Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste

towards an application on structural concrete: A review
Fernanda de Andrade Salgado *, Flávio de Andrade Silva
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Rua Marquês de São Vicente
225, Postal Code, 22451-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The construction sector, in addition to being very important for the economy of several countries,
Construction waste also has a significant impact on the environment as it causes a huge natural resources depletion
Recycled aggregate concrete and generates an enormous amount of waste. Therefore, the use of recycled aggregate from
Mechanical properties construction and demolition waste, instead of conventional aggregates, has a double environ­
Structural performance mental advantage: it decreases the consumption of natural resources and reduces the land needed
for waste disposal. Thus, in the last decades, many researches have been conducted to analyse the
feasibility of recycled aggregate in several civil engineering works, which can help in a long way
the economic and environmental sustainability of countries. This article presents a literature
review on the production and utilization of recycled aggregate in concrete. Because of its higher
water absorption and lower density, the use of recycled aggregate can cause a slight reduction in
workability and compressive strength of concrete. Thus, authors have evaluated methods to
remove the adhered mortar or to seal the pores of recycled aggregates, enhancing the material
quality. Some articles also show the feasibility of using recycled aggregate concrete in structural
elements, either through reduced-scale elements at a laboratory or full-scale elements in real
projects. Summarily, this review may help to alleviate the concerns of consumers and further
promote the use of recycled aggregate on a larger scale in civil engineering. The literature survey
was conducted on an extensive database; however, a greater emphasis was placed on articles
published after the year 2000.

1. Introduction
The construction sector is responsible for approximately 6 billion tons of CO2 emissions [1]. Furthermore, the demand for raw
material as aggregate for concrete is around 2.7 billion tons/year in EU countries altogether [2], 900 million tons/year in the USA [3],
and 700 million tons/year in Brazil [4]. Besides, at the end of the construction chain, the construction of new buildings and demolition
and maintenance of existing structures generate excessive waste. This construction and demolition waste, commonly abbreviated to
CDW, covers many materials, such as concrete, tiles, ceramics, plastic, wood, glass, bituminous mixtures, metals, and even soil.
CDW accounts for approximately 36% of total waste produced on Earth [5]. In the USA, CDW discarded increased from 50 million
tons in 1980 to 548 million tons in 2015 [6]. In China, the annual CDW production exceeds 1.5 billion tons [7]; meanwhile, in Eu­
ropean Union countries, it reaches about 850 million tons/year, representing 31% of the total waste generation in the EU [8]. In 2016,
Brazilian municipalities produced around 45 million tons of CDW, equivalent to approximately 124 thousand tons/day [9].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F. de Andrade Salgado), [email protected] (F. de Andrade Silva).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104452
Received 28 December 2021; Received in revised form 28 March 2022; Accepted 29 March 2022
Available online 1 April 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

Thus, improper CDW disposal is a huge problem faced by many countries. Irregular disposal in open dumps has enormous potential
for environmental contamination, causes flooding and landscape damage, and harms human health as it enables disease proliferation
[10].
According to the USA Code of Federal Regulation 40 CFR section 258.2, all construction and demolition waste must be sent to
special landfills [11]; meanwhile, the EU members follow the Council Directive 2000/532/EC, which states that members should draw
up waste management plans, looking for waste reduction and prohibition of uncontrolled discharge [12].
In Brazil, in 2010, Federal Law no. 12.305 established the guidelines to reduce waste generation, increase recycling, promote eco-
efficiency and sustainable development, and encourage appropriate waste disposal. However, about 60% of Brazilian municipalities
disposed of their waste inappropriately in open dumps [10].
Although recycling and re-use are good alternatives to waste disposal, in Europe and the USA, for example, only 30% of the total
CDW volume is consigned to recycling [13]. This rate is even lower in some countries, such as China (5%) [7] and Portugal (9%) [14].
In Brazil, a survey carried out in 2011 showed that CDW recycling plants operating at maximum capacity would recycle only 4.5% of
the CDW [15]. Meanwhile, in countries lacking natural resources and landfills, such as Japan, CDW recycling is about 85% [16]. Some
countries are applying charges on landfill dumping. For example, in New Zealand, a $10/tons charge was introduced in 2008 as landfill
sites became scarce each year [17]. In France, by federal law, illegal CDW dumping or incineration on site is punishable with two years’
imprisonment plus a 76 000 € fine [18]. As another recycling incentive, nowadays, buildings under construction or significant ren­
ovations can earn one to two points in the LEED Certification process when their non-hazardous construction and demolition wastes
are recycled or reused [19].
Despite the inexpressive number of CDW recycling, this process can generate a material known as a recycled aggregate. This
material can be considered an environment-friendly solution to the scarcity of natural resources and the increasing landfill require­
ment for CDW disposal.
Therefore, in the present literature review, different topics are addressed, such as characterization of CDW, the recycling process,
the influence of coarse recycled aggregates in concrete, and different methods to strengthen the material. It also presents the existent
standards for recycled aggregates and the structural performance of the recycled aggregate concrete. This review may increase un­
derstanding of recycled aggregate concrete, encouraging its use and generating not only numerous environmental benefits but also
improving the construction sector economically.

2. Characterization of CDW
CDW composition can be affected by several factors such as architectural techniques, raw materials, and construction/demolition
procedures. Nevertheless, concrete, mortar, and red ceramics are the main components of CDW, reaching above 70% by weight [20].
Fig. 1 shows a CDW pile and concrete waste from construction and demolition at Reciclax Recycling Plant in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.
In 2002, CONAMA (Brazilian National Council for the Environment) published the Resolution n◦ 307 [21] classifying CDW as:

• Class A: brick, tile, flooring board, mortar, and concrete;

• Class B: plastic, glass, cardboard, paper, wood, and metal;
• Class C: materials with no economically feasible recycling techniques (e.g., gypsum);
• Class D: hazardous waste (e.g., solvent, oil, paint, and materials that contain asbestos).
In the USA, the CDW classification includes the materials mentioned above and salvaged building components (e.g., doors, win­
dows, and plumbing), soil, and rocks from clearing sites [22].
Nevertheless, crushed concrete and crushed masonry are the primary CDW material that can be transformed into different types of
recycled aggregates, as described below [23]:

Fig. 1. (a) CDW pile and (b) Concrete waste stocked at Reciclax Recycling Plant (Ribeirão Preto, Brazil), before being processed through Ordinary Recycling Process
(images by authors).

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• Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA): consisting of a minimum of 90% by weight of Portland cement-based fragments.
• Recycled Masonry Aggregate (RMA): consisting of a minimum of 90% by weight of ceramic bricks, roofing tiles, and mortar
rendering.
• Mixed Recycled Aggregate (MRA) consists of masonry-based materials and Portland cement-based fragments, the latter being less
than 90%, by mass.
In addition to concrete and masonry-based materials, glass and plastic can also replace sand. When glass particles are smaller than
38 μm and used in replacement ratio up to 30%, a filler effect occurs. This filler effect improves the compressive strength of the
concrete and some long-term properties such as permeability and resistance to chloride ion penetration. If the glass can be ground even
finer, pozzolanic activity is expected to be remarkably improved [24–26].
When plastic aggregates are used in concrete, mechanical properties decline as the replacement ratio increases due to a weak bond
between plastic aggregates and cement paste and because plastic aggregates present low strength and low a modulus of elasticity [27,
28]. Nevertheless, concrete with plastic in substitution to fine aggregates can be used as sub-bases for highway pavements and
low-strength applications. Moreover, due to the increase in water absorption, recycled fine aggregates can be used in sports courts and
pavements where there is a need for proper water drainage [29].
Nevertheless, when processing recycled aggregate, every effort should be made to reduce as far as possible the percentage of
embedded items (e.g., wood, plastic, and glass). The weak bonding between these components and cementitious matrices can lead to
concrete with insufficient characteristics [30,31].

3. Recycling process
CDW recycling process transforms demolished materials into a smaller-sized fraction in mobile or fixed recycling plants [13]. The
number of recycling stages and different types of crushing influences recycled aggregates characteristics. Due to collision and peeling
off effects, the recycling process also improves the shape of aggregates leading to rounder and less sharp particles [23,32,33]. In this
mechanical grinding process, a high-speed rotating eccentric gear causes a rolling vibration effect which pulverizes the adhered mortar
[34]. Different recycled methods can be applied depending on the maximum feed size and the desired quality of the final output.
The “Ordinary Recycling Process” (ORP) comprehends different stages of crushing, screening, and sorting to remove contaminants
like reinforcement bars, plastic, and glass, for example. At this method, CDW passes through a primary crusher in a jaw crusher, which
can handle residual reinforcement bars and large pieces of concrete. Then iron scraps are removed using a magnetic separator, and the
remaining material passes through sieves. Thus, particles larger than 20 mm were crushed again in a secondary crusher, such as an
impact or rotary crusher. Secondary crushing can be repeated if necessary. A schematic representation of the “Ordinary Recycling
Process” can be seen in Fig. 2 [16,17,35,36].
Nevertheless, other mechanical methods allow higher quality recycled aggregates with similar characteristics to conventional ones.
In these methods, the impact or rotary crusher is substituted by an eccentric rotor, a screw crusher, or an improved jaw crusher [37].
During this more complex mechanical method, the input material is better processed, removing the adhered mortar and reducing the
size of the aggregates by continuous friction between them.
Besides the mechanical grinding, it is also possible to heat the recycled aggregate, weakening the adhered mortar. The high
temperature during the thermal process generates cracks in the adhered mortar, resulting in a decrease of mechanical strength and
then becoming easily removable from the original aggregate surface. The Heating and Sorting (HS-RK) method, for example, produces
recycled aggregates with only 2% of adhered mortar after thermal treatment up to 700 ◦ C in a rotary kiln [38]. In 2005, a method
known as Heating and Rubbing (HR-F) was presented. In this procedure, rough-crushed concrete pieces smaller than 40 mm are first
heated to approximately 300 ◦ C in a kerosene furnace during 40–60 min and then crushed and rubbed in a tube mill [39]. This process

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the Ordinary Recycling Process (ORP).

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was improved in 2011, using an impact crusher and a special microwave oven instead of a kerosene furnace [40]. At this new
technique, the material is heated for only 2 min, reducing energy consumption. Fig. 3 shows a schematic representation of such
recycling methods involving heat. Microwave weakening pre-treatment is effective irrespective of the nature of the aggregates used in
concrete and even when the material is exposed to a shallow microwave heating energy [41]. Generally, the adhered mortar is easily
removed with a higher temperature; however, the properties of RCA may be degraded when it exceeds 500 ◦ C. Besides the good results
of thermal grinding, it consumes a large amount of energy and produces additional carbon dioxide emissions.
Regarding the use of water, thermal expansion is an advanced wet recycling technique. In this method, CDW is immersed in water
for 2 h to saturate the adhered mortar thoroughly. After that, samples are dried at about 500 ◦ C for 2 h and then submerged in cold
water. While heating induces the formation of water vapor in the saturated adhered mortar, the immediate cooling causes stress and,
consequently, cracks in the adhered mortar, which can be easily removed afterward [42].
Wet techniques also include autogenous cleaning where RCA particles collide against each other in a rotating mill drum. Then the
material is cleaned with water and dried to remove all the remaining fines and impurities [43]. However, although these wet recycling
methods effectively remove the adhered mortar, they have a significant water demand, making the process more expensive.

4. Influence of coarse recycled aggregates in the concrete

4.1. Fresh state and workability
The shape of the coarse aggregate grains directly influences the quality of the concrete as it changes its workability and, conse­
quently, its mechanical strength. For the same workability, concrete made with rounded aggregates requires less mixing water than
concrete made with angular-shaped aggregates. Therefore, spherical aggregates are more advantageous as the water/cement ratio
highly affects the compressive strength of concretes. Also, irregular, elongated, and lamellar grains have a larger specific surface. They
can get stuck between the steel bars of the reinforced concrete, resulting in an irregular filling of shapes and the formation of concreting
niches, a phenomenon highly harmful to the performance of structural concrete elements. On the other hand, aggregates with an
angular shape offer higher adhesion to the mortar than rounded aggregates. Thus, for the same w/c ratio and guaranteeing a proper
casting and compaction, the use of angular aggregates leads to more resistant concretes.
There are, therefore, two antagonistic properties regarding the shape of coarse aggregates: the rounded shape, facilitating work­
ability and worsening adherence; and the angular shape, with worse workability, but enhancing the bond between aggregates and
mortar. Recycled aggregates are usually flatter and elongated than natural aggregates, exhibiting a higher shape index [44].
Another important consideration is that recycled aggregates have a higher water absorption capacity; thus, they absorb water from
the cement paste, resulting in concrete with poor workability and reduced control of the effective w/c ratio in the cement paste [45].
For Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA), this higher water absorption capacity can be explained by the presence of an adhered mortar,
characterized by micro-cracks and pores [46,47]. Likewise, as ceramic materials are naturally more porous than natural rocks,
Recycled Masonry Aggregate (RMA) and Mixed Recycled Aggregate (MRA) also absorb more water than conventional aggregate [48].
Therefore, when recycled aggregates are saturated before mixing, it improves not only workability but also the compressive strength of
hardened concrete [49].
The slump value of concretes made with recycled aggregates is influenced by the moisture states, shape, and replacement ratio
[46]. As the replacement ratio increases, concrete loses cohesion, which affects the homogeneity of the fresh concrete during casting.
Thus, the mechanical and durability properties of hardened concrete can be modified.

4.2. Hardened recycled aggregate concrete

4.2.1. Microstructure and interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
Conventional concrete is a two-phase composite with an interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregate and cement matrix.
The ITZ serves as a bridge between the aggregate and mortar matrix. Moreover, when the individual components have high stiffness,
the stiffness of the concrete may be low because of the voids and micro-cracks in the ITZ, which do not permit stress to be transferred

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of recycling processes involving heat.

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[50].
Fig. 4 shows an optical micrograph of recycled aggregate concrete made with 50% of mixed recycled aggregate (MRA). The figure
shows a natural aggregate, a recycled ceramic aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone between the cement mortar and the two
types of aggregates.
Concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) differs from conventional concrete by the presence of two ITZs: an old one,
between the conventional coarse aggregate and the adhered (old) mortar; and a new one, between adhered (old) mortar and new
cement matrix (Fig. 5). Through nanoindentation, the thickness of the old ITZ was measured between 40 and 50 μm, while for the new
ITZ, it ranges from 55 to 65 μm [51].
Therefore, in this case, the microstructure of recycled aggregate concrete is much more complicated than conventional concrete.
Being highly porous and having pre-existing cracks, the old ITZ makes the microstructure more fragile, affecting the mechanical
behavior of the recycled aggregate concrete [52]. The mechanical tests have shown that failure happens, in general, through the old
ITZ, meaning that the old mortar has a higher tendency to crack when compared with new mortar [53–55]. Nevertheless, the presence
of the old mortar does not affect the bond strength between recycled aggregate and new cement mortar [56].

4.2.2. Porosity and pore structure

Concrete is a compulsorily porous material regardless of the aggregate used. The voids in concrete can appear because of an excess
of water used to obtain suitable workability, a decrease in absolute volume from the hydration of cement constituents, air incorporated
during the mixing process, and cracks of different origins. As these voids are usually interconnected, concrete is customarily permeable
to liquids and gases. Consequently, it is crucial to understand the permeability of concrete, not only for its use in submerged con­
structions but also when aggressive agents can threaten the concrete durability.
Different methods can be used to evaluate the permeability of cement-based materials [57]. Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP),
water vapor adsorption and nitrogen adsorption are examples of techniques typically adopted. However, these methods assume that
the pore geometry is regular, interconnected pores and that water loss does not affect pores size distribution during the drying process.
Thus, as a single technique cannot sufficiently characterize the cement-based materials pore structure, Abell et al. [58] suggested a
combination of mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and microscopy with backscattered electron images (BSE).
The higher porosity of recycled aggregate concrete acts as a presumable canal for water transport. On average, recycled aggregate
concrete absorbs 25% more water than conventional concrete, independently of type and quantity of binder [47,59]. This higher water
absorption capacity affects the actual w/c ratio of concrete as concrete made with recycled coarse aggregates typically needs more
water than conventional concrete to obtain the same workability; it also affects the cement hydration process and the homogeneity of
the fresh concrete during casting, reducing the mechanical strength and durability of concrete. Besides that, there is no specific dis­
cussion in the literature regarding different curing methods to be applied to recycled aggregates. Like conventional concrete, recycled
aggregate concretes are kept under curing conditions, usually in a humid chamber, for 28 days.
The higher water absorption of recycled aggregates also affects the concrete drying shrinkage. In conventional concrete, the drying
shrinkage is mainly influenced by the cement mortar; meanwhile, coarse aggregates play an inhibitory effect on the shrinkage of
cement mortar. However, because of the higher water absorption of recycled aggregates, drying shrinkage increases with recycled
aggregate replacement ratio [32,60–62]. This effect is due to the higher deformability of recycled aggregate concretes, caused mainly
by the adhered mortar on the recycled aggregate surface, which also generates a weaker interfacial transition zone (ITZ) resulting in
less aggregate-restrained shrinkage.
Since density is the ratio between the mass and volume of the material, because of its higher porosity, recycled aggregate concrete
also presents a lower density than conventional concretes for all different strengths and curing ages [32,59]. The existing voids in the
concrete facilitate the propagation of cracks, reducing the strength of the hardened concrete. The higher permeability of recycled
aggregate concrete also makes it more susceptible to aggression by external agents such as chloride ions, reducing its durability.

Fig. 4. Optical micrograph of a concrete sample made with Mixed Recycled Aggregate (MRA).

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Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of old and new ITZ.

This pore structure also interferes with the mechanical strength of the aggregate itself. Regarding its resistance from crushing and
degradation, recycled aggregate has a higher aggregate crushing value, higher Los Angeles abrasion index, and lower “10% fine” value
[32,46,47,62]. As an example, Table 1 compares some properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) with natural granitic coarse
aggregate (NAT) [63].
However, this influence on porosity is less critical at higher ages because of the continuation of the hydration process, generating
calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) increasingly. Kwan et al. [64] showed that, at later ages, microstructure becomes denser and
capillary spaces become narrowed. Moreover, after Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV), it was observed that although UPV values
decreased for a higher recycled aggregate replacement ratio (indicating a higher number of cracks and voids), the UPV values were still
acceptable for all samples. Thus, these results suggested that recycled aggregate concretes do not contain large voids or cracks directly
affecting their structural integrity.

4.2.3. Mechanical behavior

The impact on concrete mechanical behavior when using recycled aggregate to replace natural coarse aggregate has been
extensively studied. Like conventional concrete, the compressive strength increases over the age of the recycled aggregate concrete.
However, as the recycled aggregate replacement ratio increases, the compressive strength at a given age usually decreases.
Nonetheless, the results vary considerably among the several studies already published referring to the compressive strength of
concrete produced with recycled aggregate. Two main reasons can explain this significant variability. First, the same recycled
aggregate can cause different impacts in concrete depending on the quality of the mechanical properties of the natural aggregate to be
replaced. Second, different studies usually adopt different strategies: concretes with the same water/cement ratio, the same effective
water/cement ratio, or the same workability (which leads to a different water/cement ratio). Furthermore, the conclusions also depend
on the recycled aggregates’ shape, size, composition, and mechanical properties [65].
Several studies have shown that tensile strength also decreases when the replacement ratio of recycled aggregate increases. This
reduction can reach 13% for higher replacement ratios [59,66–71]. This reduction in tensile strength has a direct impact on the use of
recycled aggregates in structural elements. It reduces the shear strength and the flexural cracking load of recycled reinforced concrete
beams compared to beams made with conventional concrete.
Bravo et al. [44] analyzed the mechanical performance of concretes made with recycled aggregate from different locations in

Table 1
Properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and natural granitic coarse aggregate (NAT) [63].

Properties NAT RCA

Oven-dry Density (kg/m3) 2570 2253

Bulk Density (kg/m3) 1424 1315
Apparent Porosity (%) 3.1 14.4
Water Absorption (%) 1.2 6.4
Shape Index 1.87 1.97
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) 30.5 32.5

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Portugal and obtained the worst results with aggregates with a higher amount of clay. The clay covers the recycled aggregate grains
and restrains the bond between aggregate and cement paste. Moreover, as it absorbs the mixing water, it is necessary to increase the
water-cement ratio to obtain the same slump. Regarding the use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), the mechanical behavior is
directly proportional to the strength value of the original concrete because recycled aggregate from high-performance concrete has a
relatively dense ITZ, while recycled aggregate from normal-strength concrete has a porous ITZ [72,73]. Concerning the moisture state
of recycled aggregates, De Oliveira and Vazquez [74] observed that using semi-saturated aggregates present better results regarding
concrete compressive and flexural strength.
Fig. 6 presents the relationship between the compressive strength and recycled aggregate replacement ratio for different concrete
grades based on the results published by several authors [32,44,46,59–61,64,67,68,70–72,75–85, 86-96, 97-123]. The results present
a preeminent variation for higher concrete grades, and especially for higher recycled aggregate ratios. For C35–C40, C45–C50, and
C55–C60 over 50% recycled aggregate, the results begin to present a greater variation, deeply increasing for RA/NA ratio equal to
100%. This expressive variation does not occur for C25–C30 concrete grade: the results vary approximately constantly regardless of the
recycled aggregate ratio.
For all types of concrete, it is possible to observe a reduction in the compressive strength as the recycled aggregate ratio increases.
However, this reduction is much more expressive for higher concrete grades (C45–C50 and C55–C60). This could be explained by the
failure planes. Butler et al. [93] observed that failure planes for a concrete C30 occurred around the aggregate, indicating that the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) was the limiting strength factor. However, for a concrete C50, the failure plane occurred mainly
through the aggregates, indicating that the strength of the coarse aggregate itself was the limiting strength factor. Thus, it is possible to
assume that, for higher concrete grades, where ITZ is stronger, when the recycled aggregate ratio increases, the concrete strength
reduces more expressively. On the other hand, for lower concrete grades, depending on the properties of the recycled aggregate, the
ITZ can be more limiting for the strength, and the increase of recycled aggregate ratio could not cause a significant impact on the
concrete strength.
Different studies have also shown that the concrete modulus of elasticity reduces as the content of recycled aggregate in concrete
increases [32,44,59,60,70,71,75–92,122,123]. However, this decrease is more noticeable when recycled aggregate has a higher
amount of adhered mortar [32]. The modulus of elasticity is an important parameter to be observed because it directly affects the
behavior of reinforced concrete structural elements. The higher the modulus, the lower the deflection of beams and slabs, for example.
Some authors have suggested different equations that correlate the modulus of elasticity and the compressive strength of recycled
aggregate concrete. Some of these equations are in Table 2.
Each of these authors analyzed only their experimental results to define their equation. Thus, in this study, in an attempt to increase
sampling, the experimental results obtained for the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of several studies were compiled in
a single graphic curve, namely “Experimental Data” in Fig. 7 [32,44,59,60,70,71,75–92,122,123]. Then, using the equations above
and the compressive strength obtained experimentally, the theoretical corresponded modulus of elasticity was calculated using the
three equations in Table 2. Therefore, Fig. 7 presents these three theoretical curves and the original “Experimental data” curve for four
different concrete grades (C25–C30, C35–C40, C45–C50, and C55–C60).
Fig. 7 shows that the modulus of elasticity reduces as the content of recycled aggregates in concrete increases. This effect is
attributed to the presence of two different interfacial transition zones (ITZ). This second ITZ tends to be weaker than the paste-

Fig. 6. Compressive Strength versus Recycled/Natural aggregate (RA/NA) ratio for different concrete grades, based on the results published by several authors [32,44,
59,60,67,68,70,71,75–82,85,88–92,122,123].

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Table 2
Correlation between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete.

Reference Equation

Cabral et al [20] Ec = 2.58 * fc0.63

Lovato [124] Ec = 5.74 * fc0.5–13.39
Ravindrarajah and Tam [125] Ec = 4.63 * fc0.5

Fig. 7. Correlation between modulus of elasticity and Recycled/Natural aggregate (RA/NA) ratio for different concrete grades: (a) C25–C30, (b) C35–C40, (c)
C45–C50, and (d) C55–C60.

aggregate matrix of conventional concretes and consequently reduces the concrete strength, leading to higher deformability of
recycled concretes compared with conventional concretes.
It is also possible to observe from Fig. 7 that regardless of the concrete grade and the recycled aggregate ratio, there is a large
discrepancy between the results obtained experimentally and those obtained through the theoretical curves proposed by the three
authors in Table 2. This divergence occurs mainly because the recycled aggregates are very heterogeneous, and the theoretical curves
use only the compressive strength as a parameter. Thus, for better estimation, probably more parameters should be considered, such as
recycled aggregate density, water absorption, or even cement composition.
Because of this considerable heterogeneity of recycled aggregates, different parameters should also be considered for mix design.

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Several authors proposed different approaches for the mix design of recycled aggregate concretes and the prediction of their
compressive strength, considering the peculiar characteristics of recycled aggregates.
In 1990, Bairigi et al. [126], made it possible to design recycled aggregate concretes for a required strength between 15 and 30 MPa
by modifying the aggregate-to-cement ratio obtained by the ACI method. Thus, in 2009, Fathifazl et al. [127] proposed a new approach
that took the existence of two distinct phases in the recycled concrete aggregate: mortar and natural aggregate. This method, called
“Equivalent Mortar Volume,” considers the amount of each phase and adjusts the coarse aggregate and the cementitious paste content
to achieve the same mortar volume of a mixture entirely made with coarse natural aggregates.
More recently, in 2014, Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Model Tree (MT), and Non-linear Regression (NLR) techniques were used
to predict the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concretes at 28 days [128]. The authors observed that prediction was made
better by ANN than NLR and MT. In the same year, Pepe [129] proposed that the high porosity of recycled aggregates influences the
free water available for the mixture a, consequently, the compressive strength’s time evolution. The results showed that this con­
ceptual model pointed out the time evolution of compressive strength by considering the water absorption capacity, which is a crucial
parameter to characterize recycled aggregates.
The Compressible Particle Packing Model (CPM), proposed by De Larrard [130] in 1999 for conventional concrete, has also been
applied by many authors [104,131,132] for recycled aggregate concretes of different strength classes. The main advantage of CPM is
the possibility to consider the intrinsic characteristics of each compound and determine the desired properties at the fresh and
hardened state of the resulting composite.

5. Methods to improve the physical properties of recycled aggregates

In addition to mix design methods, some strategies are used to improve the physical properties of recycled aggregates and minimize
the gap performance between natural and recycled aggregate concrete mixtures, such as pre-soaking in acid, two-stage mixing
approach (TSMA), the addition of pozzolanic micro-powders, use of polymer emulsion, microbial carbonate bio-deposition, and
carbonation.
When using recycled aggregates, modifying the materials mixing sequence is enough to change concrete properties. For example,
some authors have adopted the “Two-Stage Mixing Approach (TSMA).” In this method, the required water is split into two equal parts
and each part is added to the mixture at two different times, as shown in Fig. 8. By doing that, researchers have observed a layer of
cement slurry on the surface of recycled aggregate [133–135]. Also, the total volume of voids and CH crystals in the new ITZ decreased
[113].
Pre-soaking in acid, for example, can be used to remove the adhered mortar and enhance the quality of recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA), as the hydration products of cement in the hardened paste are dissolved, reducing porosity and water absorption capacity [77,
136–138]. However, the use of acids in higher concentrations poses a threat to the safety of the workers and adds detrimental ions,
such as Cl− and SO2− 4 , to the recycled concrete aggregates, which can cause durability issues in recycled concrete. Therefore, there is a
need for a massive amount of water to wash treated recycled concrete aggregates. Moreover, the disposal of this washing water and the
residual of this treatment create new environmental problems. To compensate for these drawbacks, Wang et al. [139] used acid acetic
as a treatment solution in their studies because it is safer, cleaner, and lower cost than HCl or H2SO4.
On the other hand, some methods were developed to seal the pores of recycled aggregates. The addition of pozzolanic micro-
powders, polymer emulsion, microbial carbonate bio-deposition, and carbonation are some examples.
Polymer emulsions have adhesive properties and can solidify in a short period. As they are water repellent, polymer emulsions
reduce the water absorption capacity of porous materials, such as recycled aggregates [121,140–144]. This treatment can usually be
done by two different methods: dispersion of the polymer emulsion into fresh concrete during the fabrication process or coating
treatment, where the surface of the concrete is coated by polymer emulsion. Both methods can improve the durability of recycled
aggregate concrete. However, the coating treatment is more effective because it can achieve a more considerable impregnation depth
[145].
Regarding the addition of pozzolanic micro-powders, modification of ITZ microstructure can be achieved through physical or
chemical mechanisms. The first is characterized by mineral admixtures’ ability as micro-filler, filling ITZ micro-pores. Meanwhile, the
chemical mechanism is related to the pozzolanic reaction in water presence [107]. When mineral admixture is added in the concrete, a
denser ITZ, as well as better workability and mechanical, are observed because: (a) the relatively lower water to binder ratio of coating

Fig. 8. (a) Nma normal mixing approach; (b) TSMA two-stage mixing approach [113].

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F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

Table 3
Different techniques to improve the durability and mechanical characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete.

Method Results References

Pre-soaking in acid • Acid solution dissolves the hydration products of the adhered mortar in RA [77,136–139]
• ITZ becomes less porous and cracked; water absorption decreases while specific density
increases
• However, it increases chloride and sulfate ratio in recycled aggregate concrete
• HCl concentrations up to 0.5mol results in an improved microstructure; higher HCl
concentration induces a corrosive effect on RA
• The use of acid acetic is safer, cleaner, and has a lower cost than HCl or H2SO4.
• It is possible to combine impregnation with different pozzolanic micro-powders
Two-Stage Mixing • Mixing required water is divided into two equal parts, added to the mixture at two different [113,133–135]
Approach (TSMA) moments
• Develops a stronger ITZ by filling the cracks and pores in RA
• Improves in the mechanical properties and durability performance of recycled aggregate
concrete
• It is possible to combine impregnation with different pozzolanic micro-powders
Addition of pozzolanic • Consumption of calcium hydroxide results in a denser calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) [78,107,114,
micro-powders structure, reducing porosity 158–166]
• Improves mechanical performance and increases compactness of recycled aggregate concrete
• Contributions to the performance of recycled aggregate concrete are higher than that to
natural aggregate concrete
• Efficiency depends on particle size, the amount of calcium hydroxide in the adhered mortar,
and the reactivity of the pozzolanic materials
• Incorporation of silica fume reduces porosity and, consequently, increases resistance to
chloride ions attack; however, treated recycled aggregate concrete present less resistance
towards carbonation
• Incorporation of fly ash decreases water absorption and improves the flowability of concrete.
In advanced ages, it significantly reduces concrete permeability and increases compressive
strength because of its delayed binder property when compared to Portland cement
• Incorporation of ground bagasse ash (GBA) and granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) reduces
water permeability and porosity of recycled aggregate concrete; also increases resistance to
chloride ion penetration and reduces the expansion by sulfate attack
Use of polymer emulsion • When RA is immersed in a polymer emulsion, it fills the adhered mortar pores, sealing the RA [121,140–145]
surface. 10% PVA solution is proposed as an optimal concentration for impregnation
• Treatment significantly decrease RA water absorption while increasing crushing value and
density
• Treated recycled aggregate concrete present a lower drying shrinkage and a higher resistance
to chloride ion penetration and carbonation
• However, compatibility between the polymer and the concrete paste is a concern: reactive
silanol groups can make RA surface hydrophobic, deaccelerating cement hydration and
leading to a mechanical strength loss
Microbial carbonate bio- • The physiological activity of bacteria causes CaCO3 crystal precipitation, creating a continuous [147–150]
deposition water-proof layer on RA surface
• Permeability of recycled aggregate concrete reduces, improving mechanical behavior and
durability properties
• Efficiency depends on pH, temperature, amount of calcium, and bacteria concentration
• Microbial carbonate precipitation peaks at pH 9.5 and decreases sharply for higher pH values
• Enzyme activity and rate of urea hydrolysis are enhanced at higher temperatures. Thus, this
method has great potential in a tropical climate, with a hot and humid environment
throughout the year
• Higher bacteria concentration and amount of calcium (>15 g/L of CaCl) increase CaCO3
precipitation
• It is possible to apply the bacteria solution by spraying and immersion. While spraying is more
readily applicable, immersion is more efficient.
Carbonation • CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 and hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H), generating CaCO3 and silica [151–155]
gel, which fill RA pores
• Decreases porosity and water absorption while increasing density
• It is an environmentally friendly method as it can capture CO2 emitted from industrial
processes
• Optimum results are obtained with 24h immersion in a 100% CO2 environment
• Concrete made with treated RA presents a lower drying shrinkage and improved mechanical
properties
• Carbonation improves the original and new ITZ
(continued on next page)

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F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

Table 3 (continued )

Method Results References

• However, the time needed for carbonation is much longer than for other treatments.
• It should not be applied to reinforced concrete as the reinforcement steel bars, when subjected
to carbonation, lose their passivity and become vulnerable to corrosion.

slurry promote a higher strength of the recycled aggregate concrete; (b) the pozzolanic coating layer forms a barrier to inner bleeding
of water, which improves the workability and, consequently, strengthen the traditional weak ITZ; (c) pozzolanic material results in
consumption of calcium hydroxide accumulated in the pores and on the surface of the adhered mortar to form new hydration products,
resulting in a denser calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) structure and C3A, capable of chemically binding chloride ions and improve the
bond between recycled aggregate and cement paste [146].
Microbial carbonate bio-deposition has already been widely studied to protect and consolidate the surface of stones and concretes.
It is based on the ability of some bacteria to induce calcium carbonate crystal precipitation through various physiological activities.
These physiological activities form a continuous waterproof layer on the surface and fill the pores, working as a barrier to hinder the
penetration of water and other corrosive substances. This dense surface and decreased permeability improve the mechanical behavior
and durability of the concrete [147–150].
In another innovative method, known as “carbonation”, the CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 and hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H), which
are the main cement hydration products in the old cement mortar, to form CaCO3 and silica gel, which fill the pores of the adhered
cement mortar. Overall, this method decreases porosity, strengthening the weak surface and lowering the water absorption of the
porous cement mortar, which is usually accompanied by a strengthening effect [151].
Therefore, carbonation treatment is efficient and environmentally friendly as it can capture CO2 emitted from industrial processes.
However, the time needed is much longer than other methods. Also, the concentration of CO2 and humidity influence efficiency. The
method can be helpful in non-reinforced structures; however, reinforcement steel bars, used in reinforced concretes, lose their passivity
and becomes vulnerable to corrosion, as the carbonation causes a reduction in the pH of the cement paste [151–155].
Sometimes, a combination of methods is used. For example, some authors proposed a variety of pre-soaking in acid and impreg­
nation with a solution of calcium metasilicate [77] or silica fume [138]. In the same way, in some studies, the Two-stage Mixing
Approach (TSMA) was used in addition to impregnation with different pozzolanic micro-powders, such as fly ash, silica fume, and blast
furnace, improving, even more, the characteristics of the recycled aggregate concrete [156,157].
Ultimately, all methods can improve the durability and mechanical characteristics of concrete made with recycled aggregate.
Table 3 presents a summary of different techniques and the results obtained by various authors.

6. Structural applications
Although the studies on recycled aggregates have been done for many years, their current applications are only in low utilities, such
as landscaping and pavements [167]. This situation can be explained by the inconsistent supply of recycled materials, limited stan­
dards or specifications, lack of in-service evidence, insufficient financial incentives and government support, and the general
perception that recycled aggregate concrete is inferior to conventional concrete [168,169].
Usually, the international standards restrict the use of recycled aggregates in structural concretes. The acceptable content of
recycled aggregates in concrete depends on the desired concrete strength grade and the characteristics of the recycled aggregate, such
as composition, dry density, water absorption, and the percentage of contaminants.
In Brazil, for example, until 2020, recycled aggregates were limited to non-structural applications. However, a revision of the
Brazilian standard ABNT NBR 15116 [170] published in 2021 allowed up to 20% of recycled aggregate in structural concrete of any
strength class. However, the aggregates must have specific characteristics such as water absorption up to 7%, the content of SO4 and Cl
smaller than 0.1%, and content of contaminants smaller than 1%.
Table 4 shows a summary of standards that governs the use of recycled aggregates in different countries. The increase in the
recycled aggregate’s allowed content is usually accompanied by a reduction in the allowed water absorption capacity and percentage
of contaminants, as in the German standards [171,172]. For recycled concrete aggregate from concrete waste, the use of up to 90% of
recycled aggregate is allowed if water absorption is at most equal to 10% and content of contaminants up to 0.2%; meanwhile, for
recycled concrete aggregate from demolition waste, the content of recycled aggregate is limited to 70%, while the limits for water
absorption capacity and percentage of contaminants increase to 15% and 0.5%, respectively. A similar situation occurs in Portugal
[173] and Australia [174]. On the other hand, in Italy [174], the limitation occurs only for concrete strength class and type of recycled
aggregate: RCA (recycled concrete aggregate) can replace up to 30% of natural coarse aggregate for concrete with strength class up to
C30/37.
To assess the applicability of recycled aggregates on a structural scale, many authors have investigated the structural performance
of reinforced concrete beams with different percentages of recycled coarse concrete aggregate instead of natural aggregates.
The literature review [182–189] demonstrates, for example, that when structural beams are designed to present a ductile behavior,
bending moments and deflections at serviceability are not significantly affected even with higher percentages of recycled coarse
concrete aggregate, which is explained by the low influence of the concrete properties on the flexural behavior of beams. In the same
way, because of the ductile design of steel reinforcement, the yielding and ultimate behavior of recycled aggregate concrete is similar
to conventional concretes. However, the authors also observed that recycled aggregate concretes usually present a more significant and

11
 F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva
Table 4
Comparison of international standards for recycled aggregate.

Country Standard Type of recycled Concrete % of RA Recycled aggregate characteristics

coarse aggregate Specifications allowed
Concrete Masonry Dry Density Water SO4 CI Contaminants non- Sieve 75 μm
(%) fraction (%) (km/m3) absorp. (%) (%) (%) minerals (%) passing (%)

Brazil NBR 15116 RCA Structural 20% 100 – n.a. ≤7 ≤ 0.1 ≤ ≤1 ≤ 10

[170] concrete 0.1
CRA Non-structural n.a. > 90 < 10 ≤ 12 ≤ ≤ 12
concrete 0.2
RMA Non-structural < 90 ≥ 10
concrete
Portugal LNEC E471 RCA 1 C 35/45 25% > 90 ≤ 10 ≥ 2200 ≤7 ≤ 0.8 n.a. < 0.2 n.a.
[173] RCA 2 C 40/50 20% > 70 ≤ 30 < 0.5
RMA n.a. n.a. ≤ 10 > 90 ≥ 2000 <1
Germany DIN 4226–100 RCA (concrete Structural 90% > 90 < 10 ≥ 2000 ≤ 10 n.a. ≤ ≤ 0.2 n.a.
[171] waste) concrete 0.04
DIN 12620 RCA (demolition 70% > 70 < 30 ≤ 15 ≤ 0.5
[172] waste)
RBA (brick rubble) Non-structural 20% < 20 > 80 ≥ 1800 ≤ 20
RMA (mixed concrete n.a. > 80 * ≥ 1500 n.a. ≤1
12

– ≤
material) 0.15
Italy NTC - 2008 RCA C 30/37 30% n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
[175]
Netherlands NEN 5905 RCA C 45/55 20% n.a. n.a. ≥ 2100 n.a. ≤1 ≤1 ≤1 n.a.
[176] RMA Non-structural n.a. ≥ 2000
concrete
United BS 8500–2 RCA C 20/25 & C 40/ 20% > 95 <5 n.a. n.a. ≤1 n.a. ≤ 0.5 ≤5
Kingdom [177] 50
RA C 16/20 100% – < 100 n.a. ≤1 ≤3
RILEM [178] RCA 1 C 50/50 100% n.a. n.a. ≥ 2000 ≤ 10 ≤1 n.a. n.a. n.a.
RCA 2 C 16/20 ≥ 1500 ≤ 20

Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

RMA No limit 20% ≥ 2400 ≤ 3
Japan JIS A 5021 RCA Class C 45/55 n.a. n.a. <2 ≥ 2500 ≤ 3 n.a. ≤ ≤1 ≤1
[179] 0.04
China DG/TJ 07/008 RCA n.a. n.a. ≥ 95 <5 n.a. < 10 <1 < <1 <2
[180,181] 0.25
RMA ≤ 90 > 10 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Australia HB 155:2002 RCA (Class 1A) C 40 30% < 100 – ≥ 2100 ≤6 n.a. n.a. <1 n.a.
[174] RCA (Class 1B) C 25 100% < 70 > 30 ≥ 1800 ≤8 <2 n.a.

*20% bituminous materials and others.

F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

earlier cracking than conventional concrete, attributed to the lower angularity of recycled aggregates, the higher early shrinkage, and
lower tensile strength of recycled aggregate concretes.
As recycled aggregate replacement ratio increases, beams presented a substantially lower ductility ratio [186,189] because of the
lower interfacial bond and interlocking between the recycled aggregate and mortar [190,191], which can affect the bond strength
between concrete and steel.
Bai and Sun [187] observed a similarity between recycled aggregate concrete and conventional concrete regarding crack patterns.
When subject to four-point bending tests, both recycled and conventional concrete beams show similar behavior: crack progression
began with the appearance of flexural cracks in the maximum moment region, then additional flexural cracks emerged between the
load and support regions. As load increases, some inclined flexure-shear cracks appear, although most flexural cracks are developed
vertically. Similar behavior was noted by others authors [182,184–186,189]. Fig. 9 shows a conventional concrete beam (CC) and a
100% recycled aggregate concrete beam (RCA) after a four-point flexural test.
Although authors agree on the crack pattern, the same does not occur for crack width and distance. Ignjatovic et al. [187] and Kang
et al. [186] verified that the cracking pattern of recycled aggregate concrete beams is similar to the reference beams even for recycled
aggregate replacement rate over 50%. Meanwhile, Seara-Paz et al. [182], Arezoumandi et al. [184], and Bai and Sun [188]observed a
decrease in cracking spacing and an increase in crack width in beams with a higher percentage of recycled aggregate. The difference in
the cracking spacing and width results may be related to the reinforcement rate adopted by each author in their studies. In this way, it
can be considered that the existing flexural analysis method can quite well predict the recycled aggregate concrete beams’ flexural
strength and deflections, but some attention must be paid regarding cracking spacing and width.
Table 5 presents a summary of beams’ properties, ultimate flexural strength, and ultimate deflection of beams submitted to four-
point bending tests by different authors.
Regarding the shear behavior of recycled aggerate concrete beams, the authors observed that the crack pattern is similar to
conventional concrete, although shear strength is lower because of the lower tensile strength of the recycled concrete [192–198].
Moreover, the analysis at the macroscopic scale showed that shear failures in recycled concrete beams occurred through the recycled
aggregates and not at the interface between mortar and aggregates, as usually happens for conventional concrete [199].
Tošic et al. [200] compiled 217 experimental results and created a database on flexural and shear strength of reinforced recycled
aggregate concrete beams and evaluated the applicability to Eurocode 2 provisions. As a result, they observed that Eurocode 2 pre­
dictions of flexural strength are precise, but predictions to shear strength for beams with stirrups are not. However, most experiments
consider the minimum transverse reinforcement ratios in recycled aggregate concrete beams. Thus, the authors proposed more ex­
periments on recycled aggregate concrete beams with larger than minimum transverse reinforcement ratios. Similar results were
obtained by Pacheco et al. [201].
Despite some uncertainties, it is also possible to find references to recycled aggregate concrete elements in real applications. In
2004, the “Shanghai Ecological Building” was constructed using 388 m3 concrete with 100% recycled coarse aggregate. This building
was the first to incorporate a large amount of this material, and the results for mechanical and durability properties of randomly
selected samples indicated that recycled aggregate concrete generally meets the existing requirements for conventional concrete
[180].
Based on the lack of local natural aggregate with good quality and the increasing demand for infrastructure projects for World Cup
2020, the Qatar government has developed a laboratory program and a full-scale building trial to assess the suitability of recycled
aggregate concrete in structural applications [202]. The excellent results had enabled changes in the 2014 edition of Qatar Con­
struction Specification (QCS) to allow a maximum recycled aggregate replacement ratio of 20% in structural concretes up to C30
strength. Finally, Zhang and Zhao [203] used strain gages to monitor beams made of recycled aggregate concrete in a recently built
building in China. The beams had not cracked, and the strain development trend showed that they would probably be kept safe for the
long term, indicating the feasibility of using recycled aggregate concrete in actual engineering projects.

7. Conclusions
Recycling of construction and demolition waste, creating recycled aggregate, is one of the sustainable solutions for the growing
waste disposal crisis and depletion of natural aggregate sources caused by the construction sector. However, so far recycled aggregate

Fig. 9. The crack pattern of a conventional concrete beam (CC) and a 100% recycled aggregate concrete beam (RCA) at flexural failure, adapted from Arezoumandi
et al. [185].

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F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

Table 5
Summary on the flexural behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete beams.

Authors RA Content (%) w/c Reinforcement ratio (%) fc28 (MPa) Size (mm) Pult (kN)/Mult (kN.m) δult (mm)

LxBxH

Kang et al. [186] 0 0.45 0.5 38.6 3030 x 135 x 270 35.3/15.9 70
15 32.7 32.8/14.8 31
30 31.7 32.7/14.7 32
50 29.0 30.3/13.6 17
0 0.45 1.0 38.6 3030 x 135 x 270 62.7/28.2 37
15 32.7 60.5/27.2 27
30 31.7 58.4/26.3 18
50 29.0 54.2/24.4 16
0 0.45 1.5 38.6 3030 x 135 x 270 81.9/36.9 36
15 32.7 79.5/35.8 25
30 31.7 78.5/35.3 19
50 29.0 72.9/32.8 15
0 0.45 1.8 38.6 3030 x 135 x 270 117.4/52,8 26
15 32.7 114.7/51.6 20
30 31.7 111.6/50.2 24
50 29.0 112.2/50.5 20
Pradhan et al. [189] 0 0.45 0.42 42.75 2400 x 200 x 300 67.04/- 20.56
100 42.82 65.05/- 16.45
0 0.45 0.75 42.75 2400 x 200 x 300 115.33/- 25.56
100 42.82 114.77/- 25.74
0 0.45 1.31 42.75 2400 x 200 x 300 173.00/- 25.91
100 42.82 165.04/- 14.56
0 0.45 1.61 42.75 2400 x 200 x 300 171.10/- 18.85
100 42.82 161.97/- 12.48
Zhao and Sun [184] 0 0.5 1.4 43.5 2000 x 120 x 200 191.6/- –
30 41.2 186.6/- –
75 29.4 183.6/- –
Bai and Sun [188] 0 0.56 0.68 41,9 2100 x 150 x 300 -/34.3 –
50 0.49 0.68 42.3 -/34.0 –
70 0.46 0.68 43.7 -/35.5 –
100 0.42 0.68 43.5 -/34.0 –
100 0.56 0.89 43.5 -/40.4 –
100 0.56 1.13 43.5 -/48.4 –
Seara-Paz et al. [182] 0 0.5 0.76 60.7 3600 x 200 x 300 -/55.71 95.16
20 53.5 -/58.89 96.14
50 51.8 -/56.32 98.29
100 42.9 -/52.93 96.40
0 0.65 0.81 46.9 3600 x 200 x 300 -/58.51 93.31
20 46.7 -/58.27 96.65
50 42.2 -/60.21 81.36
100 32.4 -/60.83 96.41
Arezoumandi et al. [185] 0 0.37 0.47 37.2 3300 x 300 x 460 -/154.1 34.0
100 0.40 30.5 -/149.6 34.3
0 0.37 0.64 37.2 3300 x 300 x 460 -/170.7 29.5
100 0.40 30.5 -/172.6 35.6
Ignjatovic et al. [187] 0 0.52 0.28 43.7 3500 x 200 x 300 28.4/- 75.4
50 0.52 44.2 27.0/- 97.9
100 0.51 42.5 26.8/- 92.6
0 0.52 1.46 43.7 3500 x 200 x 300 108.6/- 45.8
50 0.52 44.2 110.6/- 46.2
100 0.51 42.5 105.4/- 38.9
0 0.52 2.54 43.7 3500 x 200 x 300 137.6/- 28.5
50 0.52 44.2 160.4/- 34.5
100 0.51 42.5 142.6/- 30.4

has mostly been used in low-value applications such as for the pavement base.
When compared to natural aggregate, recycled aggregates are more porous and have a more complex microstructure. This higher
porosity acts not only as a presumable canal for water transport but also for aggressive agents such as chloride ions, affecting the
durability of the material. Because of the higher water absorption, recycled coarse aggregates typically need more water than con­
ventional concrete to obtain the same workability; it also affects the homogeneity of the fresh concrete during casting, reducing the
mechanical strength of concrete. Despite that, there is no specific discussion in the literature regarding special curing procedures for
recycled aggregate concretes.
In the present article, the analysis of the results obtained by several authors showed that the compressive strength of the concrete
decreases as the recycled aggregate ratio increases, regardless of the concrete grade. However, for higher concrete grades, such as
C45–C50 and C55–C60, the ITZ is stronger and the strength of the coarse aggregate itself becomes the limiting strength factor. Thus,

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F. de Andrade Salgado and F. de Andrade Silva Journal of Building Engineering 52 (2022) 104452

the greater the amount of recycled aggregate, the greater the reduction in compressive strength.
The literature also shows that the modulus of elasticity reduces as the content of recycled aggregates in concrete increases, and this
is attributed to the presence of two different interfacial transition zones (ITZ). As the second ITZ tends to be weaker than the paste-
aggregate matrix of conventional concretes, the concrete strength reduces, leading to higher deformability of recycled concretes
when compared to conventional concretes. In the present article, the analysis of different literature results also shows that there is a
large discrepancy between the results obtained experimentally and those obtained through the theoretical curves, which use only the
compressive strength as a parameter. For better estimation, probably more parameters should be considered, such as recycled
aggregate density, water absorption, or even cement composition.
The literature review also shows that many authors have tried different treatments on recycled aggregates to improve the recycled
aggregate concrete’s mechanical behavior and long-term properties, allowing a higher replacement ratio. The most widespread
methods in the literature are the addition of pozzolanic micro-powders and polymer emulsions and pre-soaking in acid, microbial
carbonate bio-deposition, and carbonation. The results obtained with these methods are relevant, and in many cases, the properties of
the recycled concrete were very close to those obtained for the conventional concrete.
Regarding the use of recycled aggregate in structural concrete, there are still some barriers. For example, there is no consensus
regarding the mix design method that best suits the significant heterogeneity of recycled aggregates and their specificities. In addition,
although there are positive results in the literature regarding the existing models for resistance prediction, there are still some doubts
about the recycled aggregate concrete flexural and shear performance and the integrity of the structural elements throughout their
useful life. Therefore, most of the standards and specifications around the world limit the recycled aggregate replacement ratio to
approximately 30% in structural elements.
Although there are still uncertainties, recycled aggregate has great environmental potential. Thus, to promote energy savings and
environmental preservations, it is essential to advance studies about the feasibility of using higher percentages of recycled aggregate
on structural concretes. Also, it would be convenient to develop technical specifications and guidelines for the production and quality
control of structural recycled aggregate concrete, improving the general perception of this material by contractors and users.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Fernanda de Andrade Salgado: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft. Flávio de Andrade
Silva: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge support from the Brazilian funding agencies CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico), CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior), FINEP (Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos),
and FAPERJ (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro). They also thank Kleber Rodrigues and Daniel do Prado
Maciel, from Reciclax Recycling Plant. The funding sources have no direct involvement in the preparation of this article.

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