide a comprehensive and informative overview of the

SAEO production process and its economic and technical feasibility.

5
 Table of contents

• Certificate… ........................................................................... 2
• Acknowledgement .............................................................. 4
• Abstract .............................................................................. 5
• Introduction…........................................................................ 7
• Demand and supply ............................................................ 11
• Process selection and description… ...................................... 16
• Material safety data sheets (MSDS)… ....................................19
• Process flow diagram… ......................................................... 26
• Mass balance ....................................................................... 28
• Energy balance .................................................................... 33
• Design Calculation ............................................................... 39
• Cost estimation… ................................................................... 50
• P & I Diagram…........................................................................56
• Plant Layout.......................................................................... 60
• Plant Location… .......................................................................64
• References… ............................................................................ 71

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CHAPTER 01-INTRODUCTION

Stearic acid ethoxylate are produced by the process of ethoxylation on Stearic Acids like Coconut Stearic
Acid, Lauric Acid, Oleic Acid and Stearic Acid. These are non-ionic surface-active agents manufactured
by addition of ethylene oxide to Stearic acids producing a range of ethoxylates having different moles of
EO. A surface-active agent of surfactant refers to a chemical which when dissolved in another solvent
aligns itself at the boundary of liquid and the stain molecules to alter the characteristics of the interface.
In this context, surfactants have gained widespread usage as cleaning and emulsifying agents in
household and industrial applications.

Stearic acid ethoxylate, range from clear liquid, pasty or waxy solids. This nature depends on the length
of alkyl chain and the apparent number of ethoxyl groups. Non-ionic surfactants contain both
hydrophobic tail portion and hydrophilic polar head groups. Thus, tend to dissolve in both aqueous and
oil phase reducing the surface tension of liquids. The use of hydrophilic groups like EO brings about
better solubility in water since more hydrogen bonding can exist. These Stearic acid ethoxylate do not
dissociate in solution i.e. non-ionic in solution thus do not form charged particles with residual electrical
charge. This means that these non-ionic Stearic acid ethoxylate surfactants will work well in hard water
and also at low temperatures. Moreover, they exhibit more stability in acidic and alkali solution plus
miscibility with other surfactants. Further, since these Stearic acid ethoxylate are nonionic surfactants
they exhibit excellent foam properties, outstanding solvency and absolute chemical stability providing
good detergency properties. Stearic Acid Ethoxylates are primarily used as non-ionic surfactants in a
number of processes in the industrial and domestic boundaries. Since these Stearic acid ethoxylate are
having different HLB based on their moles of EO they can function as solubilizers, dispersing agents,
emulsifiers, fabric softeners, antistatic additives, lubricants, and viscosity regulators in textiles, metal
working fluids and leather processing. These Nonionic Stearic acid ethoxylate surfactant products are
friendly on the dermis even at greater loadings and exposure. Additionally due to their low toxicity and
natural base, they find use in cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulations. With reference to their ability
to foam and low comparative cost, polyoxyethylene (Stearic acid ester) have been the most attractive
non-ionic detergent product in the market. When combined with different types of builders, these
surface-active agents are ingredients for a majority of domestic and industrial cleaning applications.
Stearic acid ethoxylates are also applied as cleansing agents, dispersants (emulsifiers), wetting agents
water softeners and spin dying agents in textile Industries. However, they are also used as dispersants

7
and solubilizes in cosmetics and health care industrial applications. Stearic acid ethoxylate includes;
stearic acid ethoxylates, lauric acid ethoxylates and coco Stearic acid ethoxylate. These products are
used in textile and in the manufacture of spin finishes.

Venus manufactures Ethoxylated wide range of ethoxylate of C12 to C18 Stearic Acid like Coconut Stearic
Acid, Lauric Acid, Oleic Acid, Stearic Acid etc. Stearic Acid Ethoxylate have many uses, primarily as
nonionic surfactants in various formulations both, industrial & domestic.

Properties of SAE (stearic acid ethoxylate)

Stearic acid ethoxylate is a type of nonionic surfactant that is derived from stearic acid, a fatty acid found
in animal and vegetable fats. Stearic acid ethoxylate has the general formula
CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O)nH, where n is the number of ethylene oxide units. Some of the properties
of stearic acid ethoxylate are:

Solubility: Stearic acid ethoxylate is soluble in water and organic solvents, depending on the value of n.
The higher the value of n, the more hydrophilic and soluble in water the molecule is. The lower the value
of n, the more lipophilic and soluble in organic solvents the molecule is.

HLB value: The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value is a measure of the relative affinity of a
surfactant for water and oil. It ranges from 0 to 20, with higher values indicating more hydrophilic and
lower values indicating more lipophilic surfactants. The HLB value of stearic acid ethoxylate depends on
the value of n, and can be calculated by the formula HLB = 20(1-s/a), where s is the saponification
number and a is the acid number of the surfactant. ²

Applications: Stearic acid ethoxylate has various applications in different industries, such as cosmetics,
lubricants, emulsifiers, dispersants, and oil phase adjusters. It can form stable emulsions of oil-in-water
or water-in-oil, depending on the HLB value. It can also impart a pearl-like appearance to creams, lotions,
and shampoos. It can also act as a wetting agent, a dispersing agent, and a viscosity builder.

8
 A. Physical properties

Flash point 180-2000 C

Melting point 52-550 C

Boiling Point 2000 C

Vapor Pressure < 0.1 mmHg

Color Colorless to light yellow

pH 6-8 (aqueous sol)

Specific gravity 1 at 250 C

Table 1.1

Stearic Acid Ethoxylate: The Unsung Hero Across Industries

Stearic acid ethoxylate, a seemingly simple molecule, holds within it the power to transform and
enhance products across countless industries. Its chameleon-like nature, with properties dancing to the
tune of its EO number, makes it a versatile champion in the world of formulation.

Cosmetics & Personal Care:

• Creams & Lotions: Low EO sisters (2-5) act as emulsifiers, keeping oil and water in a happy
embrace, creating smooth, luxurious creams. Their high EO cousins (10+) bring in the shine as
pearlising agents, adding a touch of elegance.
• Shampoos & Conditioners: These gentle giants (10+) tame frizz and boost shine, acting as
thickeners and foam stabilizers. They also help detangling and leave hair feeling silky smooth.
• Toothpastes: Foaming magic unfolds with high EO stearic acid ethoxylate, making brushing a
bubbly delight. They also bind flavors and prevent ingredients from separating, keeping your
toothpaste looking and tasting its best.

Textiles & Leather:

• Softeners & Finishes: Low EO warriors soften fabrics, reducing harshness and improving drape.
They also act as antistatic agents, preventing pesky cling.

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 • Scouring & Dyeing: High EO stearic acid ethoxylate comes to the rescue, dispersing dyes evenly
and preventing them from bleeding. They also aid in scouring and cleaning textiles before dying,
ensuring vibrant colors on a clean canvas.
• Leather Finishing: A touch of luxury with low EO stearic acid ethoxylate. They create a smooth,
supple feel and enhance water repellency, making leather goods last longer and look their best.

Household & Industrial Cleaning:

• Laundry Detergents: High EO stearic acid ethoxylate tackles tough stains, lifting dirt and grime
effortlessly. They also help stabilize foam and prevent redeposition, keeping your clothes
sparkling clean.
• Dishwashing Liquids: Foaming wonders with high EO stearic acid ethoxylate. They cut through
grease and food residue, leaving dishes squeaky clean.
• Hard Surface Cleaners: From floors to windows, low EO stearic acid ethoxylate offers its cleaning
prowess. They emulsify dirt and grime, making them easy to wipe away, leaving surfaces
gleaming.

Food & Pharmaceuticals:

• Food Emulsions: High EO stearic acid ethoxylate keeps sauces, dressings, and even ice cream
stable and creamy. They prevent ingredients from separating, ensuring a delightful eating
experience.
• Pharmaceutical Creams & Ointments: Gentle and effective, low EO stearic acid ethoxylate forms
the base for many topical medications. They deliver the active ingredients smoothly and evenly
to the affected area.
• Food Processing: Low EO stearic acid ethoxylate works its magic in bread dough, improving
machinability and creating a softer, fluffier texture.

10
CHAPTER 02- DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Ethoxylates market industry forecast (2018 to 2022) vs. Forecast 2023 to 2033

The global ethoxylates market size was valued at US$ 8.9 Billion in 2018 and exhibited a CAGR of 3%
during the historic period. The market is anticipated to be driven by the consumption of ethoxylates
across various industries, including personal care, pharmaceutical, industrial, and household cleaning.
The product is widely used as a foaming and wetting agent in detergent and cosmetic product
formulations. Owing to these factors the ethoxylates market is anticipated to be valued at US$ 17.4
Billion, exhibiting a CAGR of 3.2% by the end of 2033.

What are the key Drivers for the Ethoxylates market?

The demand for Ethoxylates in the personal care and pharmaceutical industry is fuelling the market
growth

The growing consumer awareness of personal care and cleanliness is propelling the global ethoxylate
market. Ethoxylates are frequently found in hair care products including shampoos and conditioners
because they help in foaming, take away oil, and give the skin a feeling of being exceptionally clean.

In addition, it is estimated that the market will be supported in the forecast period by the rising demand
for ointments in the pharmaceutical industry. Ethoxylates are also employed in the textile sector for
scouring, dyeing, and lubricating. Additionally, it is predicted that the market would increase in the
forthcoming years as a result of the main manufacturers' growing investments and research &
development activities.

The global ethoxylate market has witnessed strong growth due to the rising demand for low-rise
detergents, which act as a non-ionic surfactants. Besides, the increased use of ethoxylates in personal
care products like shampoos and face washes linked with the growing demand from the paints and
coating industry will fuel the market during the forecast period.

Category-Wise Insights

• Households and personal care is dominating the application segment

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 The household and personal care application segment accounted for the largest revenue share
of 32.2% in 2022 and is expected to sustain its dominance over the forecast period. The growth
in this segment is attributed to its extensive use in the formulation of various household
cleanings products, such as laundry detergents in liquid and powder forms, dishwashing gels and
detergents, fabric conditioners, glass cleaners, carpet cleaners, oven cleaners, air fresheners, and
hard floor and surface cleaners.

• By Product Type, Alcohol ethoxylates type to record the highest CAGR

The alcohol ethoxylates segment of the ethoxylates market is projected to be worth US$ 13.1
Billion by 2033. Alcohol ethoxylates are the most extensively used type of non-ionic surfactant.
Alcohol ethoxylates consist of an alkyl chain, which is combined with ethylene oxide.These are
surface active agents, substances that are used to change the surface tension of water to assist
in applications such as cleansing, wetting surfaces, foaming, and emulsifying. Being non-ionic
surfactants, alcohol ethoxylates can remove grease effectively, which makes them suitable to be
used in laundry products, household cleaners, and hand and dishwashing liquids. Alcohol
ethoxylates have many other desirable properties such as moderate foaming ability, superior
cleaning of fibers, and high tolerance to water hardness. The demand for alcohol ethoxylates is
growing because of their extensive use in the manufacturing of domestic detergents, household
and personal care products, and I&I cleaning products.

Ethoxylate market Region wise in billon $

6

0
2014 2016 2019 2023

europe Asia pacific north america middle east

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The Asia-Pacific region is projected to be the fastest-growing ethoxylates market due to the growing
household & personal care, and pharmaceutical industries in the region. The Middle East & African
ethoxylates market is also expected to grow at a high rate due to growing demand for ethoxylates in the
oilfield industry. North America is a significant market for ethoxylates, though is witnessing a moderate
growth. Among regions, the Asia Pacific ethoxylates market is projected to grow at thehighest CAGR
between 2016 and 2021, in terms of value.

Key Market Players ( Globally)

• BASF SE
• Royal Dutch Plc
• Huntsman International LLC
• Stepan Company
• Clariant AG
• The Dow Chemical Company
• Sasol ltd
• India Glycols Ltd
• Ineos Group Ltd

Trends in India

The Indian stearic acid ethoxylate market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 4.7% from 2023 to 2030,
driven by the increasing demand for personal care, pharmaceutical, industrial, and household cleaning
products.

Key drivers of the Indian stearic acid ethoxylate market:

• Rising disposable incomes and growing urbanization: As disposable incomes rise and
urbanization increases, the demand for personal care and household cleaning products is
expected to increase. Stearic acid ethoxylate is a key ingredient in these products due to its
foaming, wetting, and emulsifying properties.
• Growing demand for eco-friendly surfactants: Consumers are increasingly becoming aware of
the environmental impact of chemicals. Stearic acid ethoxylate is considered to be a more
environmentally friendly surfactant than some other alternatives, such as linear alkyl
benzenesulfonates (LAS). This is expected to drive demand for stearic acid ethoxylate in the

13
 coming years.

• Segmentation of the Indian stearic acid ethoxylate market: The Indian stearic acid ethoxylate
market can be segmented by type, end-use, and region.

By type:

• Fatty alcohol ethoxylates: This is the most common type of stearic acid ethoxylate. It is used in
a wide variety of applications, including personal care, pharmaceutical, industrial, and household
cleaning products.
• Fatty acid ethoxylates: This type of stearic acid ethoxylate is less common than fatty alcohol
ethoxylates. It is used in a narrower range of applications, such as textile finishing and
metalworking fluids.

By end-use:

• Personal care: Stearic acid ethoxylate is used in a variety of personal care products, including
shampoos, conditioners, soaps, lotions, and creams.
• Pharmaceuticals: Stearic acid ethoxylate is used in a variety of pharmaceutical formulations,
such as creams, ointments, and suspensions.
• Industrial: Stearic acid ethoxylate is used in a variety of industrial applications, including
metalworking fluids, agricultural chemicals, and lubricants.
• Household cleaning: Stearic acid ethoxylate is used in a variety of household cleaning products,
including detergents, dishwashing liquids, and cleaners.

By region:

• North India: North India is the largest consumer of stearic acid ethoxylate in India. This is due to
the large population and the strong presence of the personal care, pharmaceutical, and industrial
industries in the region.
• South India: South India is the second largest consumer of stearic acid ethoxylate in India. This
is due to the growing economy and the increasing demand for personal care and household
cleaning products in the region.
• East India: East India is the third largest consumer of stearic acid ethoxylate in India. This is due
to the growing urbanization and the increasing demand for industrial products in the region.

14
 • West India: West India is the fourth largest consumer of stearic acid ethoxylate in India. This is
due to the presence of the pharmaceutical and industrial industries in the region.
Challenges facing the Indian stearic acid ethoxylate market:

• Competition from other surfactants: Stearic acid ethoxylate faces competition from other
surfactants, such as LAS and sulfated ethoxylated alcohols (SEOS). These surfactants are often
cheaper than stearic acid ethoxylate, and they can be used in a wider range of applications.
• Environmental regulations: The Indian government is increasingly regulating the use of
chemicals, including surfactants. This could make it more difficult for stearic acid ethoxylate
producers to comply with environmental regulations, and it could also increase their costs.
• Varying quality standards: The quality of stearic acid ethoxylate can vary from supplier to
supplier. This can lead to problems with product quality and customer satisfaction.

Despite these challenges, the Indian stearic acid ethoxylate market is expected to continue to grow in
the coming years. This is due to the strong demand for personal care, pharmaceutical, industrial, and
household cleaning products. However, producers will need to be aware of the competitive landscape
and the regulatory environment in order to succeed in the market.

The top manufacturers in India are:

Sr.No Companies
1 India Glycols Ltd
2 Saibaba Surfactants Pvt. Ltd
3 Gujarat Alkalies and Chemicals Ltd. (GACL
4 Acme Organics Pvt. Ltd
5 UPL Ltd
6 Shiv Shakti Trading Corporation
7 Southern Petrochemicals Industries Corporation Ltd.
8 Ankit Polymers Industries
Table 2.1

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 CHAPTER 03- PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION

Stearic acid ethoxylate (SAEO) is a versatile non-ionic surfactant widely used in various applications,
including personal care products, household cleaners, and industrial formulations. Its amphiphilic
nature, with a hydrophobic alkyl chain and hydrophilic ethylene oxide (EO) groups, makes it an effective
emulsifier, wetting agent, and solubilizer. The production of SAEO involves the controlled reaction of
stearic acid with EO in the presence of a catalyst. The choice of reaction process significantly impacts
the product quality, process efficiency, environmental footprint, and overall economics of SAEO
manufacturing.

Three major Process to manufacture stearic acid etxoylate:

1. Batch Process: The traditional approach where reactants are mixed in a reactor and allowed to react
under controlled temperature and pressure.
2. Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR): Reactants are continuously fed into a reactor with constant
agitation, enabling precise control over reaction conditions and producing a uniform product.
3. Tubular Reactor: Reactants flow through a long, narrow tube while the reaction takes place, offering
efficient heat utilization and scalability.
Evaluation Criteria

To objectively assess the suitability of each process option, a set of critical criteria was established:
1. Product Quality: The ability of the process to consistently produce SAEO with the desired properties,
including EO number, purity, and color.
2. Process Efficiency: The extent to which the process minimizes waste generation and optimizes energy
consumption.
3. Safety: The level of potential hazards associated with the process, particularly those related to the use
of flammable or hazardous chemicals.
4. Capital Cost: The initial investment required for equipment, infrastructure, and installation.
5. Operating Cost: The ongoing expenses associated with labor, utilities, maintenance, and raw materials.

Detailed Process Evaluation

Batch Process:
• Product Quality: Moderate consistency in product properties due to limited control over
reaction conditions.
16
 • Process Efficiency: Moderate efficiency due to batch-wise operation, leading to higher energy
consumption and waste generation.
• Safety: Moderate level of safety concerns, as reactants are handled in open vessels.
• Capital Cost: Low initial investment due to simple equipment requirements.
• Operating Cost: Moderate operating costs due to higher labor requirements and batch-wise
operation.

Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR):

• Product Quality: Excellent consistency in product properties due to precise control over reaction
conditions and residence time.
• Process Efficiency: High efficiency due to continuous operation, reducing energy consumption
and waste generation.
• Safety: High level of safety due to enclosed reactor design and continuous operation.
• Capital Cost: Moderate initial investment due to more complex equipment requirements.
• Operating Cost: Moderate operating costs due to lower labor requirements and continuous
operation.

Tubular Reactor:
• Product Quality: Good consistency in product properties due to efficient heat transfer and
uniform reaction conditions.
• Process Efficiency: High efficiency due to continuous operation and efficient heat utilization.
• Safety: Moderate level of safety concerns due to high-pressure operation.
• Capital Cost: High initial investment due to specialized equipment requirements.
• Operating Cost: Moderate operating costs due to lower labor requirements and continuous
operation.

Recommendation

Following a comprehensive evaluation of the three proposed process options – batch process,
continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), and tubular reactor – the CSTR emerges as the preferred choice
for stearic acid ethoxylate (SAEO) production. Its ability to strike a balance between product quality,
process efficiency, safety, capital cost, and operating cost makes it the most favorable option.

17
The CSTR's continuous operation ensures consistent product quality, minimizes waste
generation, and optimizes resource utilization. The enclosed reactor design and
continuous operation enhance safety, reducing the risk of hazardous chemical exposure.
Additionally, the moderate capital and operating costs make the CSTR a financially viable
option.

Therefore, we strongly recommend the implementation of the CSTR process for SAEO
production. Its advantages in product quality, process efficiency, safety, and cost-
effectiveness make it the most suitable choice for this application.

Conclusion
The selection of an appropriate reaction process for SAEO production is crucial for
achieving the desired product properties, minimizing environmental impact, and ensuring
economic viability. The CSTR process, with its excellent product quality, high process
efficiency, moderate capital and operating costs, and enhanced safety, stands out as the
preferred option for SAEO manufacturing.

The CSTR's continuous operation ensures consistent product quality, minimizes waste
generation, and optimizes resource utilization. The enclosed reactor design and
continuous operation enhance safety, reducing the potential for hazards associated with
handling flammable or hazardous chemicals.

While the tubular reactor offers a more efficient use of heat and scalability, its high capital
cost and moderate safety level make it less favorable compared to the CSTR. The batch
process, though simple and low in capital cost, falls short in terms of product quality,
process efficiency, and safety.

In conclusion, the CSTR process emerges as the most compelling choice for SAEO
production, effectively balancing product quality, process efficiency, safety, capital cost,
and operating cost. Its ability to deliver consistent, high-quality SAEO with minimal
environmental impact and cost-effectiveness makes it the preferred option forindustrial-
scale SAEO manufacturing.

18
Chapter 04 - Materail Saftey Data Sheets (MSDS)

Ethylene Oxide
Hazard Information
• Ethylene oxide is a highly reactive and toxic gas.
• It can cause severe burns to the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.
• Inhalation can lead to lung damage, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness.
• Ethylene oxide is also a carcinogen and has been linked to an increased risk of
leukemia and lymphoma.

Safety Precautions
• Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothing.

• Do not inhale ethylene oxide vapors.

• Use only in a well-ventilated area.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves, safety glasses, and
a respirator.

• Store in a cool, dry place away from incompatible materials.

• Dispose of waste material properly.

Stearic Acid
Safety Precautions
• General:
o Read and understand the MSDS before handling stearic acid.
o Use appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves,
safety glasses, and a dust mask.
o Wash thoroughly after handling.
• Inhalation:
o Avoid inhaling dust from stearic acid.
o If dust is inhaled, move to fresh air and seek medical attention if
necessary.

19
 • Skin Contact:
o Avoid direct contact with stearic acid.
o Wash exposed skin with soap and water immediately after contact.
o Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
• Eye Contact:
o Avoid contact with eyes.
o If stearic acid gets in your eyes, flush immediately with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes.
o Seek medical attention if necessary.
• Ingestion:
o Do not ingest stearic acid.
o If stearic acid is swallowed, drink plenty of water and seek medical
attention immediately.
• Storage:
o Store stearic acid in a cool, dry place away from incompatible
materials.
o Keep containers tightly closed.

Stearic Acid Ethoxylate

Hazard Information
• Skin and Eye Irritation: Stearic acid ethoxylate can cause skin and eye
irritation, especially in concentrated form.
• Inhalation Irritation: Inhalation of dust or mist from stearic acid
ethoxylate can irritate the respiratory tract.
• Ingestion: Ingestion of stearic acid ethoxylate can cause gastrointestinal
irritation, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
• Chronic Exposure: Long-term exposure to stearic acid ethoxylate may
cause skin sensitization.

20
Safety Precautions
• General:
o Read and understand the MSDS before handling stearic acid
ethoxylate.
o Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves,
safety glasses, and a dust mask if necessary.
o Wash thoroughly after handling.
• Inhalation:
o Avoid inhaling dust or mist from stearic acid ethoxylate.
o Use in a well-ventilated area.
o If inhaled, move to fresh air and seek medical attention if necessary.
• Skin Contact:
o Avoid contact with skin.
o Wear gloves and protective clothing when handling stearic acid
ethoxylate.
o Wash exposed skin with soap and water immediately after contact.
o Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
• Eye Contact:
o Avoid contact with eyes.
o Wear safety glasses or chemical goggles when handling stearic acid
ethoxylate.
o If stearic acid ethoxylate gets in your eyes, flush immediately with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
o Seek medical attention if necessary.
• Ingestion:
o Do not ingest stearic acid ethoxylate.
o If stearic acid ethoxylate is swallowed, drink plenty of water and
seek medical attention immediately.

21
 • Storage:
o Store stearic acid ethoxylate in a cool, dry place away from
incompatible materials.
o Keep containers tightly closed.
NaOH
Hazard Information

• Corrosive: Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali and can cause severe burns
to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
• Harmful if swallowed: Ingestion of sodium hydroxide can cause severe
mouth burns, stomach pain, vomiting, and diarrhea.
• Toxic if inhaled: Inhalation of sodium hydroxide dust or mist can cause
irritation and inflammation of the respiratory tract.
• Eye Damage: Sodium hydroxide can cause severe eye irritation and
damage, potentially leading to blindness.
Safety Precautions

• General:
o Read and understand the MSDS before handling sodium hydroxide.
o Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves,
safety glasses, a respirator, and a chemical-resistant apron.
o Wash thoroughly after handling.
• Inhalation:
o Avoid inhaling dust or mist from sodium hydroxide.
o Use in a well-ventilated area.
o If inhaled, move to fresh air and seek medical attention
immediately.
• Skin Contact:
o Avoid contact with skin.
o Wear gloves and protective clothing when handling sodium
hydroxide.

22
 o Wash exposed skin with soap and water immediately after contact.
o Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
• Eye Contact:
o Avoid contact with eyes.
o Wear safety glasses or a face shield when handling sodium
hydroxide.
o If sodium hydroxide gets in your eyes, flush immediately with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
o Seek medical attention immediately.
• Ingestion:
o Do not ingest sodium hydroxide.
o If sodium hydroxide is swallowed, do not induce vomiting.
o Drink plenty of water and seek medical attention immediately.
• Storage:
o Store sodium hydroxide in a cool, dry place away from incompatible
materials, such as acids, metals, and organic materials.
o Keep containers tightly closed.

HCL

Hazards
• Skin and Eye Irritation: Hydrochloric acid is a strong corrosive and can
cause severe burns to the skin and eyes.
• Inhalation: Inhalation of hydrochloric acid vapors can cause irritation and
damage to the respiratory tract.
• Ingestion: Ingestion of hydrochloric acid can cause severe burns to the
mouth, throat, and stomach.
• Chronic Exposure: Long-term exposure to hydrochloric acid can cause
damage to the teeth, airways, and lungs.
Safety Precautions
23
• General:
o Read and understand the MSDS before handling hydrochloric acid.
o Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves,
safety glasses, and a chemical-resistant apron.
o Use in a well-ventilated area.
o Wash thoroughly after handling.
• Inhalation:
o Avoid inhaling hydrochloric acid vapors.
o Use in a fume hood or other well-ventilated area.
o If inhaled, move to fresh air and seek medical attention if necessary.
• Skin Contact:
o Avoid contact with skin.
o Wear gloves and other protective clothing when handling
hydrochloric acid.
o Wash exposed skin with plenty of soap and water immediately after
contact.
o Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
• Eye Contact:
o Avoid contact with eyes.
o Wear safety glasses or goggles when handling hydrochloric acid.
o If hydrochloric acid gets in your eyes, flush immediately with plenty
of water for at least 15 minutes.
o Seek medical attention immediately.

• Ingestion:
o Do not ingest hydrochloric acid.
o If hydrochloric acid is swallowed, drink plenty of water and seek
medical attention immediately.

24
• Storage:
o Store hydrochloric acid in a cool, dry place away from
incompatiblematerials.
o Keep containers tightly closed.

25
Chapter 05 - Process flow diagram

Fig 5.1

1. Charge stearic acid into reactor: Start by charging stearic acid into the reactor.

2. Add catalyst (NaOH or KOH): Add the catalyst (NaOH or KOH) to the reactor.

3. Heat exchanger: Connect a heat exchanger to the reactor's output. The heat generated in the
reactor will be used to heat the ethylene oxide gas in the heat exchanger.

4. Reactor: The heated ethylene oxide gas will be introduced into the reactor, where a reaction will
occur.

5. Heat exchanger: After the reaction, connect another heat exchanger to the reactor's output. This
heat exchanger will cool down the reaction mixture.

6. Neutralization tank: The cooled reaction mixture will be neutralized with acid (H2SO4 or HCl) in the
neutralization tank.

27
7. Separation : The separated aqueous and organic phases will be collected in separate containers.

8. Washing : The organic phase will be washed with water and then filtered.

9. Drying : The organic phase will be dried under vacuum in a dryer.

10. SAEO product : The final SAEO product will be obtained.

27
Chapter 06 - Material Balance

Reactor 1

CH3(CH2)COOH + CH2CH2O CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O) + H2O

( Intermediate Compound)

So in 1st reactor genrally

Stearic Acid + Ethylene oxide Intermediate +H2O

Let’s take the production target of 1000 kg/day with 98% purity

1000 𝐾
1000 kg/day= 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦 =3.09 K mol/day
329 𝑋 0.98

• No of moles of S.A required per day = 3.09 x 284

= 878 kg/day

= 878/24 = 36.58 kg/hr

• No of moles of E.O required per day = 3.09 x 44

= 878 kg/day

= 878/24 = 5.6 kg/hr

So, the inlet feed flow rate in reactor 1 for S.A is =36.58 kg/hr and for E.O is = 5.6 kg/hr
Suppose the Conversion in reactor 1 is 100% so all the stearic acid will react with ethylene
oxide to form a intermediate compound and produces water.

28
 Species Kg /hr (in) Kg /hr (out)
Stearic acid (S.A) 36.58 0
Ethylene Oxide (E.O) 5.6 0
Intermediate 0 42.23
Water 0 2.317

Reactor -2

Outlet of reactor 1 = inlet of reactor 2

Inlet in reactor 2

• Intermediate= 42.23 kg/hr

• H2O = 2.317 kg/hr

Reaction
NaOH
CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O) +H2O CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O)H

02

We obtain a mixture of stearic acid ethoxylate and hydroxyl ions

Species Kg /hr (in) Kg /hr (out)

Intermediate 42.23 0
Stearic acid Ethoxylate (S.A) 0 42.23
Water 2.317 2.317
Catalyst 40kg/hr 40kg/hr

29
Neutralizer

HCL is added into the neutralizer tank to neutralize the hydroxyl ions present in the
mixture.

NaOH
CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O)H + HCL CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O)H + NaCl + H2O

Now in neutralizer 1 mol of water is produced per mole of hcl consumed

Water is produced at a rate of 1 k mol/hr =18 kg /hr

And there is an inlet of 2.317 kg/hr of water from the 2nd reactor which combines the water
produced in the reactor 2 to have an output of (18+2.317)kg/hr = 20.317 kg/hr

Species Kg /hr (in) Kg /hr (out)

Stearic acid Ethoxylate (S.A) 42.23 42.23
Water 2.317 20.317
Catalyst (NaOH) 40kg/hr 0
HCL 36.5 kg/hr 0
NaCl 0 58.5

30
Decanter

It is used to separate the crystallized NaCl from the stearic acid (liq) coming from the
evaporator.

Species Kg /hr (in)

Stearic acid Ethoxylate (S.A) 42.23
Water 20.317
NaCl 58.5

Suppose the process efficiency of our decanter is 90 % then

Species Kg /hr (out)

Stearic acid Ethoxylate (S.A) 42.3
Water 2.03
NaCl 5.85

Now we will send this output to the distillation column for further separation and
purification.

31
Distillation Column

Now , we wand a product quality of 98%

Species Kg /hr (in)

Stearic acid Ethoxylate (S.A) 42.3
Water 1.01
NaCl 5.75

Xd = 0.98

Xb = 0.02

F = D + B --------------------------------- ( 1 )

F * xf = D* Xd + B* Xb ---------------------------------- ( 2 )

Now F= 42.23 kg/hr

= 341.9 mol/hr

F * xf = 128.3 mol/hr

So now by solving the given equations (1) and (2) by the given data we, get

D = 126.522 mol/hr

B = 215 mol/hr

32
Chapter 07 - Energy Balance

INTRODUCTION

Energy balance is used in design project to determine the energy requirement for various

processes. Energy balance is done to calculate the total energy used.

General Equation:

∆H + ∆Ek + ∆Ep = Q + W

Based on above assumption, ∆Ek = 0, ∆Ep = 0

Hence, Q = ∆H.

REACTOR 1:

Reaction side:

Feed temperature 35˚C

Outlet temperature = 150oC

Cp° = (A + B*T + C*T+ D/T2)*R

Reaction : S.A +E.O ----------> Intermediate +H2O

Stearic Acid :

Cp = Cp° = A + B*T + C*T2+ DT3

A = 1.444 * 10-3, B = -1.111* 10-6, C = 3.33* 10-10, D = - 4.1667*10-14

Cp = (-23.25 + 275.69*T - 188.97*T2 + 57.03*T3) * R

𝟒𝟐𝟑
ΔΗS.A = ∫𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝐂𝐩 ∗ 𝒅𝑻
𝟒𝟐𝟑
ΔΗS.A = ∫ ([1.444 * 10-3 +(-1.111* 10-6*T )+ 3.33* 10 -10 *T2 + (-4.1667*10 -14)* T 3]) ∗ 𝐑𝒅𝑻
𝟑𝟎𝟖

ΔΗS.A = [1.444 * 10-3*115 +(-1.111* 10-6*(115)2/2 )+ 3.33* 10-10 *1153/3 + (-4.1667*10-14)*1154/4] R

= 8.314 * 0.12476

= 1.037 J/kg

33
Ethylene Oxide:
𝟒𝟐𝟑
ΔΗE.O = ∫𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝐂𝐩 ∗ 𝒅𝑻
𝟒𝟐𝟑
ΔΗE.O = ∫ ([1.444 * 10 +(-1.111* 10-2*T )+ 1.022* 10-5 *T2 + (-1.0123*10 -8)* T 3]) ∗ 𝐑𝒅𝑻
𝟑𝟎𝟖

ΔΗE.O = [1.444 * 10* 115 +(-1.111* 10-2*1152/2 )+ 1.022* 10-5 *1153/3 + (-1.0123*10-8)*1154/4] R

ΔΗE.O = 956.184 * 8.314

ΔΗE.O = 7949.71 J/kg

Product Side:

ΔΗproduct = ΔΗintermediate + ΔHwater

Assumption:

Specific heat of Stearic Acid is almost similar to Speacific heat of Intermediate

ΔΗ = 𝟒𝟐𝟑 -3 -6 3 -8 3

water ∫𝟑𝟎𝟖 ([3.470+(1.45* 10 *T )+ 0.121* 10 *T + (-1.0123*10 )* T ]) ∗ 𝐑 𝒅𝑻

= ( 399.05 + 60.997125 + 696.246) * 8.314

= 9613.005 J/kg

ΔΗreaction = ΔΗproduct – ΔΗreactants

= (ΔΗintermediate + ΔΗwater ) - (ΔΗS.A + ΔΗE.O)

= 9613.005 – 7949.71

= 1663.28 J/kg

34
Reactor 2

Intermediate + H2O -------- > S.A.E.O + H2O

The Cp value for SAEO varies from 5 J/goC to 2.5 J/goC

Hence considering the average value as 2 j/goc

Cp for 1 g is 2 j/goC

For 329 g specific heat capacity is 2* 324 = 658 j/goc

1 mol=658 j

Cp = 658 J/mol K
o
ΔΗ | = 𝟑𝟓𝟑 -3 -6 -10 2 -14 3

S.A 80 C ∫𝟒𝟐𝟑 ([1.444 * 10 +(-1.111* 10 *T )+ 3.33* 10 *T + (-4.1667*10 )* T ])𝐑𝒅𝑻

ΔΗS.A|80o C= -0.074252*8.314

ΔΗS.A|80o C= -0.617339108 J/kg

ΔΗSAEO|80oC = -46060 j/kg

ΔΗreaction = -46060 + 0.617339108

ΔΗreaction = -46059.382 J/kg

Neutralizer

SAEO + NaOH + HCL + H2O ---------- > SAEO +NaCl + H2O

ΔΗNaCl = 3.89 J/gk

ΔΗNaOH + HCL = 4.1 j/Gk

ΔΗreaction|25o C = - 57.1 Kj/mol

ΔΗreaction|80o C = (3.89-4.1) * (80-25)

ΔΗreaction|80oC = - 11.55 J/gk

35
Distillation Column

Energy Balance Equation:

Enthalpy of feed + reboiler feed = enthalpy of bottom + enthalpy of top + condenser load

A condenser is used to cool vapours coming out of the distillation column.

Condenser load = m λ

We assume that no heat losses occur in the column. For such a column we can write the
heat balanceequations as:
Total material balance: F=D+W
Component balance: FzF = DxD + WxW
Energy Balance; FHF + QB = DHD + WHW + QC

Where,
• F is feed flow rate
• D is the distillate flow rate
• W is the Bottom flow rate.
• HF, HD and HW indicates the enthalpy of the respective streams.
• QB and QC are the reboiler and condenser heat loads respectively.

Here,
Feed temperature = 353.15 K
Top temperature = 633.15 K
Bottom temperature = 751.15 K
Reference temperature = 298.15 K

Feed (∆HF):

For SAEO
= [{(271.78)×( 333.15-298.15)} + {(360.57×10-3) ×(333.152-298.152)/2}]

= 13496.04069 J/molFor NaCl

= [{(305.36)×(333.15-298.15)} + {(5.40) ×(333.152-298.152)/2}]

= 70259.97199 J/molFor H2O:

= [{(74.38)×(333.15-298.15)} + {(0.00417) ×(333.152-298.152)/2}]

36
 = 2649.610506 J/mol

Feed Temp(K) Enthalpy(J/mol)

SAEO 353.15 13496.04069

C4H9OH 353.15 70259.97199
H2O 353.15 2649.610506

Distillate (∆HD):

For SAEO

= [{(305.36)×(357.15-298.15)} + {(5.40) ×(357.152-298.152)/2}]

= 122264.3413 J/molFor H2O:

= [{(74.38)×(357.15-298.15)} + {(0.00417) ×(357.152-298.152)/2}]

= 4469.442094 J/mol

Distillate Temp(K) Enthalpy(J/mol)

SAEO 633.15 122264.3413

H2O 633.15 4469.442094

Bottom (∆HW):

NaCl,

= [{(271.78)×( 369.15-298.15)} + {(360.57×10-3) ×(369.152-298.152)/2}]

= 27838.50145 J/mol

For H2O

= [{(305.36)×(369.15-298.15)} + {(5.40) ×(369.152-298.152)/2}]

= 1493.8115 J/mol

37
 Bottom Temp(K) Enthalpy(J/mol)

NaCl 751.15 27838.50145

H2O 751.15 1493.8115

The condenser heat load may be calculated asQC = n×λ where λ is the latent
heat of vaporization n= Total moles of distillate = 10.162 kmol
Mole fraction ofH2O = 0.688 λ for H2O = 40.8 kJ/mol
QC = 10162×[(0.688×40.8) + (0.312×43.3)]
=422535.96 kJ

F×∆HF = (∆H SAEO × N SAEO) + (∆HC4H9OH × NC4H9OH) + (∆HH2O × NH2O)

= (13496.04069×4.4019) + (70259.97199×16.153) + (2649.610506×7)
=12164.823 kJ

D×∆HD = (∆HC4H9OH × NC4H9OH) + (∆HH2O × NH2O)

= (122264.3413×3.162) + (4469.442094×7)

=4175.9418 kJ

W×∆HW = (∆H SAEO × N SAEO) + (∆HC4H9OH × NC4H9OH)

= (27838.50145×4.4019) + (149433.8115×12.491)
=19852.339 kJ
Now,
F∆HF + QB = D∆HD + W∆HW + QC
12164.823 + QB = 4175.9418 + 19852.339 + 4235.96

QB = 13109.66 kJ

38
Chapter 08 – Design Calculation
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN

a) SHELL:
Diameter (Di ) 1.99 m
Working/Operating Pressure 1.0329 kg/cm2
Design pressure = 1.1×Operating Pressure 1.1×1.0329 = 1.1362 kg/cm2
Working temperature 441 K
Design temperature 457.8 K
Shell material - IS: 2002-1962 Grade I Plain Carbon steel
Permissible tensile stress (ft) 950 kg/cm2
Elastic Modulus (E) 1.88×105 MN/m2
Insulation material asbestos
Insulation thickness 2”= 50.8 mm
Density of insulation 575 kg/m3
Top disengaging space 0.3 m
Bottom separator space 0.4 m
Weir height 50 mm
Down-comer clearance 25 m

Table 8.1
b) HEAD - TORISPHERICAL DISHED HEAD:
Material - IS: 2002-1962 Grade I Plain Carbon steel Allowable
tensile stress = 950 kg/cm2
c) SUPPORT SKIRT:
Height of support =1 m
Material - Carbon Steel
d) TRAYS TYPE -SIEVE
Number of trays =9
Hole Diameter = 5mm
Tray spacing:
Enriching section: 500 mm

39
Stripping section: 500 mm
Thickness = 3 mm
e) SUPPORT FOR TRAY
Material - Carbon Steel
Permissible Stress = 1275 kg/cm2

1) Shell minimum thickness:

Considering the vessel as an internal pressure vessel.
ts = ((P×Di)/ ((2×ft×J) - P)) + C
Where ts = thickness of shell, mm
P = design pressure, kg/cm2
Di = diameter of shell, mm
ft = permissible/allowable tensile stress, kg/cm2
C = Corrosion allowance, mm
J = Joint factor
Considering double welded butt joint with backing strip
J= 85% = 0.85
(1.1362×1990)
Thus, ts = + 3 = 4.556 mm Taking the thickness of the
((2×950×0.85)− 1.1362)

shell as minimum specified value= 6 mm

2) Head Design- Shallow dished and Torispherical head:
(P×Rc×W)
Thickness of head = th =
(2×f×J)

P =internal design pressure, kg/cm2

Rc = crown radius = diameter of shell, mm=1990mm
W=stress intensification factor or stress concentration factor for torrespherical head
W= ¼ × (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5)
Rk = knuckle radius, which is at least 6% of crown radius,
Rk = 6% × Rc = 0.06×1990 = 119.4 mm
W= ¼ × (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5) = ¼ × (3 + (1/0.06)0.5) = 1.7706 mm
th = (1.1362×1990×1.7706) = 2.7538 mm
(2×950×0.85)

Including corrosion allowance thickness of head is taken as 6 mm

40
Pressure at which elastic deformation occurs
P (elastic) = 0.366×E × (t/ Rc)2
= 0.366×1.88×105× (6/1990)2
= 0.6255 MN/ m2 = 6.3761kg/cm2
The pressure required for elastic deformation, P (elastic) > (Design Pressure)
Hence, the thickness is satisfactory. The thickness of the shell and the head are made equal for
ease of fabrication.

Weight of Head:
Diameter = O.D + (O.D/24) + (2×sf) + (2×icr/3)
Where O.D. = Outer diameter of the dish, inch
icr = inside crown radius, inch
sf = straight flange length, inch
From table 5.7 and 5.8 of Brownell and Young
sf =1” and icr = 1¼”
Also, O.D.= 1990 mm = 78.35”
Diameter = 78.35 + (78.35/24) + (2×1) + (2×1¼/3)
d = 84.45” = 2144.97 mm
Weight of Head = ((π ×d2 ×t)/4) × (ρ/1728)
= (π ×84.452 ×0.2362)/4) × (590/1728) = 375.2 lb = 170.19 kg

3. Shell thickness at different heights

At a distance ‘X’m from the top of the shell the stresses are:
3.1 Axial Tensile Stress due to Pressure:
P×Di
fap = = 1.1362×1990 = 188.38 kg/cm2
4(ts −c) 4(6 − 3)

This is the same throughout the column height.

3.2 Compressive stress due to Dead Loads:
Compressive stress due to Weight of shell up to a distance ‘X’ meter from top.
fds = weight of shell/cross-section of shell
2− Di2) × ρs× X
= (π/4)× (Do
(π/4)× (Do2− Di2)

fds = weight of shell per unit height X / (π ×Dm × (ts- c))

Where Do and Di are external and internal diameter of shell.
41
ρs = density of shell material, kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of shell,ts
= thickness of shell,
c = corrosion allowance
Now ρs = 8500 kg/m3 = 0.0085kg/cm3
fds = ρs× X = (0.85×X) kg/cm2
Compressive stress due to weight of insulation at a height X meter
fd(ins)= π ×Dins× tins× ρins ×X = weight of insulation per unit height X
π ×Dm× (ts − c) π×Dm× (ts − c)

where Dins, tins, ρins are diameter, thickness and density of insulation respectively.
Dm = (Dc+ (Dc+2ts))/2
Dins =Dc+2ts+2tins = 199+ (2×0.6) + (2×5.08) = 201.216 cm.
Dm = (199+ (199+ (2×0.6)))/2 = 199.6 cm.
π ×201.216× 5.08×575×X
fd(ins) = = 9815.5 ×X kg/m2
∏X 199.6× (0.6 − 0.3)

fd(ins) = 0.98155× X kg/cm2

Stress due to the weight of the liquid and tray in the column up to a height X meter.
fd, liq. = Σweight of liquid and tray per unit height X
∏XDm× (ts − c)

The top chamber height is 0.3 m and it does not contain any liquid or tray. Tray spacing is 500
mm.
Average liquid density = 984.67 kg/m3
Liquid and tray weight for X meter
(X−0.3)
fliq-tray = [ ] × (π ×Di2/4) ×ρ1
0.5 + 1

= [(X-0.3)/ 0.5 + 1] × (π ×1.992/4) ×984.67

= [2X + 0.4] × 3062.97 kg
fd (liq) = Fliq-tray ×10/ (π×Dm× (ts - c))
[2X + 0.4] × 3062.97 ×10[2X + 0.4] × 3062.97 ×10
=
(π×1996× (6 −3))
=
3.26X + 0.653 kg/cm2
Compressive stress due to attachments such as internals, top head, platforms and ladder up to
height X meter.
Weight of attachments per unit height X
fd (attch.) = Σ π×Dm× (ts −
Now,

42
Taking the weight of pipes, ladder and platforms as 25 kg/m = 0.25 kg/cm

Total weight up to height X meter = (170.19+25X) kg

(170.19+25X) × 10
fd (attch.) = = 0.907 + 0.133X kg/cm2
π×199× (6 − 3)

Total compressive dead weight stress:

fdx = fds + fins +fd (liq) + fd (attch)
= 0.85X + 0.98155X + [3.26X+0.653] + [0.907 +0.133X]
fdx = 5.225X + 1.559 kg/cm2

3.3 Tensile stress due to wind load in self-supporting vessels:

fwx = Mw /Z
where Mw = bending moment due to wind load = (wind load× distance)/2
= 0.7×Pw×D×X2/2
Z = modulus for the section for the area of shell (π ×D m2× (t -c)/4
s

1.4×Pw×𝑋 2
Thus, fwx = π ×Dm× (ts−c)

Now Pw = 25 lb/ft2 (from table 9.1 Brownell and Young)

= 122.06 kg/m2
Bending moment due to wind load
Mwx = 0.7×122.06×1.99×X2/2 = 170.03 kg-m
2

fwx= 1.4×122.06×𝑋 = 3.075X2 kg/cm2

π ×1.99× (6−3)

3.4 Stresses due to Seismic load:

fsx = Msx / π ×Dm2× (ts-c)/4
Where bending moment Msx at a distance X meter is given by
Msx = [C×W×X2/3] × [(3H-X)/H2]
Where C = seismic coefficient,
W= total weight of column, kg
H = height of column
Total weight of column = W= Cv× π ×ρm×Dm×g× (Hv+ (0.8×Dm))×ts×10-3
(eqn. 13.75, page 743, Coulson and Richardson 6th volume)
Where W = total weight of column, excluding the internal fittings like plates, N
Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, man ways, internal supports, etc.
Cv = 1.5 for distillation column with several man ways and with plate
43
4 Support rings or equivalent fittings
Hv = height or length between tangent lines (length of cylindrical section)
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
t = wall thickness
ρm = density of vessel material, kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = Di + (t ×10-3)
= 1.99+ (6 ×10-3) = 1.996 m
W = 1.5× π ×8500×1.996×9.81× (4+ (0.8×1.996))×6×10-3 = 26341.28 N
= 2685.15 kg.
Weight of plates:
Plate area = π×1.992/4 – 0.331(is Ad) = 2.18 m2
Weight of each plate = 1.2×2.18 =3.336 kN
Weight of 9 plates = 9×3.336 = 30.02 kN = 3060.55 kg.
Total weight of column = 2685.15 + 3060.55 = 5745.7 kg
Let C = seismic coefficient = 0.08
Msx = [0.08×5745.7×X2/3] × [((3×4.5)-X)/4.52]
= 153.22X2 × [0.66-0.049X] kg-m
fsx = Msx×103 / π ×D m2× (ts-c)/4
153.22 X 2 × [0.66 − 0.049X] × 103
=
3.14 X 199.62 × (6 − 3)/4)
= [1.0771X2- 0.07997X3] kg/cm2
On the up wind side:
Total stress acting on the up wind side:
ft,max = (fwx or fsx) + fap -fdx

Since the chances of, stresses due to wind load and seismic load, to occur together is rare
hence it is assumed that the stresses due to wind load and earthquake load will not occur
simultaneously and hence the maximum value of either is therefore accepted and considered
for evaluation of combined stresses.
Thus,
ft,max =0.908X2 + 188.38- [5.225X + 1.559]
i.e., 0.908X2 – 5.225X -1.559+188.38-0.85 ×950 = 0
0.908X2- 5.225X – 578.56 =0
=>X = 28.28 m

44
On the down side:
Maximum stress acting on the down side is given by the following equation:
fc,max = (fwx or fsx) - fap +fdx
ft,max =0.908X2 - 188.38 + [5.225X + 1.559]
The column height is 4.5 m, for which the maximum value is ft,max
=0.908(4.5)2 - 188.38+ [5.225(4.5) + 1.559]
= -144.92 kg/cm2
This shows that the stress on the down wind side is tensile. Hence further calculation is done by
taking ft,max as allowable stress to find the height up to that column can resist the maximum stress
acting on it. If the height calculated is more than the actual height of the column, then selected
material and hence the design will be acceptable.
ft,max =0.908X2 - 188.38 + [8.852X + 1.559]
Let ft,max = 0.85 × 950 =807.5 kg/cm2
Hence 0.908X2 - 188.38 + [5.225X + 1.559] –807.5 = 0
We get X=30.34 m
Actual height of the column is 4.5 m. Therefore the design is acceptable because of the height
up to that it can resist the maximum permissible stress is much more larger than the actual
height of the column.
Hence,
Thickness of the shell 6.0 Mm
Height of the head 0.4975 m (is Dc/4)
Skirt support height 1 M
Height of the tower 4.5 M

Design of Support
a) Skirt Support:
The cylindrical shell of the skirt is designed for the combination of stresses due to vessel dead
weight, wind load and seismic load. The thickness of skirt is uniform and is designed to
withstand maximum values of tensile or compressive stresses.
Data available:
(i)Diameter =1990 mm.
(ii)Height = 4500 mm = 4.5 m
Weight of vessel, attachment =5745.7 kg.
Diameter of skirt (straight) = 1990 mm

45
Height of skirt = 1.0 m
Wind pressure = 122.06 kg/m2
1. Stresses due to dead Weight:
fd = (π ×Dok× tsk)
fd = stress,
ΣW = dead weight of vessel contents and attachments
Dok = outside diameter of skirt
tsk = thickness of skirt,
5745.7
fd = = 91.6/ tsk kg/cm2
(π ×199.6× tsk)

2.Stress due to wind load:

pw = K×p1×h1×Do
p1 = wind pressure for the lower part of vessel,
k = coefficient depending on the shape factor
= 0.7 for cylindrical vessel.
Do = outside diameter of vessel,
The bending moment due to wind at the base of the vessel is given by
Mw = pw ×H/2
fwb = Mw/Z = 4 ×Mw / π ×(Dok)2×tsk
Z- Modulus of section of skirt cross-section
pw = 0.7×122.06×1.0×1.99 = 765.13 kg
Mw = pw ×H/2 = 765.13×4.5/2 = 1721.5 kg-m
Substituting the values we get,
fwb = 8.2/tsk kg/cm2
Stress due to seismic load:
Load = C×W
C = seismic coefficient,
W= total weight of column.
(2/3) × (C×H×W)
Stress at base, fsb =
(π ×(Rok)2 X t sk

C=0.08
fsb = (2/3) × (0.08×450×5745.7) = 6.61/ tsk kg/cm2
( π ×(199.6/2)2 × tsk

Maximum tensile stress:

ft, max = (91.6/ tsk) – (8.2/ tsk) = (83.5/ tsk) kg/cm2

46
Permissible tensile stress = 925 kg/cm2
Thus, 925 = (83.5/ tsk)
=> tsk = 0.0902 cm = 0.902 mm
Maximum compressive stress:
fc, max = (91.6/ tsk) + (8.1/ tsk) = (99.7/ tsk) kg/cm2
Now,
fc, (permissible) <= (1/3) yield point
= 1500/ 3 = 500 kg/cm2
Thus, tsk = 99.7/500 = 0.1994 cm = 1.994 mm
As per IS 2825-1969, minimum corroded skirt thickness = 7mm
Thus use a thickness of 7 mm for the skirt.
Design of skirt bearing plate:
Assume both circle diameter = skirt diameter + 32.5 =199+ 32.5 = 231.5 cm
Compressive stress between Bearing plate and concrete foundation:
fc = (ΣW/A) + (M𝑤/Z)
ΣW= dead weight of vessel contents and attachments
A = area of contact between the bearing plate and foundation,
Z = Section Modulus of area,
Mw = the bending moment due to wind,
(5745.7×4) (0.7× 122.06× 3 ×42.32
fc = +
(π ×(231.52−1992)) (2× π ×(231.54 − 1994)/(32×231.5))

= 0.133 + 0.138

fc = 0.271 kg/cm2 (Which is less than the permissible value for concrete)
Maximum bending moment in bearing plate
Stress, f = (6×0.271× 16.252)= 214.68/ t 2
B
(2 ×tB2)
Permissible stress in bending is 1000 kg/cm2
Thus, tB2 = 214.68/1000 => t B = 0.463 cm = 4.63 Therefore a
bolted chair has to be used.
Anchor Bolts:
Minimum weight of Vessel = Wmin = 3000 kg. (assumed value)
fc,min = ( Wmin/A) - (Mw/Z)
(4×3000) (0.7× 122.06× 3 ×42.32
[ ]-
( π × ( 231.52 − 1992)) (2× π ×(231.54 − 1994)/(32×231.5))

= 0.273 – 0.415 = - 0.142 kg/cm2

47
Since fc is negative, the vessel skirt must be anchored to the concrete foundation by anchor
bolts.
Pbolts=fc(min)A/n
Assuming there are 20 bolts,
Pbolts = (0.142/20) × ((∏ × (231.52 -1992))/4) = 78.01 kg
Trays:
The trays are standard sieve plates throughout the column. The plates have 6981 holes in
Enriching section and 10726.11 holes in the Stripping section of 5mm diameter arranged on a
15mm triangular pitch. The trays are supported on purloins.
FOR DISTILLATION COLUMN:

1. Feed nozzle:

Mass flow rate of liquid 4.823 kg/s

Density of the condensed liquid 987.8 kg/m3
Velocity of liquid is assumed as 2.00m/s
Area of nozzle required 0.00244 m2
Diameter of nozzle 55.70 mm

2. Nozzle for distillate:

Mass flow rate of liquid 2.286 kg/s

Density of the liquid 956.97 kg/m3
Velocity of liquid is assumed as 2.00m/s
Area of nozzle required 0.0012 m2

Hence,

Diameter of nozzle 38.99 mm

3. Nozzle for residue:

Mass flow rate of residue 4.823 kg/s

Density of the residue 1016.7 kg/m3
Velocity of liquid is assumed as 2.00m/s
Area of nozzle required 0.00123 m2

48
Hence,
Diameter of nozzle 39.57 mm

Reflux liquid inlet nozzle:

Liquid flow rate 0.2285 kg/s

Density of the reflux 956.8 kg/m3
Liquid velocity through nozzle 1.5 m/s (assumed)
Area required for assumed velocity 1.59×10-4
Hence,
Diameter of the nozzle 14.23 mm
Chapter 09 - COST ESTIMATION

A plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under conditions which will yield
a profit. Since net profit equals income minus all expenditure, it is essential that chemical engineers
should be aware of various costs involved in the manufacturing process. Capital must be allocated for
direct plant expenses, such as those for raw materials, labour, and equipment. Besides direct expenses,
many other indirect expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the
total cost is to be obtained. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries,
product-distribution costs, and costs for interplant communications.

A capital investment is required for any industrial process, and determination of the necessary
investment is an important part of a plant-design project. The total investment for any process consists
of fixed-capital investment for physical equipment and facilities in the plant plus working capital
which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw materials and products on hand, and handle other
special items requiring a direct cash outlay. Thus, in an analysis of costs in industrial processes,
capital-investment costs, manufacturing costs, and general expenses including income taxes must be
taken into consideration.

Purchased Equipment Cost:

Sr. No. Equipment No. of Equipment Cost (₹)

1 Heat Exchanger 3 1400000.00

2 Distillation Column 1 11,20,000.00
3 Reactor 2 1,40,00,000.00
4 Decanter 1 21,00,000.00
5 Pump/Compressor/Blowers 10 10500000.00
6 Storage Tank 7 4,90,00,000.00
Total 78120000.00
 Above cost data are found from book Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fourth
edition. So, the cost prices are in year 1990. So, to find current cost for purchased equipment, we will
use cost index.

Current purchased equipment cost = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1990 (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 2023)/ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 1990
Cost index in year 1990 = 357
Cost index in year 2018 = 593
So, purchased equipment cost = ₹ 78120000.00

Estimation of capital investment:

The percentages indicated in the following part are the various constituting the capital investment. These
approximations are applicable to ordinary chemical processing plants. It should be realized that the
values given could vary depending on many factors, such as plant location, type of process, complexity
of instrumentation etc.
Fixed capital investment = direct cost + indirect cost.
Taking purchased equipment cost as 30 % of fixed capital investment.
So, Total fixed Capital Investment = 78120000.00/ 0.3 = ₹ 260400000

Direct costs:

Sr.No. Item % of Fixed Capital Cost Cost (₹)

1 Purchased Equipment 30 78120000.00
2 Equipment Installation 7 3,82,81,444.44
3 Instrumentation and control 2 1,09,37,555.55
4 Piping 5 2,73,43,888.88
5 Electrical 3 1,64,06,333.33
6 Yard Improvement 2 1,09,37,555.55
7 Facility Services 18 9,84,37,999.98
8 Land 2 1,09,37,555.55

1
 9 Building 10 5,46,87,777.77
Total 43,20,33,444.36

Indirect costs:

Sr. No. Item % of Fixed Capital Cost Cost(₹)

1 Engineering and Supervision 5 2,73,43,888.88
2 Construction 6 3,28,12,666.66
3 Contractor 2 1,09,37,555.55
4 Contingency 8 4,37,50,222.21
Total 11,48,44,333.31

Fixed capital investment = ₹ 54,68,77,777.67

Working capital (15% of fixed capital investment) = 0.15*54,68,77,777.67 = ₹ 9,65,07,843.12
So, total capital investment = Fixed capital + Working capital = ₹ 64,33,85,620.78

Estimation of total product cost:

Manufacturing costs;

Manufacturing cost = fixed charges + total production costs + plant overhead costs

1. Fixed charges

Sr. No. Item % of Fixed Capital Cost Cost (₹)

1 Depreciation 12 6,56,25,333.32
2 Local Taxes 3 1,64,06,333.33
3 Insurance 0.8 43,75,022.22
Total 8,64,06,688.87

1
2. Total production cost:
Fixed charges are 10-20% of total production cost.
So, Total production cost = 8,64,06,688.87/0.15 = ₹ 57,60,44,59

Sr No. Item % of Total Cost (₹)

Production Cost
1 Raw Material 15 8,64,06,688.87
2 Operating Labour 12 6,91,25,351.10
3 Direct Supervisory and 15 1,03,68,802.66
Clerical Labour
4 Utilities 14 8,06,46,242.95
5 Maintenance and Repair 5 2,73,43,888.88
6 Operating Supplies 15 41,01,583.33
7 Laboratory Charges 15 1,03,68,802.66
8 Patents and Royalties 3 1,72,81,337.77
Total 30,56,42,698.23

3. Plant overhead cost:

Plant overhead cost includes costs for the following: general plant upkeep, overhead, payroll,
packaging, salvage, laboratories and storage facilities.

Plant overhead cost (5-15% of total production cost) = 0.11*57,60,44,592.48 = ₹ 6,41,02,825.59

So, Manufacturing cost = 8,64,06,688.87 + 30,56,42,698.23+ 6,41,02,825.6 = ₹ 45,61,52,212.

1
General Expenses;
General expenses = administrative costs + distribution costs + research and development cost

Sr No. Item % of Total Cost (₹)

Production Cost
1 Administrative Cost 20 1,38,25,070.22
2 Distribution and Selling Cost 12 6,91,25,351.10
3 Research And Development 4 2,30,41,783.70
Cost
4 Financing 5 3,21,69,281.04
Total 13,81,61,486.05

So, total general expenses = ₹ 13,81,61,486.05

So, total product cost = Manufacturing costs + general expenses

= 45,61,52,212.7 + 13,81,61,486.05
= ₹ 59,43,13,698.75
Total Income:

The selling price of TBP per kg in market = ₹ 2250/kg

Total production of TBP in one year = (4.3019*266.32) * 320 = 366618.2 kg
Total selling price/year (total income) = 2250*366618.2 = ₹ 82,48,90,950

Gross income = total income – total product cost

= 82,48,90,950 - 59,43,13,698.75
= ₹ 23,05,77,251.25
Depreciation cost is 12% of fixed capital investment = ₹ 6,56,25,333.32

Taxable income after depreciation = 23,05,77,251.25 - 6,56,25,333.32

= ₹ 16,49,51,917.93
Total profit after 40% taxes = ₹ 9,89,71,150.76

1
CHAPTER 10 - P & I Diagram:
Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation. Instruments
monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical
and hazardous situations. Process instrumentation is the brain and nerves of a process plant.
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:

1. Safe Plant Operation:

• To keep process variables within known safe operating limits.

• To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and

• Automatic shutdown systems.

• To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.

2. Production Rate and Quality:

• To achieve the designed product output.

• To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.

3. Cost:

• To operate at the lowest production cost and to compensate with other objectives.

The instrumentation can be pneumatic, hydraulic or electric. The recent trend is to go for electronic
instrumentation, but pneumatic instrumentation is still in use. The instrumentation is required to measure
temperature, pressure, flow rate, level, physical properties as density, pH, humidity, chemical
composition etc.
TYPICAL MONITORING SYSTEMS:

1. Flow Measurement:

Due to nature of flow it is necessary to provide effective flow measuring devices in each supply lines.
The various types of flow meters available are orifice meter, venturi meter, Pitot tube etc. In spite of
these the various types of area flow meters can also be used. Depending on temperature and velocity
condition the suitable meter is selected for measurement of flow rates and velocity.
2. Temperature Measuring Devices:

Many devices are used to measure the temperature variations in the process such as mercury in glass
thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, pressure spring thermometer, thermocouples, resistance
thermocouples, radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers are used. Out of all these the industrial
thermocouples are competitively good as they provide large measuring range, without introducing
error. Automatic control is also possible with such devices.
Measuring Instrument Temp. Range ºC
Mercury in glass – -27 to 400
thermometer
Mercury in pressure -40 to 540
thermometer
Vapor pressure thermometer -85 to 425
Resistance -200 to 1700
Thermocouple -250 to 1700
Thermister Up to 300
Pyrometer 1300 to 2500
Table - List of Thermometers with temperature Range

1. Pressure Measuring Devices:

Equipment in which the important monitoring parameter is pressure, pressure measuring device like
pressure gauge is widely used. Safety of chemical plants depends up on the timely measurement of
pressure and its control at a specified level. Any excess pressure development than the design pressure
may damage the equipment in addition to the fire and other explosion hazard. Various pressure
measuring devices are U - Tube Manometer, Differential Manometer, Inclined Manometer, Diaphragm
valve, etc.
In addition to all measuring devices described above various measurements like density, viscosity, pH
measurements etc. are installed. For measuring quality standards in laboratory various laboratory
instruments are also necessary.

2. Liquid Level:

Liquid level detectors measure either the position of a free liquid surface above a datum level or the
hydrostatic head developed by the liquid is measured. The liquid level is measured both by direct and
indirect means. Direct methods involve direct measurement of the distance from the liquid level to a
datum level. Indirect method follows changing liquid surface position on bubble tube method,
resistance method, radiation method, etc.

CONTROLLERS POSITIONING:

Over the whole process above mentioned controller were used, the below are the listed controllers used
at different location and why they were opted
A. Across Reactor:

1. Ratio Controller: Added to control the inlet compositions of the reactants on the reactor, which is
subsequently attached to Flow controller. Depending upon the value calculated by the Flow meter, the
two values of flow will be considered and according the inlet feed will be controlled.
2. Temperature Controller: Added across the reactor for controlling the system temperature to 150 °C.
Here the reactor temperature is measured and this signal is forwarded to the fixed set temperature
meter. If there is a deviation of the temperature then inlet chilling water is controlled accordingly by
Flow-meter.
3. Pressure Control: This is used to measure and control the pressure in the reactor which is to be
maintained at 160 bar.

B. Across Distillation columns:

1. Pressure Controller: Added at the enriching section to control the quality of out-coming distillate,
which is subsequently controlled by controlling the L/D ratio. Which is, in turn is controlled by the
 valve.
2. Temperature controller: Added at the Stripping Section to control the rate of heating of the residue.
The particular control plays vital role in deciding the product purity and yield during physical
separation by boiling the feed to desirable given temperature. Depending upon the temperature
indicated the inlet flow to the reboiler is controlled by the valve.
Flow Controller: Added to control the inlet flow to the distillation column to control it for a safe and
efficient separation
CHAPTER 11 - PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and efficient operation of the process unit will depend on how well the
plant and equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The layout of process units in the
plant and the equipment within these process units must be planned before detailed piping, structural
and electrical design. This layout plays an important role in determining construction and
manufacturing costs and thus must be planned carefully with attention being given to future problems.
Proper layout will include arrangement of processing area, storage area and handling area in efficient
coordination. This regards to factors as:
1. New site development or addition to previously developed sites.

2. Economic consideration: construction and operating costs.

3. The process requirements.

4. Type and quantity of products to be produced

5. Type of process and product control.

6. Economical distribution of services, such as water, process stream, power and gas.

7. Operational convenience and accessibility.

8. Convenience of maintenance.

9. Health and safety considerations.

10. Types of buildings and building codes.

11. Waste disposal problems.

12. Possible future expansion.

13. Space available and space required (Modular construction).

Some of these important considerations are discussed below in brief:

1. Costs

The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of
connecting pipe between equipment, and the least amount of structural steel work. However, this
will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
 2. Process requirements

An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate the base of
columns to provide the necessary net positive head to a pump by use of gravity instead of pumping
Operation Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient positions and
heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.

3. Maintenance

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for cleaning and
tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located
on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors
and large pumps, should be placed under cover.

4. Safety

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an
explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process
buildings.

5. Plant expansion

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of the
process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for
future requirements.

6. Modular construction

In recent years, there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturer’s site.
These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are
then transported to the plant site, by road or sea. The advantages of modular construction are:

1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.

3. Less need for skilled labor on site.

4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas sites.

Some of the disadvantages are:

1. Higher design costs.

2. More structural steel work.

3. More flanged connections.

4. Possible problems with assembly, on site.

3. General considerations

Open, structural steelwork, buildings are normally used for process equipment; closed buildings are
only used for process operations that require protection from the weather. The arrangement of the
major items of equipments will usually follow the sequence given on the process flow-sheet: with
the columns and vessels arranged in rows and the ancillary equipment, such as heat exchangers
and pumps, placed along the outside.
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow of
materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance from
other buildings. Consideration must be given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings
and services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units (buildings), will include:
1. Storages for raw materials and products: tank farms and warehouses.

2. Maintenance workshops.

3. Stores, for maintenance and operating supplies.

4. Laboratories for process control.

5. Fire stations and other emergency services.

6. Utilities: Steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformer station

7. Effluent disposal plant.

8. Offices for general administration.

9. Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical centre.

10. Car parks.

When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited first and
arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from raw materials
to final product storage. Products units are normally spaced at least 30 m apart; grater spacing may
be needed for hazardous processes. The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be
decided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in traveling between
buildings. Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people will
be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms will
normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially hazardous processes may
have to be sited at a safer distance. The siting of the main process units will determine the layout of
the plant roads, pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction,
and for operation and maintenance. Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run
of pipes to and from the process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind
the plume of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties. The main
storage area should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and the process units they
serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft.) from the
site boundary.

Fig 11.1
CHAPTER 12 - PLANT LOCATION

The geographical location of the final plant can have a strong influence on the success of industrial
venture. Primary factor to be considered in selection of plant location is the plant must be located
where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained, other factors such as room for
expansion and general living conditions, are also important.
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the scope for
future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site, and only a brief
review of the principle factors are given below. The principle factors to consider are:
1. Location, with respect to the marketing area.

2. Raw material supply.

3. Transport facility.

4. Availability of labor.

5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.

6. Availability of suitable land.

7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.

8. Local community considerations.

9. Climate.

10. Political and strategic considerations.

1. Market accessibility

For materials that are produced in bulk quantities; where the cost of the product per tonne is
relatively low and the cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should be
located close to the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume
production, high- priced products; Pharmaceuticals. In an international market, there may be an
advantage to be gained by locating the plant within an area with preferential tariff agreements.
2. Raw Materials
The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. Plants
producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material; where this
is also close to the marketing area.
3. Transport
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding consideration in
site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected that is close to at least two major forms of
transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river), or a sea port. Road transport is being increasingly
used, and is suitable for long- distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient and
efficient for the movement personnel and essential equipment and supplies, and the proximity of the
site to a major airport should be considered.
4. Availability of labor

Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction workers
will usually be brought in from outside the site area, butthere should bean adequate pool of unskilled
labor availability locally; and labor suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will
be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to
be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the local labor for recruitment and
training.
5. Utilities (Services)

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general process use,
and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process water may be
drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites, the cooling water
required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations cooling towers will be
needed. Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that require large
quantities of power; need to be located close to a cheap source of power. A competitively priced fuel
must be available on site for steam and power generation.
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by
local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine he standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be made
 7. Local community considerations
The proposed plant must be fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration
must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk
to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities
for the plant personnel: schools, banks, housing, and recreational and cultural facilities.

8. Land (site considerations)

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion. The land
should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full site
evaluation would be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.

9. Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures will require
the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs. Stronger
structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone/hurricane) or earthquakes.

10. Political and strategic considerations

Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to direct
new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The overriding of such
grants can be the overriding considerations in site selection.

PLANT LOCATION: OPTIONS

1. Gujarat, India – DAHEJ SEZ INDUSTRIAL AREA.

2. Andheri East , Maharashtra – SEEPZ SEZ

3. Kashipur, Uttarakhand – State infrastructure and industrial development corporation of

Uttarakhand.
Table 10 - Comparative study of different plant locations

FACTORS DAHEJ,SEZ INDUSTRIAL ANDHERI EAST, KASHIPUR,

AREA – GUJARAT MUMBAI- UTTARAKH
MAHARASHTRA AND,
SIDC
AREA AVAILABLE 16.82 44.93 80.40
(sq
kilo metres)
LAND Rs 1420 Rs 3320 Rs 2670
PRICES(per sq
metre)
TYPES OF 1. Petrochemical 1.Chemical Industry 1. Multi-
INDUSTRY 2. Chemical industry 2.Multi-services services
3. Salt production 3.industry. Industry.
4.Engineering industry
RAW 1. Sanjana Enterprise 1. Samir Tech CHem. 1. India Glycols
MATERIALS 2. Triveni Chemicals 2. Bombay 2. Nirjal
SUPPLIER Ammonia Chemical Industries Pvt Ltd
Company.
3. Reliance
Industries Limited.
PORT FACILITIES 1. Kandla Port (195 km) Navi Mumbai port. 1. Munger Dock,
Bihar
2. Gujarat Maritime
Board (GMB) Port.
3. LNG port
(10MMPTA) of LNG
Petronet Ltd.
4. Sandesara port
at Dahej.
5. GCPTCL port for
chemical cargo
AIRPORT FACILITIES 1. Baroda Airport 1. Mumbai – 1. Dehra Dun
Airport.
2. Surat Airport domestic and
international 2. Pantnagar Airport
3. Ahmedabad Airport

airport.

ROAD FACILITIES 1. Dahej Bharuch State 1. Old Mumbai Pune 1. National

highway Highway. Highway No.
2. National Express 2. Mumbai Pune 74(Kashipur-
highway - 8 Expressway Nagina)
Connected within by 2. National
multiple lane – Highway No.

asphalted roads of 309 passes

Indian Standards. through the
zone.
RAILWAY FACILITIES 1. Connected to Delhi – 1. Metro Rail 1. Kashipur Junction
Mumbai Broad Gauge connectivity well connected with
railway line at Bharuch. 2. Well Connected to other major
2.Bharuch-Dahej rail the western and stations like
line. central railway line Moradabad and
Rampur.
WATER SUPPLY 10 MLD 4.6 MLD 6 MLD
1. GIDC water reservoir. Irrigation dams Rivers like
2. GWSSB provides supply the Ramganga, Kosi
drinking water water. and Delha
through
Narmada Canal.
TARIFF FOR Rs 21.7 Rs 22.4 Rs 19.6
WATER
SUPPLY(per cub
metre)
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY 1. Two 220KV sub- 1. Maharashtra 1. 200 KV dedicated
stations located at State Electricity substation at
Dahej & Vilayat within Distribution Co. Ltd SIIDCUL.
PCPIR. (MSEDCL)
2. Three 66KV
substations located
at Dahej, Luna
&Vilayat
within PCPIR
TARIFF FOR Rs 3.5 Rs 7 Rs 6.3
ELECTRICITY
SUPPLY(per
KWh)
Table 11 – Plant location decision table

SELECTION CRITERIA DAHEJ, GIDC ANDHERI EAST, KASHIPUR,

INDUSTRIAL MUMBAI- UTTARAKHAND, SIDC
AREA
MAHARASHTRA
RAW MATERIAL BETTER BEST BETTER
AVAILABILITY
TRANSPORTATION BEST BETTER GOOD
UTILITIES BEST BEST BETTER

MANPOWER BEST GOOD BETTER

AVAILABILITY
AVAILABILITY OF BEST GOOD BETTER
LAND AND PRICE
POLITICAL AND BETTER BETTER BEST
STRATEGIC
CONSIDERTIONS
ELECTRICY SUPPY BEST GOOD BETTER
AND COST
WATER SUPPY AND BEST GOOD BETTER
COST
CLIMATIC AND BETTER BETTER BEST
GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS

OTHER FACILITIES BETTER BEST GOOD

TOTAL BEST BETTER BETTER

Hence, according to the above considerations, DAHEJ SEZ is the best option to construct our plant. Andheri
SEEPZ SEZ and Kashipur SIDC can also be taken into consideration.
Chapter 13 –References

1) https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/ethoxylates-
market#:~:text=Ethoxylates%20Market%20size%20was%20valued,CAGR%20between%202023%20to%20
2032.&text=Ethoxylates%20are%20utilized%20across%20a,%2C%20cleaning%20chemicals%2C%20and%2
0solvents
2) https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/ethoxylates-market-124534176.html
3) https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/ethoxylates-market.html
4) https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/ethoxylates-market
5) https://www.venus-goa.com/Fatty-Acid-Ethoxylates.php
6) https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Possible-side-reactions-during-the-ester-ethoxylation-
process_fig2_350565485
7) https://testbook.com/chemistry/stearic-acid
8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethoxylation
9) https://www.shreechem.in/fatty-acid-ethoxylate
10) https://aocs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1007/s11743-010-1227-2