FACULTY OF S CIENCE , E NGINEERING AND

AGRICULTURE
D EPARTMENT OF M ATHEMATICAL AND
C OMPUTATIONAL S CIENCES
M ATHEMATICS FOR B IOLOGICAL , E ARTH AND
L IFE S CIENCES I
MAT 1143
LECTURE NOTES
by

M S . A M APHIRI ,& D R . B M AREGERE

Email: [email protected], &
[email protected]
March 2024
Contents

Contents i

1 FUNCTIONS 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.4 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 More on Function Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 26
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Limits of Functions and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Defination of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Increments and Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.2 Express the derivative of a function as a limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Other Rules for Finding Gradient Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5.1 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5.2 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.3 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.4 Finding Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 Application of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.1 Finding maximum and minimum points of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.2 Determining the nature of stationary points of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.3 The second-derivative test for maximum and minimum points . . . . . . 41

3 INTEGRAL CALCULUS 43
3.1 Overview of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Definite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.1 Area under a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Solid of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

i
Chapter 1

FUNCTIONS

1.1 Introduction

One of the most basic and important ideas in all mathematics is that of a function. In nearly
every physical phenomenon, we observe that one quantity depends on another. For example,
under normal conditions, your height depends on your age, the temperature depends on the date,
the cost of mailing a package depends on its weight. We say that your height is a function of
your age etc. Importately, functions are the fundamental part of the calculus in mathematics.
Typically, functions are the special types of relations, and can be visualized as a rule, which
gives a unique output for every input. Thus, we can define a fuction as rule that recieves an input
and produces an output where each input is related to exactly one output (see Fig 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Function representation

For example, the rule may be ’add 2 to the input’. If 6 is the input, then 6 + 2 = 8 will be the
output. If −5 is the input, then −5 + 2 = −3 will be the output. In general, if x is the input
the x + 2 will be the output. Notable, for a rule to be a function then it is crucial that only one
Chapter 1: Functions 2

output is produced for any given input. It is important to know that the input to a function can
usually take many values and so is called a variable. The output, too, varies depending upon the
value of the input, and so is also a variable. The input is referred to as the independent variable
because we are free to choose its value. The output is called the dependent variable because its
value depends upon the value of the input.

More on Function Representations

In a mathematical context, a function f is defined as a mathematical rule that maps/assigns to

each element x in set A exactly one element, called f (x), in set B as shown in Fig 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Function representation

In the diagram in Fig 1.2, the set A is called the domain of f and B is the range of f . Both are
denoted by Df and Rf respectively. The domain is defined as the set of all the values that the
function can input while it can be defined. The range is all the values that come out as the output
of the function involved. Co-domain is the set of values that have the potential of coming out as
outputs of a function. General speaking, it is essential for one to study and understand functions
due to their extensive application in a real-world situation. For instance, in the biological context,
one can study the growth of a culture of bacteria as a function of time. Therefore, in this case,
the domain is a certain set of values of time and the range is the set of values of the size of the
culture.
Chapter 1: Functions 3

Notation Used for Function

We usually denote the input, the output and the function by letters or symbols. Commonly we
use x to represent the input, y the output and f the function, although other letters will be used
as well. Let’s consider again the previous example in which we add 2 to the input, if we let f be
the function ’add 2 to the input’ and we let x be the input. In mathematical notation we write

f : x −→ x + 1.

This means that the function f takes an input x and produces an output x + 2. However, an
alternative, but commonly used, notation is

f (x) = x + 2

NB!! The quantity f (x) does not mean f times x but rather indicates that the function f acts on
the quantity in the brackets. Because we also call the output y we can write

y = f (x) = x + 2

, or simply y = x+2. We could represent the same function using different letters. If h represents
the function and t the input then we can write: h(t) = t + 2

Function Evaluation

Often we are given a function and need to calculate the output from a given input.

Example: A function f is defined by f (x) = 3x + 1. Calculate the output when the input is (a)
4, (b) -1, (c) 0.

Solution:

(a) f (x = 4) = 3(4) + 1 = 12 + 1 = 13

(b) f (x = −1) = f (−1) = 3(−1) + 1 = −3 + 1 = −2

(c) f (0) = 3(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1

Chapter 1: Functions 4

Piecewise Functions

Sometimes a function uses different rules on different intervals. For example, we could define a
function as



 3x when 0 ≤ x ≤ 4





h(x) = 2x + 6 when 4 < x < 5







 9 when x ≥ 5

Here the function is defined in three ‘pieces’. The value of x determines which part of the defini-
tion is used to evaluate the function. The function is said to be a piecewise function. Example:
A piecewise function is defined by



 x2 + 1 when −1≤x≤2





y(x) = 3x when 2 ≤ x ≤ 6







 2x + 1 when x ≥ 6

Evaluate (a) y(0) (b) y(4) (c) y(2) (d) y(7).

Solution:

(a) y(0) = (0)2 + 1 = 1

(b) y(4) = 3(4) = 12

(c) y(2) = (2)2 + 1 = 5

(d) y(7) = 2(7) + 1 = 15

1.2 Basic Types of Functions

1.2.1 Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions are the simplest, most commonly used, and most important mathematical
functions. These functions represent algebraic expressions with certain conditions. They also
Chapter 1: Functions 5

cover a wide number of functions. Therefore, it is essential for one to study and understand
polynomial functions due to their extensive applications. The word polynomial is made up of
two words, poly which means many, and nomial which means the term. Hence, when they are
combined, we can say that polynomials are ”algebraic expressions with many terms”. Inlight of
that, we can go ahead and start with the definition of polynomial functions and their types.

Defination: Polynomial functions are expressions that may contain variables of varying de-
grees, coefficients, positive exponents, and constants. Here are some examples of polynomial
functions:

f (x) = 3x2 − 5, g(x) = −7x3 + (1/2)x − 7, and h(x) = 3x4 + 7x3 − 12x2 .

But, in a standard form, polynomial functions are expressed as:

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .

This algebraic expression is called a polynomial function in variable x as shown in Fig 1.3.
Where,

• an , an−1 , ..., a0 are real number constants

• an can’t be equal to zero and is called the leading coefficient n is a non-negative integer

• Each exponent of variable in polynomial function should be a whole number

Figure 1.3: Standard Form for Polynomial Functions

More importantly, it is worthy mentioning that the degree of the polynomial function is the
highest power of the variable it is raised to. Consider this polynomial function f (x) = −7x3 +
6x2 + 11x–19, the highest exponent found is 3 from −7x3 . This means that the degree of this
particular polynomial is 3.
Chapter 1: Functions 6

Types of Polynomial Functions

The name of a polynomial is determined by the number of terms in it. The three most common
polynomials we usually encounter are as follows:

I. Monomials are polynomials that contain only one term. Examples: 15x2 , 3b, and 12y 4

II. Binomials are polynomials that contain only two terms. Examples: x+y, 4x–7, and 9x+2.

III. Trinomials are polynomials that contain only three terms. Examples: x3 –3+ 5x, z 4 +45 +
3z, and x2 –12x + 15.

Further, the polynomials are also classified based on their degrees. The four most common types
of polynomials that are used in precalculus and algebra are

A. Zero Polynomial Functions: These are type of polynomial function of the form f (x) = 0,
which just contains just 0 and no other term or variable. Thefore, since f (x) = a constant
here, it is a constant function.

B. Linear Polynomial Functions: These are polynomial functions that have a degree 1. It is
of the form f (x) = ax + b. Some examples of a linear polynomial function are f (x) =
x + 3, f (x) = 25x + 4, and f (y) = 8y–3.

C. Quadratic Polynomial Functions: These are type of function that has a degree 2. It is
of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Some examples of a quadratic polynomial function are
f (m) = 5m2 –12m + 4, f (x) = 14x2 –6, and f (x) = x2 + 4x.

D. Cubic Polynomial Functions: A cubic polynomial function has a degree 3. It is of the

form f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. Some examples of a cubic polynomial function are
f (y) = 4y 3 , f (y) = 15y 3 –y 2 + 10, and f (a) = 3a + a3 .

E. Rational Polynomial Functions: These are type of polynomial functions which are de-
rived from the ratio of two polynomial functions. It is expressed as, f (x) = P (x)/Q(x),
such that P and Q are polynomial functions of x and Q(x) ̸= 0. For example,

x2 + 2x + 1
x2 − 4

is a rational polynomial function.

Chapter 1: Functions 7

Polynomial Function Graph

We can represent all the polynomial functions in the form of a graph. Remember that the domain
of any polynomial function is the set of all real numbers. The below-given image in Fig 1.4
shows the graphs of different polynomial functions.

Figure 1.4: Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Graphing Polynomial Functions

To graph a simple polynomial function, we usually make a table of values with some random
values of x and the corresponding values of f (x). Then we plot the points from the table and
join them by a curve. Let us draw the graph for the quadratic polynomial function f (x) = x2 .

x -2 -1 0 1 2
f (x) = x2 4 1 0 1 4
Chapter 1: Functions 8

Figure 1.5: Graph of Quadratic Polynomial Function: f (x) = x2

1.2.2 Exponential Functions

The exponential functions are type of mathematical functions which are helpful in finding the
growth or decay of population, money, price, etc that are growing or decay exponentially. Thus,
the objective of this section is to expose learners into more about exponential function along with
its definition, equation, graphs, and its application. Exponential function, as its name suggests,
involves exponents. But note that, an exponential function has a constant as its base and a vari-
able as its exponent but not the other way round (if a function has a variable as the base and a
constant as the exponent then it is a power function but not an exponential function).

Definition: an exponential function is a function of form f (x) = ax , where “x” is a variable

and “a” is a constant which is called the base of the function and it should be greater than 0.

Exponential Function Formula

A basic exponential function, from its definition, is of the form f (x) = bx , where ’b’ is a constant
and ’x’ is a variable. One of the popular exponential functions is f (x) = ex , where ’e’ is ”Euler’s
number” and e = 2.718.... If we extend the possibilities of different exponential functions, an
Chapter 1: Functions 9

exponential function may involve a constant as a multiple of the variable in its power. i.e.,
an exponential function can also be of the form f (x) = ekx . Further, it can also be of the
form f (x) = pekx , where ’p’ is a constant. Thus, an exponential function can be in one of the
following forms.

• f (x) = bx

• f (x) = abx

• f (x) = abcx

• f (x) = ex

• f (x) = ekx

• f (x) = pekx

It is important to note that, apart from ’x’ all other letters are constants, ’x’ is a variable, and f (x)
is an exponential function in terms of x. Also, note that the base in each exponential function
must be a positive number. i.e., in the above functions, b > 0 and e > 0. Also, b should not
be equal to 1 (if b = 1, then the function f (x) = bx becomes f (x) = 1 and in this case, the
function is linear but NOT exponential). It is worthy mentioning that the exponential function
arises whenever a quantity’s value increases in exponential growth and decreases in exponential
decay.

Exponential Function Rules

The rules of exponential function are as same as that of rules of exponents. Here are some rules
of power function. For any real numbers a and b, and positive integers m and n we have

1. Law of Zero Exponent: a0 = 1

2. Law of Product: am an = am+n

3. Law of Power of a Power: (am )n = amn

4. Law of Power of a Product: (ab)m = am bm

am
5. Law of Power of a Quotient: = am−n , provided a ̸= 0.
an
1 1
6. Law of Negative Exponent: a−m = m , and −n = an provided a ̸= 0.
a a
 a n an  a −n  b n bn
7. Combination of Laws: = n, = = n , provided a, b ̸= 0.
b b b a a
Chapter 1: Functions 10

Graphing Exponential Functions

We can understand the process of graphing exponential function by taking some examples. Let
us graph two functions f (x) = 2x and g(x) = (1/2)x . To graph each of these functions, we will
construct a table of values with some random values of x, plot the points on the graph, connect
them by a curve, and extend the curve on both ends. Below is Figure 1.6 showing the table of
values that are used to graph the exponential function f (x) = 2x.

Figure 1.6: Graph of Exponential Function: f (x) = 2x

What follows is the table of values that are used to graph the exponential function g(x) = (1/2)x
as shown in Figure 1.7.
Chapter 1: Functions 11

Figure 1.7: Graph of Exponential Function: g(x) = (1/2)x

Note: From the above two graphs, we can see that f (x) = 2x is increasing whereas g(x) =
(1/2)x is decreasing. Thus, the graph of exponential function f (x) = bx .

• increases when b > 1

• decreases when 0 < b < 1

Exponential Function Asymptotes

The exponential function has no vertical asymptote as the function is continuously increasing/de-
creasing. But it has a horizontal asymptote. The equation of horizontal asymptote of an expo-
nential funtion f (x) = abx + c is always y = c. i.e., it is nothing but ”y = constant being added
to the exponent part of the function”. In the above two graphs (f (x) = 2x and g(x) = (1/2)x ),
we can notice that the horizontal asymptote is y = 0 as nothing is being added to the exponent
part in both the functions. Thus,

• An exponential function never has a vertical asymptote.

• The horizontal asymptote of an exponential function f (x) = abx + c is y = c.

Chapter 1: Functions 12

Domain and Range of Exponential Function

We know that the domain of a function y = f (x) is the set of all x-values (inputs) where it can
be computed and the range is the set of all y-values (outputs) of the function. From the graphs
of f (x) = 2x and g(x) = (1/2)x in Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7, respectively, we can deduce that
an exponential function can be computed at all values of x. Thus, the domain of an exponential
function is the set of all real numbers (or) (−∞, ∞). The range of an exponential function can
be determined by the horizontal asymptote of the graph, say, y = d, and by seeing whether the
graph is above y = d or below y = d. Thus, for an exponential function f (x) = abx ,

• Domain is the set of all real numbers (or) (−∞, ∞).

• Range is f (x) > d if a > 0 and f (x) < d if a < 0.

1.2.3 Logarithmic Functions

The aim of this subsection is to expose learners to more about logarithmic functions, types of
logarithms, the graph of the logarithmic function, and the properties of logarithms.

The logarithmic function is an important medium of math calculations. Logarithms were dis-
covered in the 16th century by John Napier a Scottish mathematician, scientist, and astronomer.
It has numerous applications in astronomical and scientific calculations involving huge num-
bers. Logarithmic functions are closely related to exponential functions and are considered as an
inverse of the exponential function. The exponential function

ax = N

is transformed to a logarithmic function

loga N = x.

The logarithm of any number N if interpreted as an exponential form, is the exponent to which
the base of the logarithm should be raised, to obtain the number N .

Definition Suppose that b > 0 and b ̸= 1. Then for n > 0, there is a number p such that
logb n = p if and only if bp = n.
Chapter 1: Functions 13

That is, logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function ay = x. Log func-
tions include natural logarithm (ln) or common logarithm (log). Here are some examples of
logarithmic functions:

• f (x) = ln(x − 2)

• g(x) = log 2(x + 5) − 2

• h(x) = 2 log x, etc.

Some of the non-integral exponent values can be calculated easily with the use of logarithmic
functions. Finding the value of x in the exponential expressions 2x = 8, 2x = 16 is easy, but
finding the value of x in 2x = 10 is difficult. Here we can use log functions to transform 2x = 10
into logarithmic form as log2 10 = x and then find the value of x. The formula for transforming
an exponential function into a logarithmic function is as follows:

Figure 1.8: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions Transformation

Properties of Logarithms

For all positive numbers m, n and b, where b ̸= 1 and any real number p,

logb mn = logb m + logb n

m
logb = logb m − logb n
n
logb mp = p. logb m
logb 1 = 0
logb b = 1.
Chapter 1: Functions 14

Graphing Logarithmic Functions

We can recall that the exponential and log functions are inverses of each other and hence their
graphs should be symmetric with respect to the line y = x. Also, note that y = 0 when x = 0 as
y = loga 1 = 0 for any ’a’. Thus, all such functions have an x-intercept of (1, 0). A logarithmic
function doesn’t have a y-intercept as loga 0 is not defined. Now, before drawing a log function
graph, it is important to have an idea of whether you’ll get an increasing curve or decreasing
curve as the answer. If the base > 1, then the curve is increasing; and if 0 < base < 1, then the
curve is decreasing. Here are the steps for graphing logarithmic functions:

• Find the domain and range.

• Find the vertical asymptote by setting the argument equal to 0. Note that a log function
doesn’t have any horizontal asymptote.

• Substitute some value of x that makes the argument equal to 1 and use the property loga 1 =
0. This gives us the x-intercept.

• Substitute some value of x that makes the argument equal to the base and use the property
loga a = 1. This would give us a point on the graph.

• Join the two points (from the last two steps) and extend the curve on both sides with respect
to the vertical asymptote.

Example: Graph the logarithmic function f (x) = 2 log3 (x + 1).

Solution: Here, the base is 3 > 1. So the curve would be increasing. For domain: x + 1 >
0 =⇒ x > −1. So domain = (−1, ∞), and Range = R.
Vertical asymptote is x = −1.

• At x = 0, y = 2 log3 (0 + 1) = 2 log3 1 = 2(0) = 0

• At x = 2, y = 2 log3 (2 + 1) = 2 log3 3 = 2(1) = 2

If we want more clarity, we can form a table of values with some random values of x and sub-
stitute each of them in the given function to compute the y-values. This way, we get more points
on the graph and it helps in getting the perfect shape of the graph. Thus, (0, 0) and (2, 2) are two
points on the curve. Thus, the log function graph looks as follows.
Chapter 1: Functions 15

Figure 1.9: Graphs of Logarithm Function

Domain and Range of Log Functions

Let us consider the basic (parent) common logarithmic function f (x) = log x (or y = log x).
We know that log x is defined only when x > 0 (try finding log 0, log(−1), log(−2), etc using
your calculator. You will come up with an error). So the domain is the set of all positive real
numbers. Now, we will observe some of the y-values (outputs) of the function for different
x-values (inputs).

• When x = 1, y = log1 = 0

• When x = 2, y = log2 = 0.3010

• When x = 0.2, y = −0.6990

• When x = 0.01, y = −2, etc

We can see that y can be either a positive or negative real number (or) it can be zero as well.
Thus, y can take the value of any real number. Hence, the range of a logarithmic function is the
set of all real numbers. Thus:

• The domain of log function y = log x is x > 0 (or) (0, ∞).

Chapter 1: Functions 16

• The range of any log function is the set of all real numbers (R)

Example: Find the domain and range of the logarithmic function f (x) = 2 log(2x − 4) + 5.

Solution: For finding domain, set the argument of the function greater than 0 and solve for
x.

2x − 4 > 0
2x > 4
x > 2

Thus, domain = (2, ∞). As we have seen earlier, the range of any log function is the set of all
real numbers. So the range of f (x) is R.

1.2.4 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the relationship between ratios of
the sides of a right-angled triangle with its angles. The ratios used to study this relationship
are called trigonometric ratios, namely, sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant. The
word trigonometry is a 16th century Latin derivative and the concept was given by the Greek
mathematician Hipparchus. It is also important to mention that the word trigonometry is formed
by clubbing words ”Trigonon” and ”Metron” which means triangle and measure respectively.
Thus, this subsection aim at understanding more about the basics of trigonometry, the various
identities-formulas of trigonometry, and the real-life examples or applications of trigonometry.

Trigonometry Basics

There are two sets of units that are commonly used to measure angles: degrees and radians.
Trigonometry basics deal with the measurement of angles and problems related to angles.
Chapter 1: Functions 17

If we draw a circle with radius r, central angle θ and the length of the arc equal to the length of
the radius r, then the central angle θ is defined as 1 radian

arc length s
θ= = .
radius r

Thus, the angle given by a complete revolution contains 3600 , which is the same as 2π rad.
However, from geometry we know that the circumference of a circle is equal to 2πr and one
complete revolution is equal to 3600 (degrees). If we take the arc length of a circle as 2πr, then

2πr
θ == = 2π
r

This means that 3600 = 2π and 1800 = π. Thus

π
Degree × = radians
1800

1800
Radians × = degrees
π

Example:

5π
(1) Let y degrees = radians. Then
3

5π 1800
y = .
3 π
= 3000 .
Chapter 1: Functions 18

The following table gives the correspondence between degree and radian measures of some com-
mon angles together with the basic functions/ratios in trigonometry, namely, sine, cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant, cosecant.

θ (degrees) 00 300 450 600 900 1800 2700 3600

π π π π 3π
θ (radians) 0 π 2π
6 4 √3 2 2
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1 0 -1 0
√2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0 -1 0 1
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 Undefined 0 Undefined 0
3
√ 2
csc θ Undefined 2 2 √ 1 Undefined -1 Undefined
3
√ 1
cot θ Undefined 3 1 √ 0 Undefined 0 Undefined
3

Table 1.1: Specific angles and the values corresponding to the six trigonometric functions

It is important to note that the six trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of lengths of sides
of a right-angled triangle as follows

opposite hypotenuse
sin θ = csc θ =
hypotenuse opposite

adjacent hypotenuse
cos θ = sec θ =
hypotenuse adjacent

opposite adjacent
tan θ = cot θ =
adjacent opposite
Chapter 1: Functions 19

In a right-angled triangle shown above, we have the following three sides:

• Perpendicular - It is the side opposite to the angle theta.

• Base - This is the adjacent side to the angle theta.

• Hypotenuse - This is the side opposite to the right angle.

We can futher define the six trigonometric ratios in relation to the accompanying diagram below.

r
y

β
x

X2+y2=r2 (Pythagoras)
Chapter 1: Functions 20

y r
Sine: sin β = Cosecant: csc β =
r y

x r
Cosine: cos β = Secant: sec β =
r x

y x
Tangent: tan β = Cotangent: cot β =
x y

Basic Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity is a relationship among trigonometric functions. The most elementary

are the following, which are immediate consequences of the definitions of the trigonometric
functions.

1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

For the next identity we refer to Figure (1.2.4). The Pythagoras Theorem tells us that x2 +y 2 = r2 .
Therefore
y 2 x2 x2 + y 2 r2
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = + = = = 1.
r2 r2 r2 r2
We have therefore proved one of the most useful of all trigonometric identities:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. (1.2.4.1)

If we now divide both sides of (1.2.4.1) by cos2 θ we obtain

tan2 +1 = sec2 θ. (1.2.4.2)

Similarly, if we divide both sides of (1.2.4.1) by sin2 θ we obtain

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ. (1.2.4.3)

The identities

sin(−θ) = − sin θ (1.2.4.4)

cos(−θ) = cos θ (1.2.4.5)

Chapter 1: Functions 21

Show that sin is an odd function and cos is an even function. These can easily be proved by
drawing a diagram showing θ and −θ in standard position.
Since θ and θ + 2π have the same terminal side, we have

sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ (1.2.4.6)

cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ. (1.2.4.7)

These identities show that the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2π. The re-
maining trigonometric identities are all consequences of two basic identities called the addition
formulas:

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y (1.2.4.8)

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y. (1.2.4.9)

Replacing y by −y in the above equations we obtain the following subtraction formulas:

sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y (1.2.4.10)

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y. (1.2.4.11)

The formulas for tan(x ± y) are easily obtain from the above equations to be:

tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) = (1.2.4.12)
1 − tan x tan y

tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) = . (1.2.4.13)
1 + tan x tan y

If we put y = x in the addition formulas (1.2.4.8, 1.2.4.9) we obtain the double angle formulas:

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − sin2 x.

Chapter 1: Functions 22

Then, using the identity (1.2.4.1), we obtain the following alternate forms of the double angle
formulas for cos 2x:

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1

cos 2x = 1 − sin2 x

If we now solve these equations for cos2 x and sin2 x we get the following half-angle formulas:

1
cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2

1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x).
2

Finally we state the product formulas, which can be deduced from the addition and subtraction
formulas:

1
sin x cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]
2

1
cos x cos y = [cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)]
2

1
sin x sin y = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]
2

Trigonometric Functions Graphs

Different properties of a trigonometric function like domain, range, period and amptitude can be
studied using the trigonometric function graphs. The graphs of basic trigonometric functions-
Sine and Cosine are given below:
Chapter 1: Functions 23

The domain and range of sin and cosine functions can thus be given as:

• sin θ: Domain (−∞, +∞); Range [−1, +1]; period (2π); and amptitude (1).

• cos θ: Domain (−∞, +∞); Range [−1, +1]; period (2π); and amptitude (1).

However, For trignometric function of the form y = asinbθ and y = acosbθ the amplitude is |a|
360
and the period is .
|a|

Applications of Trigonometry

Throughout history, trigonometry has been applied in areas such as architecture, celestial me-
chanics, surveying, etc. Its applications include in:

• Various fields like oceanography, seismology, meteorology, physical sciences, astronomy,

acoustics, navigation, electronics, and many more.

• It is also helpful to find the distance of long rivers, measure the height of the mountain, etc.

• Spherical trigonometry has been used for locating solar, lunar, and stellar positions.
Chapter 1: Functions 24

1.3 More on Function Domains

Finding the Domain of a Function

Often the domain of a function is not stated explicitly. In such cases the domain is the set of all
values of the argument for which the given function makes sense. For example the domain of

√
f (x) = x

is the set of all non-negative real numbers since in our case the square root makes sense only for
x ≥ 0.
In finding the domain (and in some instances the range) of a function, always remember that
square roots of negative numbers and division by zero are not permissible.

Example: The squaring function assigns to each real number x its square x2 . It is defined by
f (x) = x2 . Find the domain and range of f .

Solution: The domain of f is the set R of all real numbers. The range of f consist of all the
values of f (x), that is all the numbers of the form, x2 . But x2 ≥ 0 for all the numbers x ∈ R.
Therefore, Rf = {y|y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞).

(x + 3)
Example: Find the domain and the range of h(x) =
(x − 2)
Solution: h(x) is defined for all values of x except x = 2. Thus,

Dh = {x|x ∈ R, x ̸= 2}

(x + 3)
To find the range, it will be beneficial to replace h by y to get y = . Solving this equation
(x − 2)
for x yields, x = (3 + 2y)/(y − 1). This shows that

Rh = {y|y ∈ R, y ̸= 1}.

It is worth noting that it is not always possible to make x subject of the formula as was the case
above.

Example: Find the domain and the range of z(x) = −sqrtx(1 − x).
Chapter 1: Functions 25

Solution: The domain of z is the set of all x such that x(1 − x) ≥ 0. The condition is met when
both x and 1 − x are of the same sign or one of them is zero.

x<0 x=0 0≤x≤1 x=1 x>1

x − 0 + + +
(1 − x) + + + 0 −
x(1 − x) − 0 + 0 −

Thus Dz = {x| 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}. Rz = {y| − 1/2 ≤ y ≤ 0}. We considered the values of y

corresponding to the values of x in the domain.
Chapter 2

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2.1 Introduction

Calculus is one of the most important branches of mathematics that deals with continuous change.
It was developed by Newton (1642 - 1727) and Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) to deal with changing
quantities. The two major concepts that calculus is based on are derivatives and integrals. The
derivative of a function is the measure of the rate of change of a function, while integral is the
measure of the area under the curve of the function. The derivative gives the explanation of the
function at a specific point whereas the integral accumulates the discrete values of a function
over a range of values.

Calculus Definition: Calculus in Mathematics is generally used in mathematical models to ob-

tain optimal solutions and thus helps in understanding the changes between the values related by
a function. Calculus is broadly classified into two different sections:

I. Differential Calculus

II. Integral Calculus

It is worth mentioning that one of the important concepts in calculus that is essential to study is
Limits
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 27

2.2 Limits of Functions and Continuity

Limits of the function and continuity of the function are closely related to each other. Functions
can be continuous or discontinuous. For a function to be continuous, if there are small changes
in the input of the function then must be small changes in the output.

2.2.1 Limits

Limits in maths are defined as the values that a function approaches the output for the given
input values. Limits play a vital role in calculus and mathematical analysis and are used to define
integrals, derivatives, and continuity. Limits in maths are unique real numbers. Let us consider a
real-valued function “f ” and the real number “c”, the limit is normally defined as

lim f (x) = L.
x→c

It is read as ”the limit of f of x, as x approaches c equals L”. The “lim” shows the limit, and fact
that function f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches c is described by the right arrow.

Properties of the limits of the function: A function may approach two different limits. One
where the variable approaches its limit through values larger than the limit and the other where
the variable approaches its limit through values smaller than the limit. In such a case, the limit is
not defined but the right and left-hand limits exist.

• When the lim f (x) = A+ , given the values of f near x to the right of a. This value is said
x→a
to be the right hand limit of f (x) at a.

• When the lim f (x) = A− , given the values of f near x to the left of a. This value is said
x→a
to be the left hand limit of f (x) at a.
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 28

• The limit of a function exists if and only if the left-hand limit is equal to the right-hand
limit, that is
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L
x→a− x→a

2.2.2 Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a particular point x = a, if the following three

conditions are satisfied:

• f (a) is defined

• lim f (x) exists

x→a

• lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (a)

x→a x→a

If any one of these three conditions is not satisfied then the function is said to be discontinuous
at x = a.
Roughly speaking, a function is said to be continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting
the pen from the paper.

2.3 Defination of Differentiation

Differentiation is the process of finding derivatives of a function is called differentiation in cal-

culus. A derivative is the rate of change of a function with respect to another quantity. The
laws of Differential Calculus were laid by Sir Isaac Newton as previous mentioned. The speed
is calculated as the rate of change of distance with respect to time. This speed at each instant is
not the same as the average calculated. Speed is the same as the slope, which is nothing but the
instantaneous rate of change of the distance over a period of time. Differentiation is similar to
finding the slope of a tangent to the function at a point. Suppose you need to find the slope of
the tangent line to a graph at point P. The slope can be approximated by drawing a line through
point P and finding the slope by a line that is known as the secant line.
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 29

Figure 2.1: Slope of the Curve

2.3.1 Increments and Rates

Recall a derivative is defined as the instantaneous rate of change in function based on one of its
variables. Let a variable x have a first value x1 and then a second value x2 . The change in the
value of x, which is (x2 − x1 ), is called the increment in x and is denoted by ∆x. Suppose that
y = f (x), when x has the value x1 , then y would have the value y1 = f (x1 ). Similarly, when
x has the value x2 , y would also have the value y2 = f (x2 ). Therefore, the increment in y is
∆y = y2 − y1 = f (x1 + ∆x) − f (x1 ). In general ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x). Alternatively,

y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x)

. In the cases illustrated below, we see that ∆x > 0, ∆y > 0 in the first case and ∆x > 0,
∆y < 0 in the second case:
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 30

Figure 2.2: Graphs of y = f (x)

Example 1: Given f (x) = x2 , find ∆y if x = 1 and ∆x = 0.2

Solution:

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= f (1 + 0.2) − f (1)
= f (1.2) − f (1)
= 0.44

Example 2: For the function y = x2 , find ∆y for the general values of x and ∆x.

Solution:

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= (x + ∆x)2 − x2
= x2 + 2x∆x + ∆x2 − x2
= 2x∆x + ∆x2

Example 3: The size of an insect population at time t (measured in days) is given by

f (t) = 5000 − 3000/(1 + t).

Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 31

Determine the change in the population when t = 2 and ∆t = 3

Solution:

∆y = f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
= f (2 + 3) − f (2)
= f (5) − f (2)
= 5000 − 3000/(1 + 5) − (5000 − 3000/(1 + 2))
= 500

Thus the population increases by 500 during the 3 days that follow the second day. This than led
us to the concept of average rate of change of a function which is defined as follow:

Definition: The average rate of change of a function f over an interval x to x + ∆x is defined

by the ratio ∆y/∆x. Thus
∆y (f (x + ∆x) − f (x))
= .
∆x ∆x

Example: A population of bacteria is introduced to a nutrient medium. Suppose that the weight
of the population in milligrams changes according to the formula

100t
P (t) = 50 −
(21 + t2 )

where t is the time measured in hours. Determine the average rate of growth of the population
during the five hour period starting at t = 2 hr.

Solution When t = 2 and ∆t = 5. Therefore, we get

∆y (P (t + ∆t) − P (t))
=
∆x ∆t
(P (2 + 5) − P (2))
=
5
((50 − 700/(21 + 49)) − (50 − 200/(21 + 4)))
=
5
(60 + 58)
=
5
= 0.4 mg/hr
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 32

2.3.2 Express the derivative of a function as a limit

The principles of limits and derivatives are used in many disciplines of science. Now take a
16 − 9
point near P , say Q1 (4, 16). The gradient of the line P Q1 is = 7 which is approximately
1
equals the gradient of the tangent at P. To get better approximation we try again, this time with
3.25
Q2 (3.5, 12.25) which is closer to P . The gradient of P Q2 = = 6.5 Now check what
0.5
happens if we repeat this, taking positions of Q closer to P , and evaluating the gradients.

Coordinates of Q QR PR Gradient
(3.3, 10.89) 1.89 0.3 6.3
(3.1, 9.61) 0.61 0.1 6.1
(3.01, 9.0601) 0.0601 0.01 6.01
(3.001, 9.006001) 0.006001 0.001 6.001
(3.0001, 9.00060001) 0.00060001 0.0001 6.0001
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .

The sequence of values suggests that as we continue, taking Q closer and closer to P , the gradient
approaches 6. We say that 6 is the limiting value or limit of the sequence. As Q → P (Q tends
to P ), the gradient of P Q → 6 and we take this limit value as the gradient at P . Mathematically,
we write this in the form
f (3 + h) − f (3)
lim = 6.
h→0 h
In general, at every point (x, f (x)) on the graph of a function y = f (x) where a unique tangent
can be constructed , the tangent will have a gradient given by

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim .
h→0 h

Because this function is derived from the function f , it is called the derivative of f with respect
dy
to x and it is denoted by the symbol f ′ (x) or . That is,
dx

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h

or
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim .
dx h→0 h
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 33

Example 31. Find f ′ (x) if f (x) = 2x2 .

f (x + h) = 2(x + h)2 = 2(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) = 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2

f (x + h) − f (x) = 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 − 2x2 = 4xh + 2h2 .

Therefore

f (x + h) − f (x) 4xh + 2h2

=
h h
h(4x + 2h)
=
h
= 4x + 2h.

This implies

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
= lim (4x + 2h)
h→0
= 4x + 0
= 4x.

2.4 The Derivative

To avoid using the first principle every time we differentiate, we make use of established deriva-
tives called standard forms. These standard forms are given below without proof.

1. If f (x) = k, where k is a constant, then f ′ (x) = 0.

2. If f (x) = xn , where n ia a real number and n ̸= 0, then f ′ (x) = nxn−1 .

3. If f (x) = k.g(x), where k is a constant, then f ′ (x) = k.g ′ (x).

4. If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) + h′ (x).

Example: Differentiate the following

(a) f (x) = 5
Solution: f ′ (x) = 0.

(b) f (x) = x3 .
Solution: f ′ (x) = 3x3−1 = 3x2 .
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 34

1
(c) f (x) =
x2
2
Solution: f (x) = x−2 and hence f ′ (x) = −2x−2−1 = − 3 .
x
1
(d) f (x) = x5
5
1
Solution: f ′ (x) = (5x5−1 ) = x4 .
5
4
(e) f (x) = x2 + 5x3 − 7x + 3 − 3
x
′ 2 15
Solution: f (x) = 2x + 15x − 7 + 4 .
x
We should note that being asked to differentiate a given function is equivalent to being asked to
find its gradient function. Furthermore, the gradient function is also called the first derivative,
or simply the derivative. Figure 2.3 illustrate gradient function of some common functions

Figure 2.3: The gradient function of some common functions.

It is worth mentioning that at this point, finding the gradient of a graph is now a simple matter.
Thus, once finding the gradient of a given function of x, we can then able to obtain the gradient of
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 35

such function at any value of x. This can be achieved by substituting that value into the gradient
function. If, after carrying out this substitution, the result is negative, then the curve is falling. If
the result is positive, the curve is rising. The size of the gradient function is a measure of how
rapidly this fall or rise is taking place. We write y ′ (x = 2) or simply y ′ (2) to denote the value of
the gradient function when x = 2.

Example: Find the gradient of y = x2 at the points where

(a) x = 1, (b) x = 0 (c) x = 2 (d) x = 3

Solution: We firstly find the gradient function of y = x2 to obtain y ′ = 2x. Therefore,

(a) When x = 1 the gradient of the graph is then y ′ (1) = 2(1) = 2. The fact that the gradient
is negative means that the curve is falling at the point.

(b) When x = 0 the gradient is y ′ (0) = 2(0) = 0. The gradient of the curve is zero at this
point. This means that the curve is neither falling nor rising.

(c) When x = 2 the gradient is y ′ (2) = 2(2) = 4. The fact that the gradient is positive means
that the curve is rising.

(d) When x = 3 the gradient is y ′ (3) = 2(3) = 6 and so the curve is rising here.

Thus, comparing this answer in part (d) with that of part (c) we conclude that the curve is rising
more rapidly at x = 3 than at x = 2, where the gradient was found to be 4.

Exercise:
dy
1. Find from the first principle:
dx
(a) y = 3x2 + 1 (b) y = 2 − 4x2
1 x2
(c) y = x + (b) y = −x+3
x 2
dy
2. (a) Find if y = x2 + ax + 3, where a is a constant.
dx
(b) Hence, find the value of a if the gradient of the function y = x2 + ax + 3 is 2.

3. Differentiate A = 2πr2 + 2πrh with respect to r, where h is a constant.

Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 36

2.5 Other Rules for Finding Gradient Functions

In this section, we are going to study the three rules of differentiation namely, the product, quo-
tient and chain rules. These rules extend the range of functions that we are able to differen-
tiate. Using the product rule we are able to differentiate products of functions. Products of
functions occur when one function is multiplied by another. For example, the product of the
functions x3 and sin 2x is x3 sin 2x. Thus, the product rule enables us to differentiate the product
y = x3 sin 2x. Moreover, using the quotient rule we can also able to differentiate quotients of
functions. A quotient is formed when one function is divided by another. For example, when
x2
x2 is divided by x3 + 1 we obtain the quotient 3 . Thus, the quotient rule enables us to
x +1
x2
differentiate functions of the form y = 3 . Furthermore, sometimes we will come across a
x +1
function, say y(x), where the variable x is itself a function of another variable, say t. So we have
y = y(x) and x = x(t). For example, suppose y(x) = x3 and x(t) = sin t. We say that y is a
function of a function and we can write:

y(x) = x3 = (sin t)2

Thus, the chain rule enables us to differentiate a function of a function. In the next three subsec-
tions, we now discuss each rule in detail.

2.5.1 The Product Rule

The product rule is such that if u and v are two functions of a variable, say x, and y = u(x)v(x),
then
dy du dv
= v + u.
dx dx dx
For example, differentiate y = x3 sin 2x by making the use of the product rule. Solution: We
firstly let u(x) = x3 and v(x) = sin 2x, so that y = u(x)v(x) = x3 sin 2x and differentiate u and
v with respect to x, respectively, we get

du dv
= 3x2 and = 2 cos 2x.
dx dx

Thus, using the product rule gives:

dy du dv
= v+ u
dx dx dx
= 3x2 × sin 2x + 2 cos 2x × x3
= x2 (3 sin 2x + 2x cos 2x)
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 37

2.5.2 The Quotient Rule

u(x)
The quotient rule is such that if u and v are two functions of a variable, say x, and y = ,
v(x)
then
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx .
dx v
sin x
For example, Use the quotient rule to differentiate y = . Solution: Firstly, we let u(x) =
x2
u(x) sin x
sin x and v(x) = x2 , so that y = = 2 , and then differentiate u and v with respect to x,
v(x) x
respectively, we get

du dv
= cos x and = 2x.
dx dx

Using the quotient rule we have

dy v du
dx
dv
− u dx
=
dx v2
2
x × cos x − sin x × 2x
=
(x2 )2
x(x cos x − 2 sin x)
=
x4
(x cos x − 2 sin x)
=
x3

2.5.3 The Chain Rule

The chain rule is such that if y = y(x) and x = x(t), then

dy dy dx
= × .
dt dx dt

dx
For example, use the chain rule to find when y = cosx and x = t2 . Solution: Differentiate
dt
y = cosx with respect to x and x = t2 with respect to y, respectively, we get

dy dx
= − sin x and = 2t.
dx dt
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 38

Using the chain rule,

dy dy dx
= ×
dt dx dt
= (− sin x) × 2t
= −2t sin t2 , since x = t2 .

Exercise:

• Differentiate the following functions using appropriate rules.

sin x
1. y = .
ex
2. f (x) = 2x ln x.
x+1
3. y = .
x2 + 1
sin x
4. y = .
cos x
5. y = (7x + 3)4 .
6. f (t) = e−2t+3 .
7. g(a) = ln(3x − 2).

2.5.4 Finding Higher-Order Derivatives

Since the derivative of a function is also a function, then we can also find the derivative of this
function. It is customary to refer to the function thus obtained as the second derivative (of a
d2 y
function). Mathematical, we denote this by f ′′ (x) or 2 . This process can be continued. Thus,
dx
d3 y
the derivative of the second derivative is the third derivative and is denoted by f ′′′ (x) or 3 and
dx
so on. For example: if

f (x) = x5 − 2x4 + 3x3 − x − 1, (2.5.4.1)

Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 39

then

f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 8x3 + 9x2 − 1,

f ′′ (x) = 20x3 − 24x + 18x,
f ′′′ (x) = 60x2 − 48x + 18,
f (4) (x) = 120x − 48,
f (5) (x) = 120,
f (6) (x) = 0.

Exercise:
ds d2 s 2
1. Find and 2 if s = 3t2 − 2
dt dt t
d2 y
2. If y = (ax + 2)2 and = 18, find the value of a
dx2
ds
3. If s = 3t3 − 30t2 + 36t + 2, find the values of t for which = 0 and the value of t for
dt
d2 s
which = 0.
dt2
A d2 y dy
4. if y = + Bx, where A and B are constants, show that x2 2 + x = y.
x dx dx

2.6 Application of Differentiation

2.6.1 Finding maximum and minimum points of a curve

Consider the graph sketched in Figure 2.4 There are a number of important points marked on
this graph, all of which have one thing in common. At each point A, B, C and D the gradient of
the graph is zero. If you were travelling from the left to the right then at these points the graph
would appear to be flat. Points where the gradient is zero are known as stationary points. To the
left of point A the curve is rising; to its right the curve is falling. A point such as A is called
a maximum turning point or simply a maximum. To the left of point C the curve is falling; to
its right the curve is rising. A point such as C is called a minimum turning point, or simply a
minimum. Points B and D are known as points of inflexion. At these points the slope of the
curve is momentarily zero but then the curve continues rising or falling as before.

NB!!! Because at all these points the gradient is zero, they can be located by looking for values of
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 40

x that make the gradient function zero. Thus, stationary points are located by setting the gradient
function equal to zero, that is y ′ = 0.

Figure 2.4: The curve has a maximum at A, a minimum at C and points of inflexion at B and D

There are a number of ways to determine the nature of a stationary point once its location has
been found. One way, as we have seen, is to sketch a graph of the function. Two alternative
methods are now described in the following subsequential subsections.

2.6.2 Determining the nature of stationary points of a curve

At a stationary point we know that the gradient is zero. If this stationary point is a minimum, then
we see from Figure 2.5 that, as we move from left to right, the gradient changes from negative to
zero to positive. Therefore a little to the left of a minimum the gradient function will be negative;
a little to the right it will be positive. Conversely, if the stationary point is a maximum, as we
move from left to right, the gradient changes from positive to zero to negative. A little to the left
of a maximum the gradient function will be positive; a little to the right it will be negative.
Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 41

Figure 2.5: The sign of the gradient function close to a stationary point

The behaviour of the gradient function close to a point of inflexion is also shown. The sign of
the gradient function is the same on both sides of a point of inflexion. With this information we
can determine the nature of a stationary point without first plotting a graph.

2.6.3 The second-derivative test for maximum and minimum points

The second methods for determining the nature of a stationary point of a curve once it has been
located is the second derivative. The following are the conditions for determining the nature of a
stationary point:

(i) If y ′′ is positive at the stationary point, the point is a minimum.

(ii) If y ′′ is negative at the stationary point, the point is a maximum.

(iii) If y ′′ is equal to zero, this test does not tell us anything and the previous method should be
used.

Example: Locate the stationary points of

x3 x2
y= + − 12x + 5
3 2

and determine their nature using the second-derivative test.

Solution:

• First step: Find the gradient function to get y ′ = x2 + x − 12.

Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 42

• Second step: Set the gradient function equal to zero to locate the stationary points, i.e.
y ′ = 0, such that

x2 + x − 12 = 0
(x + 4)(x − 3) = 0

which gives x = −4 and x = 3

• Third step: Differentiate y ′ to get y ′′ = 2x + 1

• Fourth step: Evaluate y ′′ at each stationary point, i.e.:

y ′′ (−4) = 2(−4) + 1 = −7 < 0, =⇒ maximum point.

y ′′ (3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7 > 0, =⇒ minimum point.

Exercise:

1. Determine the location and nature of any stationary point of the following functions:

(a) y = x2 + 1 (b) y = −x2

(c) y = 2x3 + 27x2 (d) y = x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 1

2. Find the maximum and minimum points of 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 1.

3. Determine the location and nature of the stationary points of y = x5 − 5x + 1.

Chapter 3

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

3.1 Overview of integration

Sometimes we are interested in knowing where certain things come from. For instance, we would
like to know which function was differentiated to get

dy
= x3 .
dt

We would find out if we reverse the process of differntiation. Remember, to differentiate y = xn ,

we first multiply xn by n and then decrease the index/ exponent by one to get

dy
= nxn−1 .
dx

So, if we reverse the process, we shall first increase the exponent by one and then divide the
whole expression by the new exponent. Let us check with nxn−1 . We shall have

nxn−1+1 nxn
+ = xn .
n−1+1 n

Now, for
dy
= x3
dx
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 44

we find that
x3+1 x4
y= =
3+1 4
is the function which was differentiated. This
Z process of reversing differentiation is called Inte-
gration. It is indicated by the integral sign . For example,

x3+1 x4
Z
x3 dx = = .
3+1 4
Z
• The expression f (x)dx is called the indefinite integral and the function f is the integrand
of the integral, x is the variable of integration. Thus, in the above example x3 is the
integrand.

• If
y = x5 + 7

then
dy
= 5x4
dx
and if
y = x5 − 12

then
dy
= 5x4 .
dx
• Now, when we integrate (reverse differentiation) we find

5x4 + 1
Z
5x4 dx = = x5 .
4+1

Aren’t we suppose to get either x5 + 7 or x5 − 12? It seems we have lost constants 7 and
−12. To compensate for the “lost” constant we add an arbitrary constant in the form of a
letter C, that is Z
5x4 dx = x5 + C.

• In general,
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C, n ̸= −1
n+1
where C is called the constant of integration.

[Always add a constant of integration, C, whenever you integrate the indefinite integral]
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 45

Example 1 Integrate with respect to the given variable.

(i) 8x7 , (ii) 7, (iii) 3x2 + 6x, and (iv) (y − 6)(y 3 − 1).
Solution:

(i)
8x7+1 8x8
Z
8x7 dx = +C = + C = x8 + C
7+1 8

(ii)
7x0+1
Z Z
7dx = 7x0 dx = + C = 7x + C
0+1

(iii)
Z Z Z
2 2
(3x + 6x)dx = 3x dx + 6xdx
3x2+1 6x1+1
= + C1 + + C2
2+1 1+1
3x3 6x2
= + + C [C = C1 + C2 ]
3 2
= x3 + 3x2 + C

(iv) Note that, here the variable of integration is y. Hence, we say that we integrate with respect
to y. Therefore
Z Z
3
(y − 6)(y − 1)dy = (y 4 − 6y 3 − y + 6)dy
Z Z Z Z
4 3
= y dy − 6y dy − ydy + 6dy
y 5 6y 4 y 2
= − − + 6y + C
5 4 2
y 5 3y 4 y 2
= − − + 6y + C.
5 2 2

Properties of integration
If f (x) and g(x) are functions of x, and α and β are constants, then
Z Z
• αf (x)dx = α f (x)dx
Z Z Z
• [f (x) ± g(x)]dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
Z Z Z
• [αf (x) ± βg(x)]dx = α f (x)dx ± β g(x)dx.
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 46

Exercise 1 Integrate the following functions

(i) 3x2 (ii) 2 − 8x + x2 (iii) 18y 5 − 15y 9
1
(iv) (x − 2)(x − 5) (v) (y + 3)2 (vi) 4 .
x
Evaluating the constant of integration
The value of the constant of integration may be found if the corresponding values of the involved
variables is known (if the coordinates of at least one point on the curve are known).

Example 2 The gradient of the curve which passes through the point (2;20) is given by 5x4 . Find
the equation of the curve.
Solution: We are given
dy
= 5x4 . (3.1.0.1)
dx
So, we have to integrate to find the function y. Thus

5x5
Z
y= 5x4 dx = + C = x5 + C 1 (3.1.0.2)
5

Now, we substituting the values x = 2 and y = 20 in equation (3.1.0.2) gives

20 = 55 + C

So that
C = −12.

Hence the equation of the curve is

y = x5 − 12.

Example 3 Find the equation of the curve which passes through the point (1:6) and is such that
dy
= 8x + 3.
dx
dy
Solution: Since = 8x + 3, then
dx
Z
y = (8x + 3)dx
Z Z
= 8xdx + 3dx
8x2
= + 3x + C
2
= 4x2 + 3x + C. (3.1.0.3)
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 47

Now, substituting the values x = 1 and y = 6 in equation(3.1.0.3) we find

6 = 4(1)2 + 3(1) + C

which gives
C = −1.

Hence the equation of the curve is

4x2 + 3x − 1.

Exercise 2

1. Find the constant of integration if

dy
(a) = 2x + 2 and the curve passes through the point (2; 5).
dx
dy
(b) = 3x2 − 4x and the curve passes theough the point (3; 14).
dx
2. Find the equation of the curve which passes through the point

(a) (3; 8) and is such that f ′ (x) = x2 + 3

(b) (−4; −13) and is such that f ′ (x) = 2x.

3. The gradient of the curve which passes through the point (2; 3) is given by x. Find the
equation of the curve.

3.2 Definite integral

Z b
There are instances where we have to apply definite integral, that is, f (x)dx. For example,
a
we use the definite integrals when we calculate areas and volumes as we shall see in the next sec-
Z b
tions. The number a and b in f (x) are called limits of integration, a being the lower limit and
a
b the upper limit. Notice that in case of the indefinite integral there are no limits of integration.
Example
Z 2 4 EvaluateZ 2the following definite integrals
(i) x2 dx (ii) (x3 + 3)dx
1 0

Solution:
2 2
x3 23 13
Z     
2 8 1 7
(i) x dx = = − = − =
1 3 1 3 3 3 3 3
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 48

(ii)

2 2
x4
Z 
3
(x + 3)dx = + 3x
0 4 0
 4   4 
2 0
= + 3(2) − + 3(0)
4 4
16
= +6−0
4
= 10.

Exercise
Z 3 3 Evaluate the Zfollowing definite
Z integrals
2 0
(i) (2x + 4)dx (ii) x3 dx (iii) (2x2 − 3)dx.
2 0 −3

3.2.1 Area under a curve

We can find the area of a triangle or rectangle by geometry. But with calculus we can even find
the areas on non-standard shapes using integration. Let us consider the area bounded by the
graphs y = x, x = 4 and the positive x-axis.

Figure 3.1:

The shaded area in the diagram is the area of triangle ABC. Thus

1
Area of △ ABC = b×h
2
1
= (4)(4)
2
= 8.
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 49

or
Z 4
Area = ydx
0
Z 4
= xdx [y = x]
0
 2 4
c
=
2 0
2
4 02
= −
2 2
= 8.

If we check well along the x-axis we see that the shaded area begin from x = 0 up to x = 4,
hence x = 0 and x = 4 are the limits of integration.

Example 5 Find the area of a rectangle bounded by the lines x = −2, x = 4, y = 3 and the
x-axis.
Solution: We work out the solution in geometry and calculus respectivily.

Figure 3.2:

Geometry

Area of a rectangle = l × b = 6 × 3 = 18
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 50

Calculus

Z 4
Area = ydx
−2
Z 4
= 3dx
−2
= [3x]4−2
= 3(4) − 3(−2)
= 18.

Now, let us find the area of a non-standard shape as in the diagram below.

Figure 3.3:

The area is bounded above by y = x2 + 2, below by the x-axis and on the sides by the lines x = 1
and x = 3. Thus
Z 3
Area B = (x2 + 2)dx
1
 3 3
x
= + 2x
3 1
 3   3 
3 1
= + 2(3) − + 2(1)
3 3
38
= .
3

Exercise 4 Find the areas bounded by the x-axis and the following

1. y = x2 − 2x; x = 0 and x = 2.
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 51

2. y = 3 + 2x + 3x2 ; x = 1 and x = 2.

3. y = x2 (2x − 1); x = 1 and x = 3.

√
4. y = x; x = 0 and x = 4.

3.3 Solid of Revolution

Solid generated by revolving the area under a curve about the x-axis are called solids of revolu-
tion. Solids like cylinders, spheres, hand weights, etc. are solids of revolution. The following
formula is used to determine/calculate the volume of solid of revolution:
Z b
V = πy 2 dx
a

where y = f (x) is the continuous function that bounds the revolving are (above or below the
x-axis).

Example 6 The area between the curve y = x, the positive x-axis and the coordinates x = 0 and
x = 3 is rotated about the x-axis. Calculate the volume of the solid generated.
Solution:

Figure 3.4:
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 52

The solid generated Figure (3.4 ii) is a right circular cone. Geometrically the volume is calculated
as follos:

1 2
Volume of cone = πr h
3
1
= π(3)2 (3)
3
= 9π.

Using integration we find

Z b
V = πy 2 dx
Za 3
= πx2 dx
0
 3 3
πx
=
3 0
π33
= −0
3
= 9π.

Example 7 Find thte volume of the solid generated when the area under the curve y = 2x2 is
rotated about the x-axis between the lines x = 0 and x = 2.
Solution:

Figure 3.5:

We use the formula Z b

V = πy 2 dx
a
Chapter 3: Integral Calculus 53

with a = 0 and b = 2. Thus

Z 2
V = π(2x2 )2 dx
Z0 2
= 4πx4 dx
0
2
4πx5

=
5 0
4π25
= −0
5
128π
= .
5

Exercise 5 Find the volume of solid of revolution when the areas under the following curves are
revolving about the x-axis. (Leave answers as multiples of π).

• y = 2 between the lines x = 3 and x = 7.

• y = x + 2 between the lines x = 0 and x = 4.

√
• y= x between the lines x = 2 and x = 5.
√
• y= x2 − 9 between the lines x = −3 and x = 3.