UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DETECTOR OVER IOT

Abstract:

This abstract outlines a system designed to interface an Arduino microcontroller with nine
different switches, each representing a fault in a three-phase electrical system at three distinct
locations. Additionally, the system incorporates three current sensors positioned to monitor
the current levels in three separate bulbs. The primary objective of this system is to detect
instances of heavy current flow using the current sensors and, upon detection, trigger a text
message alert via a GSM module. The implementation of this system involves the use of
Arduino's digital input pins to read the status of the nine switches, which simulate faults
within the three-phase system. These switches are strategically placed at different locations to
simulate diverse fault scenarios, allowing the system to mimic real-world situations for fault
detection and analysis.

And additionally LCD works as visual feedback.

To monitor current levels, three current sensors are deployed, each connected to an input pin
on the Arduino. These sensors continuously measure the current flowing through three
separate bulbs in the system. When an unusual increase in current is detected, indicative of a
potential fault or overload, the Arduino processes this data. In the event of an abnormal
current reading exceeding a predefined threshold, the Arduino activates the GSM module to
send a text message alert. This alert can be configured to notify relevant personnel or
stakeholders about the specific fault location and current level anomaly, facilitating rapid
response and maintenance actions to prevent electrical system failures or damage. This
system offers a practical solution for monitoring and detection of faults in a three-phase
electrical system, enhancing safety and reducing downtime by enabling timely intervention.
Moreover, its adaptability to various fault scenarios makes it a versatile tool for electrical
system management and maintenance.
INTRODUCTION:
The outlined project introduces a sophisticated system designed to enhance the monitoring
and detection of faults in a three-phase electrical system through the integration of an
Arduino microcontroller. This system incorporates nine strategically positioned switches,
each representing a fault at distinct locations within the electrical network. Additionally, three
current sensors are deployed to monitor the current levels in three separate bulbs, aiming to
detect instances of heavy current flow. The core objective is to enable timely intervention by
triggering a text message alert via a GSM module upon detecting abnormal current readings
exceeding predefined thresholds. The system utilizes Arduino's digital input pins to assess the
status of the nine switches, simulating diverse fault scenarios for realistic fault detection and
analysis. An LCD provides visual feedback, enhancing user interface. The adaptability of this
system to various fault scenarios positions it as a versatile tool for efficient electrical system
management and maintenance, offering a practical solution to enhance safety and reduce
downtime.

Existing Method:
Conventional methods for monitoring and detecting faults in three-phase electrical systems
have often relied on manual inspections and standalone monitoring devices at each location
of interest. These methods typically involve periodic on-site visits by maintenance personnel
to physically assess the status of switches and monitor current levels in different phases. Such
approaches are time-consuming, labour-intensive, and prone to human error. In addition, the
response time to address faults may be delayed due to the infrequent nature of inspections,
potentially leading to prolonged system downtime, increased maintenance costs, and even
damage to electrical components. These drawbacks underscore the need for a more
automated and proactive approach to fault detection and monitoring in three-phase systems.

Proposed Method:

The proposed method addresses the limitations of conventional approaches by implementing

an automated fault detection and monitoring system. In this system, an Arduino
microcontroller is integrated with nine different switches, strategically positioned to represent
faults across three phases in various locations. Simultaneously, three current sensors are
deployed to continuously monitor current levels in three distinct bulbs, serving as proxies for
the broader electrical system. The working procedure of the proposed method involves the
Arduino regularly polling the status of the switches and reading current data from the sensors.
When a significant current anomaly, indicative of a fault or overload, is detected by the
sensors, the Arduino promptly triggers the GSM module to send a text message alert.This
alert includes critical information about the fault's location and the abnormal current level,
enabling swift and informed decision-making. In this we are using Switches and resistors as
cable lines. If any of the switch is pressed, at particular switch resistance will break, based on
the resistance we can find the location of the fault. This is uploaded to Cloud server through
NodeMCU. Here we are using 3 LED’s to represent the 3 Phases X, Y and Z. these LED’s
will on one after one continuously (represent the Phase).We can monitor the values upload to
IOT server using Node MCU and message sent and buzzer alert

Block Diagram:

Power
supply

LCD
Wi-fi module

Voltage cables an
BUZZER sensor Fault switc
Arduino uno

GSM Multiplexed
relay
 Hardware Requirement

ARDUINO
The Arduino microcontroller is an easy to use yet powerful single board computer that has
gained considerable traction in the hobby and professional market. The Arduino is open-
source, which means hardware is reasonably priced and development software is free. This
guide is for students in ME 2011, or students anywhere who are confronting the Arduino for
the first time. For advanced Arduino users, prowl the web; there are lots of resources.
This is what the Arduino board looks like.

The Arduino programming language is a simplified version of C/C++. If you know C,

programming the Arduino will be familiar. If you do not know C, no need to worry as only a
few commands are needed to perform useful functions.

Arduino Hardware
The power of the Arduino is not its ability to crunch code, but rather its ability to interact
with the outside world through its input-output (I/O) pins. The Arduino has 14 digital I/O
pins labeled 0 to 13 that can be used to turn motors and lights on and off and read the state of
switches.

Each digital pin can sink or source about 40 mA of current. This is more than adequate for
interfacing to most devices, but does mean that interface circuits are needed to control
devices other than simple LED's. In other words, you cannot run a motor directly using the
current available from an Arduino pin, but rather must have the pin drive an interface circuit
that in turn drives the motor. A later section of this document shows how to interface to a
small motor.

To interact with the outside world, the program sets digital pins to a high or low value using
C code instructions, which corresponds to +5 V or 0 V at the pin. The pin is connected to
external interface electronics and then to the device being switched on and off. The sequence
of events is shown in this figure.

To determine the state of switches and other sensors, the Arduino is able to read the
voltage value applied to its pins as a binary number. The interface circuitry translates the
sensor signal into a 0 or +5 V signal applied to the digital I/O pin. Through a program
command, the Ardiomp interrogates the state of the pin. If the pin is at 0 V, the program will
read it as a 0 or LOW. If it is at +5 V, the program will read it as a 1 or HIGH. If more than
+5 V is applied, you may blow out your board, so be careful. The sequence of events to read
a pin is shown in this figure.

Interacting with the world has two sides. First, the designer must create electronic interface
circuits that allow motors and other devices to be controlled by a low (1-10 mA) current
signal that switches between 0 and 5 V, and other circuits that convert sensor readings into a
switched 0 or 5 V signal. Second, the designer must write a program using the set of Arduino
commands that set and read the I/O pins. Examples of both can be found in the Arduino
resources section of the ME2011 web site.
Atmega328p features:

 High Performance, Low Power AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller

 Advanced RISC Architecture

– 131 Powerful Instructions

– Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

 High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

– 4/8/16/32K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash progam memory

(ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– 256/512/512/1K Bytes EEPROM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– 512/1K/1K/2K Bytes Internal SRAM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming
by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation

– Programming Lock for Software Security

 Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode

– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

 – Six PWM Channels – 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package
Temperature Measurement – 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package Temperature
Measurement

– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2 C compatible)

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

– Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

 Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby,
and Extended Standby

 I/O and Packages

– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

– 28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, 28-pad QFN/MLF and 32-pad QFN/MLF

 Operating Voltage:

– 1.8 - 5.5V for ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P

 Temperature Range:

– -40°C to 85°C

 Speed Grade:

– 0 - 20 MHz @ 1.8 - 5.5V

  Low Power Consumption at 1 MHz, 1.8V, 25°C for
ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P:

– Active Mode: 0.2 mA

– Power-down Mode: 0.1 µA

– Power-save Mode: 0.75 µA (Including 32 kHz RTC)

PIN CONFIGURATIONS
Pin Descriptions

VCC: Digital supply voltage.

GND: Ground.

Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2: Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port

with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B
pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not
running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the
inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on
the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator
amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7..6 is used
as TOSC2..1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set. The
various special features of Port B are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port B” on page
76 and ”System Clock and Clock Options” on page 26.

Port C (PC5:0): Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The PC5..0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET: If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that
the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the
RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for
longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.
The minimum pulse length is given in Table 28-3 on page 308. Shorter pulses are not
guaranteed to generate a Reset. The various special features of Port C are elaborated in
”Alternate Functions of Port C” on page 79.

Port D (PD7:0): Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. The various special features of
Port D are elaborated in “Alternate Functions of Port D” on page 82.
AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It
should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it
should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6..4 use digital supply
voltage, VCC.

AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter

ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only): In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package,
ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are powered from the analog
supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.

OVERVIEW

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller

based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a
single clock cycle, the ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P achieves throughputs approaching 1
MIPS per MHz allowing the system designed to optimize power consumption versus
processing speed.

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one
clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up
to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P provides the following features: 4/8/16/32K bytes of
In System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 256/512/512/1K bytes
EEPROM, 512/1K/1K/2K bytes SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose
working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and external
interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface, an SPI
serial port, a 6-channel 10-bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), a
programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, and five software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters,
USART, 2-wire Serial Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other
chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. In Power-save mode, the
asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest
of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O
modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC
conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the
device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption.

The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology. The
On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed In-System through an
SPI serial interface, by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip
Boot program running on the AVR core. The Boot program can use any interface to
download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot
Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing
true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-
Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P is a
powerful microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many
embedded control applications. The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P AVR is supported
with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C Compilers, Macro
Assemblers, Program Debugger/Simulators, In-Circuit Emulators, and Evaluation kits.

Comparison Between ATmega48PA, ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P

The ATmega48PA, ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P differ only in memory

sizes, boot loader support, and interrupt vector sizes. Table 2-1 summarizes the different
memory and interrupt vector sizes for the three devices.

ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P support a real Read-While-Write Self-

Programming mechanism. There is a separate Boot Loader Section, and the SPM instruction
can only execute from there. In ATmega48PA, there is no Read-While-Write support and no
separate Boot Loader Section. The SPM instruction can execute from the entire Flash.
POWER:

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.
The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from
an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a
2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted
in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate on an
external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may
supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage
regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The
power pins are as follows:

 VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through
this pin.

 5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.

 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.

 GND. Ground pins.

Memory:

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of
SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These
pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for
details.

 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication
using the SPI library.

 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value,
the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts,
though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the
analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:

 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on the board.

See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega328 ports. The mapping for the
Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.

Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V)
serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An
ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a
virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB
COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required.
The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to
and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is
being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for
serial communication on pins 0 and 1).

A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital
pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for
details. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.

Programming

The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your
board). For details, see the reference and tutorials. The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno
comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use
of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol
(reference, C header files). You can also bypass the bootloader and program the
microcontroller through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these
instructions for details. The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware
source code is available . The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which
can be activated by:

 On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of
Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.

 On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground,
making it easier to put into DFU mode.

You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac
OS X and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an external
programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed tutorial for more
information.

Automatic (Software) Reset

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a
connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2
is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line
is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino
software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload
button in the Arduino environment.

This means that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR
can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload. This setup has other implications. When
the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a
connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the following halfsecond or so, the
bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e.
anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to
the board after a connection is opened.

If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it
first starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after
opening the connection and before sending this data. The Uno contains a trace that can be cut
to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-
enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by
connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread for details.

USB Overcurrent Protection

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports
from shorts and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection,
the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB
port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.

Physical Characteristics

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively,
with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw
holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between
digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the
other pins.
Register File

 32 8-bit GP registers
 Part of SRAM memory space

Special Addressing Registers

 X, Y and Z registers

16-bit registers made using registers 26 – 31

 Support indirect addressing

AVR Memory

 Program memory – Flash

  Data memory – SRAM

Addressing Modes
 Direct register addressing

 Direct I/O addressing

Direct data memory addressing

Direct data memory with displacement addressing

Indirect data memory addressing

Indirect data memory addressing with pre-decrement

Indirect data memory addressing with post-increment

Program memory addressing (constant data)

SRAM Read/Write Timing

Stack Pointer Register

  Special register in I/O space [3E, 3D]
 Enough bits to address data space
 Initialized to RAMEND (address of highest memory address)
 Instructions that use the stack pointer

Program Status Register (PSR)

Relay:

What is a relay?

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that is used to turn on and turn off a circuit by a low power
signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for their effective working.
Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays
consist of an electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried
out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its
working. But they differ according to their applications. Most of the devices have the
application of relays.
Pin Diagram:

Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used to
control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a lot of
circuits. The application of relays started during the invention of telephones. They played an
important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also used in long
distance telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal coming from one source to another
destination. After the invention of computers they were also used to perform Boolean and
other logical operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to be driven
by electric motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.

Relay Design

 There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

 Electromagnet
 Movable Armature
 Switch point contacts
 Spring
The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.

Relay Construction

It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path of very
low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature and also the switch
point contacts.

The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically connected to the
switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a spring. The spring is used
so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when the relay becomes de-energized.

How relay works?

The relay function can be better understood by explaining the following diagram given
below.

Relay Design
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is surrounded by a
control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet through a control
switch and through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing through the control coil,
the electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the upper
contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts causing a
short circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-
energized when the contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open
circuit.

As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back to its
initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the magnetic force. This
force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.

Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application and the
other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference will be given to reduce
the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to
reduce a phenomenon called arcing.

Relay Basics

The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay shown below. There are
two colors shown. The green color represents the control circuit and the red color represents
the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch is
connected to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us
take the different steps that occur in a relay.
 Relay operation
 Energized Relay (ON)
As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3
causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2 and
4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load
circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the
electrical relay in energized the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.

Energized Relay (ON)

 De – Energized Relay (OFF)
As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the relay switch opens and thus the
open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-
energized and thus in off position.
 De-Energized Relay (OFF)
In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a
magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed
circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic force and
thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain open.

Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is
said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly three
ways. They are

 Normally Open Contact (NO): NO contact is also called a make contact. It closes the circuit
when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay is inactive.
 Normally Closed Contact (NC): NC contact is also known as break contact. This is opposite to
the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. When the relay is
deactivated, the circuit connects.
 Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts: This type of contacts are used to control two
types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and also a NC contact with a
common terminal. According to their type they are called by the names break before
make and make before break contacts.
 Relays can be used to control several circuits by just one signal. A relay switches one or more
poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.

Relays are also named with designations like

 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) : The SPST relay has a total of four terminals. Out of these two
terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other two terminals are needed for the coil
to be connected.
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT): The SPDT relay has a total of five terminals. Out of these
two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also included which connects to either of
two others.
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST): The DPST relay has a total of six terminals. These terminals
are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPST which are actuated by a
single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil terminals.
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT): The DPDT relay is the biggest of all. It has mainly eight
relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over terminals. They are
designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a single coil.

Relay Applications

 A relay circuit is used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in providing
safety critical logic.
 Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the delay open and
delay close of contacts.
 Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage signals. Similarly
they are used to control high current circuits with the help of low current signals.
 They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during transmission and
reception can be detected and isolated.

Application of Overload Relay

Overload relay is an electro-mechanical device that is used to safeguard motors from

overloads and power failures. Overload relays are installed in motors to safeguard against
sudden current spikes that may damage the motor. An overload relay switch works in
characteristics with current over time and is different from circuit breakers and fuses, where a
 sudden trip is made to turn off the motor. The most widely used overload relay is the thermal
overload relay where a bimetallic strip is used to turn off the motor. This strip is set to make
contact with a contactor by bending itself with rising temperatures due to excess current flow.
The contact between the strip and the contactor causes the contactor to de-energize and
restricts the power to the motor, and thus turns it off.

Another type of overload motor is the electronic type which continuously watches the motor
current, whereas the thermal overload relay shuts off the motor depending on the rise of
temperature/heat of the strip.

All overload relays available to buy comes in different specifications, the most important of
them being the current ranges and response time. Most of them are designed to automatically
reset to work after the motor is turned back on.

Relay Selection

You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are

 Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil protection must be noted.
Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using inductors. Â Coil protection
helps in reducing surge voltage produced during switching.
 Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
 Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
 Ratings There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings vary from a few
amperes to about 3000 amperes. Â In case of voltage ratings, they vary from 300 Volt AC to
600 Volt AC. There are also high voltage relays of about 15,000 Volts.
 Type of contact used whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
 Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

LCD:

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is the innovation utilized in scratch pad shows and other littler
PCs. Like innovation for light-producing diode (LED) and gas-plasma, LCDs permit
presentations to be a lot more slender than innovation for cathode beam tube (CRT). LCDs
expend considerably less power than LED shows and gas shows since they work as opposed
to emanating it on the guideline of blocking light.

A LCD is either made with a uninvolved lattice or a showcase network for dynamic
framework show. Likewise alluded to as a meager film transistor (TFT) show is the dynamic
framework LCD. The uninvolved LCD lattice has a matrix of conductors at every crossing
point of the network with pixels. Two conductors on the lattice send a current to control the
light for any pixel. A functioning framework has a transistor situated at every pixel crossing
point, requiring less current to control the luminance of a pixel.

Some aloof network LCD's have double filtering, which implies they examine the matrix
twice with current in the meantime as the first innovation took one sweep. Dynamic lattice,
be that as it may, is as yet a higher innovation.

A 16x2 LCD show is an essential module that is generally utilized in various gadgets and
circuits. These modules more than seven sections and other multi fragment LEDs are liked.
The reasons being: LCDs are affordable; effectively programmable; have no restriction of
showing exceptional and even custom characters (not at all like in seven fragments),
movements, etc.

A 16x2 LCD implies 16 characters can be shown per line and 2 such lines exist. Each
character is shown in a lattice of 5x7 pixels in this LCD. There are two registers in this LCD,
in particular Command and Data.

The directions given to the LCD are put away by the order register. An order is a direction
given to LCD to play out a predefined assignment, for example, introducing it, clearing its
screen, setting the situation of the cursor, controlling presentation, and so forth. The
information register will store the information that will be shown on the LCD. The
information is the character's ASCII incentive to show on the LCD.

Data/Signals/Execution of LCD

Now that was all about the signals and the hardware. Let us come to data, signals and
execution.
Two types of signals are accepted by LCD, one is data and one is control. The LCD module
recognizes these signals from the RS pin status. By pulling the R / W pin high, data can now
also be read from the LCD display. Once the E pin has been pulsed, the LCD display reads
and executes data at the falling edge of the pulse, the same for the transmission case.

It takes 39-43μS for the LCD display to place a character or execute a command. It takes
1.53ms to 1.64ms except for clearing display and searching for cursor to the home position.

Any attempt to send data before this interval may result in failure in some devices to read
data or execute the current data. Some devices compensate for the speed by storing some
temporary registers with incoming data.

There are two RAMs for LCD displays, namely DDRAM and CGRAM. DDRAM registers
the position in which the character would be displayed in the ASCII chart. Each DDRAM
byte represents every single position on the display of the LCD.

The DDRAM information is read by the LCD controller and displayed on the LCD screen.
CGRAM enables users to define their personalized characters. Address space is reserved for
users for the first 16 ASCII characters.

Users can easily display their custom characters on the LCD screen after CGRAM has been
set up to display characters.

Images of LCD Display:-

LCD – Front View

 LCD – Back View

Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register when
4 Register Select
high
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
 16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

RS (Register select)

A 16X2 LCD has two order and information registers. The determination of the register is
utilized to change starting with one register then onto the next. RS=0 for the register of
directions, while RS=1 for the register of information.

Command Register
The guidelines given to the LCD are put away by the direction register. An order is a
direction given to LCD to play out a predefined assignment, for example, instating it, clearing
its screen, setting the situation of the cursor, controlling showcase, and so on. Order preparing
happens in the direction register.

Data Register:
The information register will store the information that will be shown on the LCD. The
information is the character's ASCII incentive to show on the LCD. It goes to the information
register and is prepared there when we send information to the LCD. While choosing RS=1,
the information register.

Read and Write Mode of LCD:

As stated, the LCD itself comprises of an interface IC. This interface IC can be perused or
composed by the MCU. A large portion of the occasions we're simply going to keep in touch
with the IC since perusing will make it increasingly perplexing and situations like that are
exceptionally uncommon.Information such as cursor position, status completion interrupts,
etc. can be read if necessary.

LCD Commands:

There are some preset commands in the LCD that we need to send to the LCD via some
microcontroller. The following are some important command instructions:

Sr. No. Hex Code Command to LCD instruction Register

1 01 Clear display screen

 2 02 Return home

3 04 Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)

4 06 Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)

5 05 Shift display right

6 07 Shift display left

7 08 Display off, cursor off

8 0A Display off, cursor on

9 0C Display on, cursor off

10 0E Display on, cursor blinking

11 0F Display on, cursor blinking

12 10 Shift cursor position to left

13 14 Shift cursor position to right

14 18 Shift the entire display to the left

15 1C Shift the entire display to the right

16 80 Force cursor to beginning ( 1st line)

17 C0 Force cursor to beginning ( 2nd line)

18 38 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

Command codes for LCD

Block Diagram of LCD Display:-

Control and display commands
Instruc Instruction Code Instruction Execut
tion R R/ D D D D D D D D Code ion
S W B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Description time

Read 1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Read data from 1.53-

Data internal RAM 1.64ms
From
RAM
Write 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Write data into 1.53-
data to internal RAM 1.64ms
RAM (DDRAM/CG
RAM)
Busy 0 1 BF A A A A A A A Busy flag (BF: 39 µs
flag & C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0 1→ LCD
Address Busy) and
contents of
address counter
in bits AC6-
AC0.
Set 0 0 1 A A A A A A A Set DDRAM 39 µs
DDRA C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0 address in
M address
Address counter.
Set 0 0 0 1 A A A A A A Set CGRAM 39 µs
CGRA C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0 Address in
M address
Address counter.
Functio 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F X X Set interface 39 µs
n Set data length
(DL: 4bit/8bit),
Numbers of
display line (N:
1-line/2-line)
display font
type (F:0→
5×8 dots, F:1→
5×11 dots)
Cursor 0 0 0 0 0 1 S/ R/ X X Set cursor 39 µs
or C L moving and
Display display shift
Shift control bit, and
the direction
without
changing
DDRAM data
Display 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B Set 39 µs
& Display(D),Cur
Cursor sor(C) and
On/Off cursor blink(b)
on/off control
Entry 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D SH Assign cursor 0µs
Mode moving
Set direction and
enable shift
entire display.
Return 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X Set DDRAM 43µs
Home Address to
“00H” from
AC and return
cursor to its
original
position if
shifted.
Clear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Write “20H” to 43µs
Display DDRAM and
set DDRAM
Address to
“00H” from
AC
4-bit and 8-bit Mode of LCD:

The LCD can work in two striking modes, the 4-bit mode and the 8-bit mode. We send the
information snack through snack in 4 bit mode, first upper chomp, by then lower snack. For
those of you who don't have the foggiest idea what a goody is: a chomp is a four-piece
gathering, so a byte's lower four bits (D0-D3) are the lower snack, while a byte's upper four
bits (D4-D7) are the higher snack. This enables us to send 8 bit data. This connects with us to
send 8 bit data. Whereas in 8 bit mode we can send the 8-bit information truly in one stroke
since we utilize all the 8 information lines. You need to get it now; yes 8-bit mode is quicker
and immaculate than 4-bit mode. In any case, the fundamental shortcoming is that it needs 8
microcontroller-related information lines. This will result in our MCU coming up short on
I/O pins, so 4-bit mode is extensively utilized. To set these modes, no control pins are used.

GSM

GSM is a mobile communication modem; it is stands for global system for mobile
communication (GSM). The idea of GSM was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1970. It is
widely used mobile communication system in the world. GSM is an open and digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services operates at the 850MHz,
900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz frequency bands.

GSM system was developed as a digital system using time division multiple access (TDMA)
technique for communication purpose. A GSM digitizes and reduces the data, then sends it
down through a channel with two different streams of client data, each in its own particular
time slot. The digital system has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.

There are various cell sizes in a GSM system such as macro, micro, pico and umbrella cells. Each cell
varies as per the implementation domain. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network macro,
micro, pico and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation
environment.

Time Division Multiple Access

TDMA technique relies on assigning different time slots to each user on the same frequency.
It can easily adapt to data transmission and voice communication and can carry 64kbps to
120Mbps of data rate.
GSM Architecture
A GSM network consists of the following components:

 A Mobile Station: It is the mobile phone which consists of the transceiver, the
display and the processor and is controlled by a SIM card operating over the network.
 Base Station Subsystem: It acts as an interface between the mobile station and the
network subsystem. It consists of the Base Transceiver Station which contains the
radio transceivers and handles the protocols for communication with mobiles. It also
consists of the Base Station Controller which controls the Base Transceiver station
and acts as a interface between the mobile station and mobile switching centre.
 Network Subsystem: It provides the basic network connection to the mobile stations.
The basic part of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile Service Switching Centre
which provides access to different networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It also consists of
the Home Location Register and the Visitor Location Register which provides the call
routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. It also contains the Equipment Identity
Register which maintains an account of all the mobile equipments wherein each
mobile is identified by its own IMEI number. IMEI stands for International Mobile
Equipment Identity.

Features of GSM Module:

 Improved spectrum efficiency

 International roaming
 Compatibility with integrated services digital network (ISDN)
 Support for new services.
 SIM phonebook management
 Fixed dialing number (FDN)
 Real time clock with alarm management
 High-quality speech
 Uses encryption to make phone calls more secure
 Short message service (SMS)

The security strategies standardized for the GSM system make it the most secure
telecommunications standard currently accessible. Although the confidentiality of a call and
secrecy of the GSM subscriber is just ensured on the radio channel, this is a major step in
achieving end-to- end security.
GSM Modem
A GSM modem is a device which can be either a mobile phone or a modem device which can
be used to make a computer or any other processor communicate over a network. A GSM
modem requires a SIM card to be operated and operates over a network range subscribed by
the network operator. It can be connected to a computer through serial, USB or Bluetooth
connection.

A GSM modem can also be a standard GSM mobile phone with the appropriate cable and
software driver to connect to a serial port or USB port on your computer. GSM modem is
usually preferable to a GSM mobile phone. The GSM modem has wide range of applications
in transaction terminals, supply chain management, security applications, weather stations
and GPRS mode remote data logging.

It requires a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card just like mobile phones to activate
communication with the network. Also they have IMEI (International Mobile Equipment
Identity) number similar to mobile phones for their identification. A GSM/GPRS MODEM
can perform the following operations:
1. Receive, send or delete SMS messages in a SIM.
2. Read, add, search phonebook entries of the SIM.
3. Make, Receive, or reject a voice call.

The MODEM needs AT commands, for interacting with processor or controller, which are
communicated through serial communication. These commands are sent by the
controller/processor. The MODEM sends back a result after it receives a command. Different
AT commands supported by the MODEM can be sent by the processor/controller/computer
to interact with the GSM and GPRS cellular network.
GSM Architecture
The GSM architecture is divided into Radio Subsystem, Network and Switching Subsystem
and the Operation Subsystem. The radio sub system consists of the Mobile Station and Base
Station Subsystem.

The mobile station is generally the mobile phone which consists of a transceiver, display and
a processor. Each handheld or portable mobile station consists of a unique identity stored in a
module known as SIM (Subscriber Identity Chip). It is a small microchip which is inserted in
the mobile phone and contains the database regarding the mobile station.

NodeMCU:

Introduction to NodeMCU

Node MCU is an open-source firmware and development kit that plays a vital role in
designing your own IoT product using a few Lua script lines.

Multiple GPIO pins on the board allow you to connect the board with other peripherals and
are capable of generating PWM, I2C, SPI, and UART serial communications.
 The interface of the module is mainly divided into two parts including both Firmware and
Hardware where former runs on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC and later is based on the ESP-12
module.

The firmware is based on Lua – A scripting language that is easy to learn, giving a simple
programming environment layered with a fast scripting language that connects you with a
well-known developer community.

And open source firmware gives you the flexibility to edit, modify and rebuilt the existing
module and keep changing the entire interface until you succeed in optimizing the module as
per your requirements.

 USB to UART converter is added on the module that helps in converting USB data to
UART data which mainly understands the language of serial communication.

Instead of the regular USB port, MicroUSB port is included in the module that connects it
with the computer for dual purposes: programming and powering up the board.

 The board incorporates status LED that blinks and turns off immediately, giving you the
current status of the module if it is running properly when connected with the computer.

The ability of module to establish a flawless WiFi connection between two channels makes it
an ideal choice for incorporating it with other embedded devices like Raspberry Pi.

NodeMCU Pinout:
NodeMCU comes with a number of GPIO Pins. Following figure shows the Pinout of the
board.

 There is a candid difference between VIN and VU where former is the regulated voltage
that may stand somewhere between 7 to 12 V while later is the power voltage for USB
that must be kept around 5 V.

Features:

 Open-source

 Arduino-like hardware

 Status LED

 MicroUSB port

 Reset/Flash buttons

 Interactive and Programmable

 Low cost

 ESP8266 with inbuilt wifi

 USB to UART converter

 GPIO pins

As mentioned above, a cable supporting micro USB port is used to connect the board. As you
connect the board with a computer, LED will flash. You may need some drivers to be
installed on your computer if it fails to detect the NodeMCU board. You can download the
driver from this page.
Note: We use Arduino IDE software for programming this module. It is important to note
that the pin configuration appearing on the board is different from the configuration we use to
program the board on the software i.e. when we write code for targeting pin 16 on the
Arduino IDE, it will actually help is laying out the communication with the D0 pin on the
module.
Following figure the shows the pin configuration to use in Arduino IDE.

How to Power NodeMCU

You can see from the pinout image above, there are five ground pins and three 3V3 pins on
the board. The board can be powered up using the following three ways.

USB Power. It proves to an ideal choice for loading programs unless the project you aim to
design requires separate interface i.e. disconnected from the computer.
Provide 3.3V. This is another great option to power up the module. If you have your own
off-board regulator, you can generate an instant power source for your development kit.
Power Vin. This is a voltage regulator that comes with the ability to support up to 800 mA. It
can handle somewhere between 7 to 12 V. You cannot power the devices operating at 3.3 V,
as this regulator unable to generate as low as 3.3V.
Applications:

NodeMCU V3 is mainly used in the WiFi Applications which most of the other embedded
modules fail to process unless incorporated with some external WiFi protocol. Following are
some major applications used for NodeMCU V3.

 Internet Smoked Alarm

 VR Tracker

 Octopod

 Serial Port Monitor

 ESP Lamp

 Incubator Controller

 IoT home automation

 Security Alarms

Buzzer:

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm
devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. Buzzer is
an integrated structure of electronic transducers, DC power supply, widely used in computers,
printers, copiers, alarms, electronic toys, automotive electronic equipment, telephones, timers
and other electronic products for sound devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be
directly connected to a continuous sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and
the board in combination, can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play.
Buzzer Pin Configuration

Pin Pin Description

Number Name

1 Positive Identified by (+) symbol or longer terminal

lead. Can be powered by 5V DC

2 Negative Identified by short terminal lead. Typically

connected to the ground of the circuit

Buzzer Features and Specifications

 Rated Voltage: 6V DC
 Operating Voltage: 4-8V DC
 Rated current: <30mA
 Sound Type: Continuous Beep
 Resonant Frequency: ~2300 Hz
 Small and neat sealed package
 Breadboard and Perf board friendly

How to use a Buzzer

A buzzer is a small yet efficient component to add sound features to our project/system. It is
very small and compact 2-pin structure hence can be easily used on breadboard, Perf Board
and even on PCBs which makes this a widely used component in most electronic
applications.

There are two types are buzzers that are commonly available. The one shown here is a simple
buzzer which when powered will make a Continuous Beeeeeeppp.... sound, the other type is
called a readymade buzzer which will look bulkier than this and will produce a Beep. Beep.
Beep. Sound due to the internal oscillating circuit present inside it. But, the one shown here is
most widely used because it can be customized with help of other circuits to fit easily in our
application.

This buzzer can be used by simply powering it using a DC power supply ranging from 4V to
9V. A simple 9V battery can also be used, but it is recommended to use a regulated +5V or
+6V DC supply. The buzzer is normally associated with a switching circuit to turn ON or
turn OFF the buzzer at required time and require interval.

Applications of Buzzer

 Alarming Circuits, where the user has to be alarmed about something

 Communication equipment’s
 Automobile electronics
 Portable equipment’s, due to its compact size

Push button Switch:

A Push Button switch is a type of switch which consists of a simple electric mechanism
or air switch mechanism to turn something on or off.

Depending on model they could operate with momentary or latching action function.

The button itself is usually constructed of a strong durable material such as metal or plastic.
Push Button Switches come in a range of shapes and sizes. We have a selection of push
button switches here at Herga.

Push button switches are used throughout industrial and medical applications and are also
recognisable in everyday life.
For uses within the Industrial sector, push buttons are often part of a bigger system and are
connected through a mechanical linkage. This means that when a button is pressed it can
cause another button to release.

Push button switches are present in so many areas across different industries and for different
uses here are some examples;

· Calculator buttons – a hand held calculator has lots of small push button switches

· Reset switches – these are usually small and require a tool to press to avoid accidental
operation

· Stopping machinery – often around industrial machinery there will be an emergency

stop button, sometimes these are located on the wall

· Arcade gaming – these are usually brightly coloured to encourage people to play
 Features

Prevent flux rise by the insert-molded terminal

Snap-in mount terminal

Contact Bounce: MAX 5mS

Crisp clicking by tactile feedback

Dielectric Withstanding Voltage 250V AC for 1 minute

Technical Specifications

Mode of Operation: Tactile feedback

Power Rating: MAX 50mA 24V DC

Insulation Resistance: 100Mohm at 100v

Operating Force: 2.55±0.69 N

Contact Resistance: MAX 100mOhm

Operating Temperature Range: -20 to +70 ℃

Storage Temperature Range: -20 to +70 ℃

Where to use push button?

Push-Buttons are normally-open tactile switches. Push buttons allow us to power the
circuit or make any particular connection only when we press the button. Simply, it
 makes the circuit connected when pressed and breaks when released. A push button is
also used for triggering of the SCR by gate terminal. These are the most common buttons
which we see in our daily life electronic equipment’s.

How to use a push button?

When connecting in between of supply and the circuit we should only connect the wires with
both the legs of the Push-Button as shown in the circuit below:

A Push-Button can also be used for the triggering purpose like of SCR. An SCR is a gate
controlled Switch which needs a triggering pulse. So, for this we can add a Push button in the
circuit to give a triggering pulse, as shown in the circuit below:

Power supply:
A power supply is a component that provides at least one electrical charge with power. It
typically converts one type of electrical power to another, but it can also convert a different
Energy form in electrical energy, such as solar, mechanical, or chemical.

A power supply provides electrical power to components. Usually the term refers to devices
built into the powered component. Computer power supplies, for example, convert AC
current to DC current and are generally located along with at least one fan at the back of the
computer case.

Most computer power supplies also have an input voltage switch that, depending on the
geographic location, can be set to 110v/115v or 220v/240v. Due to the different power
voltages supplied by power outlets in different countries, this switch position is crucial.

Some basic components used in the supply of power:

Transformer:

A transformer is a static electrical gadget that exchanges control between at least two
circuits. A fluctuating current creates a changing attractive motion in one transformer curl,
which thus actuates a differing electromotive power over a second loop twisted around a
similar center.

Without a metallic association between the two circuits, electrical vitality can be exchanged
between the two loops. The enlistment law of Faraday found in 1831 portrayed the impact
of prompted voltage in any curl because of the changing attractive flux surrounded by the
coil.
 Circuit of transformer

Transformer

Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current.

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found to serve as components of DC power
supplies and direct power transmission systems with high voltage. Rectification can be used
in roles other than direct current generation for use as a power source.

Circuit of rectifier
 Rectifier

Capacitors:

Capacitors are used to attain from the connector the immaculate and smoothest DC voltage
in which the rectifier is used to obtain throbbing DC voltage which is used as part of the light
of the present identity. Capacitors are used to acquire square DC from the current AC
experience of the current channels so that they can be used as a touch of parallel yield.

Capacitor

Voltage regulators:
The 78XX voltage controller is mainly used for voltage controllers as a whole. The XX
speaks to the voltage delivered to the specific gadget by the voltage controller as the yield.
7805 will supply and control 5v yield voltage and 12v yield voltage will be created by 7812.

The voltage controllers are that their yield voltage as information requires no less than 2
volts. For example, 7805 as sources of information will require no less than 7V, and 7812, no
less than 14 volts. This voltage is called Dropout Voltage, which should be given to voltage
controllers.
 7805 voltage regulator with pinout

7812 voltage regulator with pinout

Buzzer:

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm
devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. Buzzer is
an integrated structure of electronic transducers, DC power supply, widely used in computers,
printers, copiers, alarms, electronic toys, automotive electronic equipment, telephones, timers
and other electronic products for sound devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be
directly connected to a continuous sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and
the board in combination, can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play.
Buzzer Pin Configuration

Pin Pin Description

Number Name

1 Positive Identified by (+) symbol or longer terminal

lead. Can be powered by 5V DC

2 Negative Identified by short terminal lead. Typically

connected to the ground of the circuit

Buzzer Features and Specifications

 Rated Voltage: 6V DC
 Operating Voltage: 4-8V DC
 Rated current: <30mA
 Sound Type: Continuous Beep
 Resonant Frequency: ~2300 Hz
 Small and neat sealed package
 Breadboard and Perf board friendly

How to use a Buzzer

A buzzer is a small yet efficient component to add sound features to our project/system. It is
very small and compact 2-pin structure hence can be easily used on breadboard, Perf Board
and even on PCBs which makes this a widely used component in most electronic
applications.

There are two types are buzzers that are commonly available. The one shown here is a simple
buzzer which when powered will make a Continuous Beeeeeeppp.... sound, the other type is
called a readymade buzzer which will look bulkier than this and will produce a Beep. Beep.
Beep. Sound due to the internal oscillating circuit present inside it. But, the one shown here is
most widely used because it can be customized with help of other circuits to fit easily in our
application.

This buzzer can be used by simply powering it using a DC power supply ranging from 4V to
9V. A simple 9V battery can also be used, but it is recommended to use a regulated +5V or
+6V DC supply. The buzzer is normally associated with a switching circuit to turn ON or
turn OFF the buzzer at required time and require interval.

Applications of Buzzer

 Alarming Circuits, where the user has to be alarmed about something

 Communication equipment’s
 Automobile electronics
 Portable equipment’s, due to its compact size

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962, Nick Holonyak
has come up with an idea of light emitting diode, and he was working for the general electric
company. The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical characteristics
of a PN junction diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction. The LED occupies the small area which is less
than the 1 mm2. The applications of LEDs used to make various electrical and electronic
projects. In this article, we will discuss the working principle of the LED and its applications.
What is a Light Emitting Diode?

The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made up
of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is
called as a light emitting diode.
How does the Light Emitting Diode work?

The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased, then
the electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining constantly,
removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type
silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom &
more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of
light.

Schematic:
 A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a pn junction diode. When carriers are
injected across a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light.

 Most of the commercial LEDs are realized using a highly doped n and a p Junction.

LED Materials:

A critical class of business LEDs that cover the unmistakable range. Ternary composites in
view of alloying GaAs and GaP which are signified by GaAs1-yPy. InGaAlP is a case of a
quarternary (four component) III-V compound with an immediate band crevice. The LEDs
acknowledged utilizing two diversely doped semiconductors that are the same material is
known as a homojunction. When they are acknowledged utilizing diverse bandgap materials
they are known as a heterostructure gadget heterostructure LED is brighter than a
homoJunction LED.

LED Structure:

The LED structure assumes a vital part in radiating light from the LED surface. The LEDs
are organized to guarantee the majority of the recombinations happens at first glance by the
accompanying two ways. • By expanding the doping grouping of the substrate, so that extra
free minority charge transporters electrons move to the top, recombine and emanate light at
the surface. • By expanding the dissemination length L = √ Dτ, where D is the dispersion
coefficient and τ is the bearer life time. In any case, when expanded past a basic length there
is a possibility of re-retention of the photons into the gadget. The LED must be organized so
that the photons produced from the gadget are transmitted without being reabsorbed. One
arrangement is to make the p layer on the top, sufficiently flimsy to make an exhaustion
layer. Taking after picture demonstrates the layered structure. There are diverse approaches to
structure the vault for proficient transmitting.

LEDs are normally based on a n-sort substrate, with a terminal joined to the p-sort layer
saved on its surface. P-sort substrates, while less basic, happen too. Numerous business
LEDs, particularly GaN/InGaN, likewise utilize sapphire substrate. Driven productivity: A
vital metric of a LED is the outside quantum proficiency next. It measures the efficiency of
the transformation of electrical vitality into transmitted optical vitality. It is characterized as
the light yield isolated by the electrical information power.

It is likewise characterized as the result of Internal radiative proficiency and Extraction

productivity. ηext = Pout(optical)/IV For backhanded band gap semiconductors ηext is for
the most part under 1%, where concerning an immediate band hole material it could be
generous. ηint = rate of radiation recombination/Total recombination The interior
effectiveness is an element of the nature of the material and the structure and arrangement of

the layer.

Applications:
LED have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.

• Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys

• Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)

• Lighting

• Indicators and signs

• Optoisolators and optocouplers

• Swimming pool lighting

Advantages of using LEDs

• LEDs deliver more light per watt than radiant knobs; this is valuable in battery fueled or
vitality sparing gadgets.

• LEDs can radiate light of a planned shading without the utilization of shading channels that
customary lighting techniques require. This is more effective and can bring down
introductory expenses.

• The strong bundle of the LED can be intended to center its light. Glowing and fluorescent
sources frequently require an outside reflector to gather light and direct it in a usable way.

• When utilized as a part of utilizations where darkening is required, LEDs don't change their
shading tint as the present going through them is brought down, not at all like radiant lights,
which turn yellow.

• LEDs are perfect for use in applications that are liable to visit on-off cycling, not at all like
fluorescent lights that copy out all the more immediately when cycled much of the time, or
High Intensity Discharge (HID) lights that require quite a while before restarting.

• LEDs, being strong state segments, are hard to harm with outer stun. Fluorescent and
radiant globules are effectively broken if dropped on the ground.

• LEDs can have a moderately long valuable life. A Philips LUXEON k2 LED has an
existence time of around 50,000 hours, though Fluorescent tubes commonly are appraised at
around 30,000 hours, and brilliant lights at 1,000–2,000 hours.

• LEDs generally fall flat by darkening after some time, as opposed to the unexpected wear
out of brilliant globules.
• LEDs illuminate rapidly. A run of the mill red marker LED will accomplish full brilliance
in microseconds; Philips Lumileds specialized datasheet DS23 for the Luxeon Star states
"under 100ns." LEDs utilized as a part of specialized gadgets can have significantly quicker
reaction times.

• LEDs can be little and are effortlessly populated onto printed circuit sheets.

• LEDs don't contain mercury, not at all like conservative fluorescent lights.

Software Requirements :

EMBEDDED C

Implanted C makes use of KEIL IDE programming. The framework program written
in implanted C can be placed away in Microcontroller. The accompanying is a portion of the
actual motives behind composing applications in C as opposed to get collectively. It is much
less disturbing and much less tedious to write down in C then amassing. C is less traumatic to
trade and refresh. You can utilize code available in capacity libraries. C code is compact to
different microcontrollers with subsequent to 0 alteration. Genuine, installed C programming
need nonstandard expansions to the C driver with a view to bolster charming components, as
an example, settled point range catching, numerous unmistakable reminiscence banks, and
fundamental I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee prolonged the C data to deal with these problems
via giving a normal well known to all executions to purchaser to contains numerous additives
not handy in standard C, for example, settled factor wide variety catching, named address
spaces, and vital I/O equipment tending to.

Installed C utilize the greater part of the grammar and semantics of wellknown C,
e.G., number one() paintings, variable definition, facts type statement, contingent
proclamations (if, switch. Case), circles (even as, for), capacities, exhibits and strings,
structures and union, piece operations, macros, unions, and so on.

Embedded systems programming

Installed frameworks writing computer programs is not quite the same as creating
applications on a desktop PCs. Key attributes of an implanted framework, when contrasted
with PCs, are as per the following:
•Embedded gadgets have asset limitations (restricted ROM, constrained RAM, constrained
stack space, less handling power)
•Components utilized as a part of installed framework and PCs are distinctive; implanted
frameworks ordinarily utilizes littler, less power devouring segments. Inserted frameworks
are more fixing to the equipment.
Two remarkable components of Embedded Programming are code speed and code
estimate. Code speed is represented by the handling power, timing requirements, while code
size is administered by accessible program memory and utilization of programming dialect.
Objective of implanted framework writing computer programs is to get greatest elements in
least space and least time.

Implanted frameworks are modified utilizing distinctive sort of dialects:

•Machine Code
•Low level dialect, i.e., get together
•High level dialect like C, C++, and Java and so on.
•Application level dialect like Visual Basic, scripts, Access, and so on..,

Arduino IDE:

The Arduino IDE software is a open source software, where we can have the example
codes for the beginners. In the Present world there are lot of version in the Arduino IDE in
which present usage is Version1.0.5. It is very easy to connect the PC with Arduino Board.

First we have to install the Arduino IDE software according to the below instructions:

 Insert the CD-ROM or PENDRIVE which Contains the software and then Copy the
Setup File to your desired location.
 After Copying, now click on the setup you will see an window shown below
  Click On NO, not this time. Then after NEXT
 Another Window opens –select Install from a list of specific location and NEXT

 Select “include this location in the search” and then click Browse option available in
it

 Now it will Automatically check the USB driver and the software is installed click
Finish
.
 Now click Finish, the Software will be downloaded.
 Now click on the Arduino IDE icon present on your Desktop. A window will appear
like this.

 For any sample programs, select FILE optionExamples.

 After Entering the Sample Code in the file, it would look like this

 Before Connecting we have to select which Board is used by the user, Basically UNO.
By selecting TOOLSBoardARDUINO UNO
 Now to dump the in the board Connect the Arduino to the PC through the USB port
available in it. Like this TOOLSSERIAL PORTCOMM4,COMM8 etc;

 To verify the written Program select COMPILE option available in the software (√ ).
 Now Connect the Board and select the COMM port and then UPLOAD the file in
ARDUINO()
 To OPEN the Previous ARDUINO FILE selects (↑) option.
 To enter new files select NEW option.
  To Save the Existing File, Click on the(↓).
 To Send the Data Through Serial Monitor, Click on the (Ǫ).

 Here we can see the Serial Data.

ThingSpeak Account:
Creating ThingSpeak Account
The first thing you need to do is to create an account with ThingSpeak. Since the
collaboration with MATLAB, you can use your MathWorks credentials to login to
ThingSpeak using the Sign In link from this page: THINGSPEAK.

After logging in, you need to create a new channel for the data to be stored. For this go to
Channels–>My Channels and click on New Channel.
Enter the name of the channel and name of Field 1 in the corresponding sections. Fields in a
channel are used to hold the data and each channel can have up to 8 fields. After entering the
details save the channel.

Keep everything else as it is. Blank or default values. and click on Save Channel.
Getting API Key

Click on API Key Tab and look for these two fields Write Api Key and Update channel feed
line.

The next step is to prepare the hardware for the project, which includes Nodemcu.
Check Data on ThingSpeak Server

Open Your ThingSpeak Account and Click on Private View of Your Channel
Advantages:
 Efficiency
 Automation
 Compactness
 Reliability
 Cost-effectiveness
 Connectivity
 Integration
 Scalability
Applications:
 Fault detection System
 Substations
 Underground cables
Conclusion:
This project implemented the Underground Cable Fault Detector Using Arduino. A full-
fledged prototype model had been implemented as a proof of concept to realize and
understand the real time scenarios in underground cable system. Through this prototype
model the proposed design had been demonstrated that can effectively satisfy the requirement
of exact fault location detection in the underground cable system and it is believed that this
model can be a promising technology to solve future fault location detection problem.

References:

[1] Xiaoning Kang; Xiuda Ma; Shuai Jiang; Xiaoyun Qu, Chao Zhang; Xiaoning Kang;
Xiuda Ma; Shuai Jiang; Xiaoyun Qu 2016 IEEE PES Asia-Pacific Power and Energy
Engineering Conference (APPEEC)

[2] Gilbert Cheung, Yuan Tian, Tobias Neier, Technics of Locating Underground Cable
Faults inside conduits, International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis
IEEE (CMD 2016)

[3] Nikhil Kumar Sain, Rajesh Kajla, and Mr.Vikas Kumar, Underground Cable Fault
Distance Conveyed Over GSM, International Organization of Scientific Research Journal of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Volume 11, Issue 2, Mar-April 2016.
 [4] C.Bharatiraja, S.Jeevananthan, J.L. Munda, A Timing Correction Algorihm based
extended SVM for three level Neutral point clamped MLI in Over Modulation Zone IEEE
Journal of Emerging and Selected topics in Power Electronics.

[5] Manar Jaradat, Moath Jarrah, Abdel Kader Bousselham, Yaser Jararweh, Mahmoud
AlAyyoub The Internet of Energy: Smart Sensor Networks and Big Data Management for
Smart Grid, Procedia Computer Science Elsevier, July 2015.

[6] Dhivya Dharani. A and Sowmya. T, Development of a Prototype of Underground Cable

Fault Detector, International Journal Electrical, Electronics, and Computer Systems, Volume-
2, 2014