UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE

(Narowal Campus)

Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................................ 7
General Instructions to Students ................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 9
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 11
Lab Session 1: -............................................................................................................................ 12
1.1 List of Apparatus: ................................................................................................................ 13
1.2 Description of Apparatus: ................................................................................................... 14
1.2.1 Loses in Pipe System: ................................................................................................... 14
1.2.2 Energy Losses in Piping Elements: .............................................................................. 14
1.2.3 Pipe Friction Apparatus: ............................................................................................... 14
1.2.4 Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus: .................................................................................. 15
1.2.5 Hydraulic Ram Apparatus: ........................................................................................... 15
1.2.6 Orifice Discharge Apparatus: ....................................................................................... 16
1.2.7 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus: ...................................................................................... 16
1.2.8 Impact Of Jet Apparatus: .............................................................................................. 17
1.2.9 Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus: ................................................................................. 17
1.2.10 Flow Visualization Apparatus: ................................................................................... 18
1.2.11 Flow Over Weirs/Notches: ......................................................................................... 18
1.2.12 Metacentric Height Apparatus: ................................................................................... 19
1.2.13 Hydraulic bench:......................................................................................................... 19
Lab Session 2: -............................................................................................................................ 20
2.1 Objective: ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Theory: ................................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.1 Hydraulic bench:........................................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.3 Volume Flow Rate: ....................................................................................................... 21
2.3.4 Mass Flow Rate: ........................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 22
2.5 Observation & Calculations: ............................................................................................... 22
2.6 Specimen Calculation:......................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Graphs: ................................................................................................................................ 23

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Graph 2.7.1: Volume Flow Rate ............................................................................................ 23

Graph 2.7.2: Mass Flow Rate ................................................................................................ 24
2.8 Conclusions: ........................................................................................................................ 24
Lab Session 3: -............................................................................................................................ 25
3.1 Objective: ............................................................................................................................ 25
3.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Theory: ................................................................................................................................ 25
3.3.1 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 26
3.4 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 26
3.5 Assessment of Experiment: ................................................................................................. 27
3.6 Diagram: .............................................................................................................................. 27
3.7 Formulas:............................................................................................................................. 27
3.8 Observation and Calculations: ............................................................................................ 27
3.9 Specimen Calculation:......................................................................................................... 28
3.9 Conclusions: ........................................................................................................................ 29
Lab Session 4: -............................................................................................................................ 30
4.1 Objective: ............................................................................................................................ 30
4.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 30
4.2.1 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 30
4.3 Object shapes: ..................................................................................................................... 30
4.4 Nozzle diameter: ................................................................................................................. 31
4.5 Theory: ................................................................................................................................ 31
4.6 Jet Force (Theoretical): ....................................................................................................... 32
4.7 General Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 32
4.7.1 Formula for Flat Object: ............................................................................................... 32
4.7.2 Formula for Hemispherical Object: .............................................................................. 32
4.7.3 Formula for Conical Object: ......................................................................................... 32
4.8 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 32
4.9 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 33
4.9.1 For Flat Object: ............................................................................................................. 33
4.9.2 For Hemispherical Object:............................................................................................ 33
4.9.3 For Conical Object: ...................................................................................................... 33

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
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4.10 Specimen Calculation:....................................................................................................... 34
4.11 Graphs: .............................................................................................................................. 35
4.11.1 For Flat Object: ........................................................................................................... 35
4.11.2 For Hemispherical Object:.......................................................................................... 35
4.11.3 For Conical Object: .................................................................................................... 35
4.12 Conclusions: ...................................................................................................................... 36
Lab Session 5: -............................................................................................................................ 37
5.1 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 37
5.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.1 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 37
5.3 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................... 38
5.3.1 Reynold Number: ......................................................................................................... 38
5.3.2 Laminar Flow: .............................................................................................................. 38
5.3.3 Transitional Flow:......................................................................................................... 38
5.3.4 Turbulent Flow: ............................................................................................................ 38
5.3.4 Different types of Flowing Fluid: ................................................................................. 39
5.4 Practical Applications: ........................................................................................................ 39
5.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 39
5.6 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 40
5.7 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 40
5.8 Specimen Calculation:......................................................................................................... 40
5.9 Graph: .................................................................................................................................. 41
5.10 Conclusions: ...................................................................................................................... 41
Lab Session 6: -............................................................................................................................ 42
6.1 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 42
6.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 42
6.2.1 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 42
6.3 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................... 42
6.4 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 43
6.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 43
6.6 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 44
6.7 Specimen Calculations: ....................................................................................................... 45

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6.8 Graphs: ................................................................................................................................ 46

6.8.1 Graph 1: - ...................................................................................................................... 46
6.8.2 Graph 2: - ...................................................................................................................... 46
6.8.3 Graph 3: - ...................................................................................................................... 46
6.8.4 Graph 4: ........................................................................................................................ 47
6.9 Conclusion:.......................................................................................................................... 47
Lab Session 7: -............................................................................................................................ 48
7.1 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 48
7.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 48
7.3 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................... 48
7.3.1 Metacenter: ................................................................................................................... 48
7.3.2 Metacentric Height: ...................................................................................................... 48
7.3.3 Why to find Metacentric Height? ................................................................................. 49
7.3.4 Center of Buoyancy: ..................................................................................................... 49
7.3.5 Types of Stability: ........................................................................................................ 49
7.4 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 50
7.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 51
7.6 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 51
7.7 Specimen Calculations: ....................................................................................................... 52
7.8 Graphs: ................................................................................................................................ 53
7.8.1Graph 1: - ....................................................................................................................... 53
7.8.2 Graph 2: - ...................................................................................................................... 53
7.8.3 Graph 3: - ...................................................................................................................... 54
7.9 Conclusion:.......................................................................................................................... 54
Lab Session 8: -............................................................................................................................ 55
8.1 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 55
8.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 55
8.2.1 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 55
8.2.2 Description: .................................................................................................................. 55
8.3 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................... 56
8.3.1 Orifice: .......................................................................................................................... 56
8.3.2The Vena Contracta: ...................................................................................................... 56

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
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8.4 Practical Applications: ........................................................................................................ 56
8.5 Procedure:............................................................................................................................ 57
8.6 Inlet Shapes: ........................................................................................................................ 57
8.7 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 57
8.8 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 58
8.9 Specimen Calculations: ....................................................................................................... 58
8.10 Conclusions: ...................................................................................................................... 59
Lab Session 9: -............................................................................................................................ 60
9.1 Objective: ............................................................................................................................ 60
9.2 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 60
9.2.1 Description: .................................................................................................................. 60
9.2.2 Label: ............................................................................................................................ 60
9.3 Theory: ................................................................................................................................ 61
9.3.1 Weirs:............................................................................................................................ 61
9.3.2 Flow through a Rectangular Weir: ............................................................................... 61
9.3.3 Flow Through a Triangular Weir (V-Shaped Weir): .................................................... 62
9.4 Experimental Procedure: ..................................................................................................... 63
9.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................... 63
9.5.1 For Rectangular Weir: .................................................................................................. 63
9.5.2 For V-Shaped weir: ...................................................................................................... 63
9.6 Observations and Calculations: ........................................................................................... 63
9.7 Specimen Calculation:......................................................................................................... 64
9.8 Conclusion:.......................................................................................................................... 65
Lab Session 10: -.......................................................................................................................... 66
10.1 Objective: .......................................................................................................................... 66
10.2 Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 66
10.3 Description of Apparatus: ................................................................................................. 66
10.4 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................. 66
10.4.1 Hydro-Static Pressure: ................................................................................................ 66
10.4.2 Label: .......................................................................................................................... 67
10.4.3 About Apparatus: ........................................................................................................ 67
10.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................. 68

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10.6 Procedure:.......................................................................................................................... 68
10.7 Observation and Calculation: ............................................................................................ 69
10.8 Specimen Calculation:....................................................................................................... 69
10.9 Graph: ................................................................................................................................ 70
10.10 Conclusions: .................................................................................................................... 70
Lab Session 11: -.......................................................................................................................... 71
11.1 Objective: .......................................................................................................................... 71
11.2 Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 71
11.3 Description of Apparatus: ................................................................................................. 71
11.4 Related Theory: ................................................................................................................. 71
11.4.1 Hydro-Static Pressure: ................................................................................................ 71
11.4.2 Label: .......................................................................................................................... 72
11.4.3 About Apparatus: ........................................................................................................... 72
11.5 Related Formulas: ............................................................................................................. 73
11.6 Procedure:.......................................................................................................................... 73
11.7 Observation and Calculation: ............................................................................................ 74
11.8 Specimen Calculation:....................................................................................................... 74
11.9 Graph: ................................................................................................................................ 75
11.10 Conclusions: .................................................................................................................... 75
Lab Session 12: -.......................................................................................................................... 76
12.1 Objective: .......................................................................................................................... 76
12.2 Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 76
12.3 Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 76
12.3.1 Label: .......................................................................................................................... 77
12.4 Types of Bends: ................................................................................................................. 78
12.5 Procedure:.......................................................................................................................... 79
12.6 Moody’s Chart: .............................................................................................................. 79
12.7 Observation & Calculations: .......................................................................................... 80
12.8 Specimen Calculations: ..................................................................................................... 80
12.9 Graph: ................................................................................................................................ 81
12.10 Comments: ...................................................................................................................... 81

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)

Preface
In most of the engineering institutions, the laboratory course forms an integral form of the basic
course in Fluid Mechanics at undergraduate level. The experiments to be performed in a laboratory
should ideally be designed in such a way as to reinforce the understanding of the basic principles
as well as help the students to visualize the various phenomenon encountered in different
applications.
The objective of this manual is to familiarize the students with practical skills, measurement
techniques and interpretation of results. It is intended to make this manual self-contained in all
respects, so that it can be used as a laboratory manual. In all the experiments, the relevant theory
and general guidelines for the procedure to be followed have been given. Tabular sheets for
entering the observations have also been provided in each experiment while graph sheets have
been included wherever necessary.
It is suggested that the students should complete the computations, is the laboratory itself.
However, the students are advised to refer to the relevant text before interpreting the results and
writing a permanent discussion. The questions provided at the end of each experiment will
reinforce the students understanding of the subject and also help them to prepare for viva-voce
exams.

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General Instructions to Students

• The purpose of this laboratory is to reinforce and enhance your understanding of the
fundamentals of Fluid mechanics and Hydraulic machines. The experiments here are
designed to demonstrate the applications of the basic fluid mechanics principles and to
provide a more intuitive and physical understanding of the theory. The main objective is to
introduce a variety of classical experimental and diagnostic techniques, and the principles
behind these techniques. This laboratory exercise also provides practice in making
engineering judgments, estimates and assessing the reliability of your measurements, skills
which are very important in all engineering disciplines.
• Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the lab. You
must be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In many cases you may
have to go back to your fluid mechanics textbooks to review the principles dealt with in
the experiment.
• Actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions. Utilize the teaching
assistants. You should be well prepared before coming to the laboratory, unannounced
questions may be asked at any time during the lab.
• Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling equipment may result in serious injury to
the individual or the equipment. Do not run near moving machinery. Always be on the alert
for strange sounds. Guard against entangling clothes in moving parts of machinery.
• Students must follow the proper dress code inside the laboratory. To protect clothing from
dirt, wear a lab apron. Long hair should be tied back.
• Calculator, graph sheets and drawing accessories are mandatory.
• In performing the experiments, proceed carefully to minimize any water spills, especially
on the electric circuits and wire.
• Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and
discipline inside the lab.
• Cell phones are not allowed inside the laboratory.
• Any injury no matter how small must be reported to the instructor immediately.
• Wish you a nice experience in this lab.

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)

List of Figures
Figure1.1: Loses in Pipe System ................................................................................................ 14
Figure1.2: Energy Losses in Piping Elements .......................................................................... 14
Figure1. 3: Pipe Friction Apparatus ......................................................................................... 15
Figure1. 4: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus ............................................................................ 15
Figure1. 5: Hydraulic Ram Apparatus ..................................................................................... 16
Figure1. 6: Orifice Discharge Apparatus.................................................................................. 16
Figure1. 7: Osborne Reynolds Apparatus ................................................................................ 17
Figure1. 8: Impact of Jet Apparatus ......................................................................................... 17
Figure1. 9: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus .......................................................................... 18
Figure1. 10: Flow Visualization Apparatus .............................................................................. 18
Figure1. 11: Flow Over Weirs/Notches ..................................................................................... 18
Figure1. 12: Metacentric Height Apparatus ............................................................................ 19
Figure1. 13: Hydraulic bench .................................................................................................... 19

Figure2. 1: Hydraulic Bench ...................................................................................................... 20

Figure2. 2: Parts of Hydraulic Bench ....................................................................................... 21

Figure3. 1: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus ............................................................................ 25

Figure3. 2: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus ............................................................................ 26
Figure3. 3: Venturi Area ............................................................................................................ 27

Figure4. 1: Impact of jet Apparatus .......................................................................................... 30

Figure4. 2: Flat, Hemispherical, Conical shapes ...................................................................... 31
Figure4. 3: Impact of Jet Apparatus ......................................................................................... 31

Figure5. 1: Osborne Reynold Apparatus .................................................................................. 37

Figure5. 2: Laminar Flow .......................................................................................................... 38
Figure5. 3: Transitional Flow .................................................................................................... 38
Figure5. 4: Turbulent Flow ........................................................................................................ 38
Figure5. 5: Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow of Fluid ........................................... 39

Figure6. 1: Losses in Pipe System Apparatus .......................................................................... 42

Figure6. 2: Losses in Pipe System .............................................................................................. 43

Figure7. 1: Metacentric Height Apparatus .............................................................................. 48

Figure7. 2: Ship Model ............................................................................................................... 49
Figure7. 3: Ship’s Static Stability .............................................................................................. 49
Figure7. 4: Ship’s Damaged Stability........................................................................................ 50

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Figure8. 1: Orifice Discharge Apparatus.................................................................................. 55

Figure8. 2: Orifice Discharge Apparatus.................................................................................. 55
Figure8. 3: Orifice Plate View.................................................................................................... 56

Figure9. 1: Flow Over Weirs Apparatus .................................................................................. 60

Figure9. 2: Flow Over Rectangular Weir ................................................................................ 60
Figure9. 3: Flow through a Rectangular Weir ......................................................................... 61
Figure9. 4: Free Overfall at the Plate Weir .............................................................................. 61
Figure9. 5: Flow Through a Triangular Weir .......................................................................... 62

Figure10. 1: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus ........................................................................ 66

Figure10. 2: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts .............................................................. 67
Figure10. 3: Structure of Apparatus Body ............................................................................... 68

Figure11. 1Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts ................................................................ 71

Figure11. 2: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts .............................................................. 72
Figure11. 3: Structure of Apparatus Body ............................................................................... 73

Figure12. 1: Energy Losses in Bends Apparatus ..................................................................... 76

Figure12. 2: Energy Losses in Bends Apparatus Parts ........................................................... 77
Figure12. 3: Types of Pipe Joints............................................................................................... 78
Figure12. 4: Moody's Diagram .................................................................................................. 79

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)

List of Tables
Table2. 1:Ob's & Cal.......................................................................................................... 22

Table3. 1:Ob's & Cal .................................................................................................................. 27

Table4. 1: Ob’s & Cal for Flat Shape object ............................................................................ 33

Table4. 2: Ob’s & Cal for Hemispherical Shape object .......................................................... 33
Table4. 3: Ob’s & Cal for Conical Shape object ...................................................................... 33

Table5. 1: Ob’s & Cal ................................................................................................................. 40

Table6. 1: Ob's & Cal ................................................................................................................. 44

Table7. 1: Ob’s & Cal ................................................................................................................. 51

Table8. 1: Orifice Inlet Shapes .................................................................................................. 57

Table8. 2: Ob’s & Cal ................................................................................................................. 58

Table9. 1: Ob’s & Cal for Rectangular Weir ........................................................................... 63

Table9. 2: Ob’s & Cal for Rectangular Weir ........................................................................... 63

Table10. 1: Ob's & Cal ............................................................................................................... 69

Table11. 1: Ob's & Cal ............................................................................................................... 74

Table12. 1: Ob's & Cal ............................................................................................................... 80

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Lab Session 1: -
Lab’s Layout
Table 1: Sketch of Lab

SAFE
E WHITE BOARD
N
T
R W
A 1
N TABLE TABLE
C 11 1
E
SITTING AREA

TABLE
TABLE 2
10 W
2

TABLE
3
TABLE
9

TABL
HYDRAULIC BENCH E4 W
3
M4
TABLE
8 TABL
E5

M1 M2
M3 TABLE 7 TABLE 6

W5 W4 12
 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)

1.1 List of Apparatus:

1. Table No.1:
a. Lab Projects
2. Table No.2:
a. Losses In Pipe System
b. Energy Losses in Piping Elements
3. Table No.3:
a. Pipe Friction Apparatus.
b. Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus
4. Table No.4:
a. Hydraulic Ram Apparatus
b. Orifice Discharge Apparatus
c. Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
d. Impact Of Jet Apparatus
5. Table No.5:
a. Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus
b. Flow Visualization Apparatus
c. Flow over weirs/notches
d. Floating Bodies/Metacentric Height Apparatus
6. Machine 1: Determination of Settling Velocity
7. Machine 2: Multiple Pumps Test Bench
8. Table No.6:
a. Pumps in Series & Parallel
b. Centrifugal Pump
9. Table No.7:
a. Axial Flow Impulse Turbine
b. Turbine Base Unit
10. Machine 3: Propeller Turbine Unit
11. Table No.8:
a. Computer Controlled Wind
12. Table No.9:
a. Axial Fan Demo
b. Interface Unit
13. Table No.10:
a. Centrifugal Compressor Demo
b. Centrifugal Fan
14. Table No.11:
a. Computer Table
15. Machine 4: Hydraulic Bench

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1.2 Description of Apparatus:

1.2.1 Loses in Pipe System:
Minor losses in pipe flow are a major part in calculating the flow, pressure, or energy
reduction in piping systems. Liquid moving through pipes carries momentum and energy due
to forces acting upon it such as pressure and gravity.

Figure1.1: Loses in Pipe System

1.2.2 Energy Losses in Piping Elements:
The HM 150.29 unit can be used to investigate and visualize the pressure losses in pipe
elements. The experimental unit can be used to assess how different pipe geometries affect the
flow.

Figure1.2: Energy Losses in Piping Elements

1.2.3 Pipe Friction Apparatus:
The pipe friction apparatus consists of a test pipe (mounted vertically on the rig), a
constant head tank, a flow control valve, an air-bleed valve, and two sets of manometers to
measure the head losses in the pipe.

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
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Figure1. 3: Pipe Friction Apparatus

1.2.4 Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus:
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be
traversed along the center of the test section to measure the total head.

Figure1. 4: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus

1.2.5 Hydraulic Ram Apparatus:
The Hydraulic Ram Pump uses the water hammer effect, where the momentum of a
column of moving water in a pipe causes the water hammer. The ram pump is not a normal
mechanically-operated pump. A column of water in the supply (drive) pipe from a header tank,
moving at low velocity, is similar to a 'plunger'.

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Figure1. 5: Hydraulic Ram Apparatus

1.2.6 Orifice Discharge Apparatus:
Orifice Discharge Apparatus: MTFM-37. The Orifice Discharge accessory consists of
a cylindrical clear acrylic tank which has an orifice fitted in the base. A traverse assembly is
provided which enables a piton tube to be positioned anywhere in the jet.

Figure1. 6: Orifice Discharge Apparatus

1.2.7 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus:
Osborne Reynolds Apparatus. H215. Free-standing apparatus that gives a visual
demonstration of laminar and turbulent flow. It also allows students to investigate the effect of
varying viscosity and investigate Reynolds numbers.

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
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Figure1. 7: Osborne Reynolds Apparatus

1.2.8 Impact Of Jet Apparatus:
The Impact of a Jet apparatus demonstrates the force produced by a jet of water as it
strikes a flat plate or hemispherical cup, which can be compared to the momentum flow rate in
the jet. To extend the range of investigations, the 120° conical plate and 30° angled plate are
included.

Figure1. 8: Impact of Jet Apparatus

1.2.9 Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus:
The Hydrostatic Pressure accessory has been designed to determine the static thrust
exerted by a fluid on a submerged surface and enables comparison of the measured magnitude
and position of this force with simple theory. FEATURES: Determination of the center of
pressures with an angle of 90°, partially submerged.

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Figure1. 9: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus

1.2.10 Flow Visualization Apparatus:
Flow visualization is that it can start with simple system arrangement, using a camera
and an. illumination system, to obtain the general understanding of the flow structure and
behavior. Once. the information of the flow is captured, more sophisticated system can be
employed to provide.

Figure1. 10: Flow Visualization Apparatus

1.2.11 Flow Over Weirs/Notches:
A combination of a stilling baffle and the inlet nozzle to promote smooth flow
conditions in the channel.

Figure1. 11: Flow Over Weirs/Notches

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1.2.12 Metacentric Height Apparatus:

Displacement of weight is measured with the help of a scale. By means of a pendulum
(consisting of a weight suspended to a long pointer) the angle of tilt can be measured on a
graduated arc. For tilting the ship model, a cross bar with two movable hangers is fixed on the
model.

Figure1. 12: Metacentric Height Apparatus

1.2.13 Hydraulic bench:
A power steering is a mechanical device equipped on a motor vehicle by reducing
steering effort needed to turn the steering wheel.

Figure1. 13: Hydraulic bench

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Lab Session 2: -
Experiment #01
2.1 Objective:
To Study the characteristics of hydraulic bench and find out volume and mas flow rate of
flowing water.
2.2 Apparatus:
• Pump/motor Drive (Centrifugal Discharge)
• Sump Tank
• Transparent Pipe
• Flow Control Valve
• Drain Valve
• Side Channel
• Open Channel
• Volumetric Measuring Tank
• Stilling Baffle
• Sight Tube (Manometer)
• Measuring Cylinder
• Dump Valve
2.3 Theory:
2.3.1 Hydraulic bench:
A Hydraulic Bench is a self-contained water supply device that allows recirculating water
from a Sump Tank into different hydraulic devices. A centrifugal Pump moves water from the
Sump Tank through a hose into a Water Inlet at the top of the bench.

Figure2. 1: Hydraulic Bench

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)
The bench is made of portable, lightweight plastic that resists corrosion, and it is wheeled
for mobility. The bench top has an open channel and side channels to support the item while it is
being tested.
Volumetric measurement is crucial and is preferred over other flow measurement
techniques because it is simple, accurate, and safe to use (no heavy weights for students to handle).
To handle low or high flow rates, the volumetric measurement tank has steps. A remote
sight tube with scale and a stilling baffle work together to decrease turbulence and provide an
instantaneous reading of the water level. For the purpose of measuring extremely low flow rates,
the supply comes with a measuring cylinder.

Figure2. 2: Parts of Hydraulic Bench

2.3.2 Label:
1. Flow Control Valve
2. Overflow
3. Storage Tank with Submersible Pump
4. Gate Valve for Emptying the Measuring Tank
5. Measuring Tank Level Indicator
6. Measuring Tank
A remote actuator opens a dump valve in the volumetric tank's base. The measured amount
of water is recycled in the sump at the base of the bench after the dump valve is opened. Flooding
is prevented by the volumetric tank's overflow.
A centrifugal pump draws water from the sump tank, and a control valve located on a panel
manages the flow. Without the use of hand tools, the bench top's simple fast release pipe connector
enables quick accessory interchange.
2.3.3 Volume Flow Rate:
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics, the volumetric flow rate (also
known as volume flow rate, or volume velocity) is the volume of fluid which passes per unit time;
usually it is represented by the symbol Q (sometimes V̇).
Q = V/t

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2.3.4 Mass Flow Rate:

Mass flow rate is defined as the mass of matter that passes through an area per unit of time.
It is a measure of the rate of the movement of passing fluids (liquids and gases) through a defined
area. Mass flow rate is a very important variable, which is commonly seen in engineering and fluid
mechanics. Its standard SI unit is kilogram per second (kg/s).
Q=p×Q

2.4 Procedure:
1. Water is stored in the lower part of the bench.
2. A centrifugal pump is provided to draw the water from sump tank through a control valve
to an out let in the bed of open channel.
3. Water is collected into the volumetric tank to measure the volume flow rate.
4. First, ensure that hydraulic bench is placed on a level ground with locked wheels.
5. Direct the water supply from hydraulic bench into the volumetric tank using the valve.
6. Fully close the flow control valve then on the main switch of centrifugal pump.
7. Gradually open the flow control valve and allow the piping to fill water until all air has
been expelled from the system.
8. Take one or two stop watches. As the water level is rises in the tank measure the average
time taken to fill a specific portion of the sump tank by observing the Sight Gauge.
9. Then get the reading from Sight Gauge and the stop watch.
10. Repeat the observation for various flow rates.
2.5 Observation & Calculations:
Table2. 1:Ob's & Cal
Sr. No Volume(V) Time(T) Volume Flow rate Mass Flow Rate
𝑄𝑖 (𝑚3/𝑠) 𝑚̇i (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)

2
3

4
5

6
7

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2.6 Specimen Calculation:

2.7 Graphs:
Graph 2.7.1: Volume Flow Rate
70
60 58
50
45
TIME

40
37
30 30
25
20 20
14
10
7
0
0.122 0.106 0.4166 0.3846 0.596 0.625 0.789 0.92
VOLUME

Graph 2.1: Volume Flow Rate

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Graph 2.7.2: Mass Flow Rate

1
0.9 0.92

VOLUME FLOW RATE

0.8 0.789
0.7
0.6 0.625
0.596
0.5
0.4 0.4166
0.3846
0.3
0.2
0.1 0.122 0.106
0
122 106 416.6 384.6 596 625 789 920
MASS FLOW RATE

Graph 2.2: Mass Flow Rate

2.8 Conclusions:
• By comparing the theoretical and experimental values of this experiment we can
say that there is a slight difference in values.
• The difference might be because of water bubbles in the manometer or
fluctuation in water flow.
• Overall, the hydraulic bench experiment is easy to perform but precision is also
required.
• We used stopwatch to calculate the time when volume was kept constant to find
the volume flow rate.
• In my view, If the experiment was done digitally then the values would have
been precise and the chances of more errors were less.
• A centrifugal pump is used in the experiment to suck water from lower tank to
upper tank.
• The water flow rate is controlled by flow control valve.
• Through this experiment we are able to understand the hydraulic bench
completely and also, we can find out the volume flow rate and mass flow rate
through this.

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Lab Session 3: -
Experiment #02
3.1 Objective:
To investigate the validity of Bernoulli’s equation when applied to steady flow of water in
a tapered duct.
3.2 Apparatus:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus
• Stopwatch
• Calculator

Figure3. 1: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus

3.3 Theory:
A fluid's flow velocity and pressure are correlated, according to Bernoulli's principle. In a
flowing fluid, a decrease in static pressure is caused by an increase in velocity, and the opposite is
also true. The fluid's overall pressure doesn't change. The idea of flow energy conservation is
another name for Bernoulli's equation.
By measuring the pressures in a Venturi nozzle, the HM 150.07 experimental unit
exemplifies Bernoulli's principle.
The experimental equipment has a segment of pipe with a clear Venturi nozzle and a
moveable Pitot tube for measuring the overall pressure. The axial displacement of the Pitot tube is
found inside the Venturi nozzle. The transparent front panel of the Venturi nozzle allows one to
see where the Pitot tube is located.

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Figure3. 2: Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus

3.3.1 Label:
1. Diagram
2. Tube Manometer (static pressure)
3. Water Supply
4. Valve
5. Venturi Nozzle
6. Water Outlet
7. Valve for Water Outlet
8. Pitot Tube
9. Single Tube Manometer
3.4 Procedure:
1. Firstly, adjust the Bernoulli’s Principal Apparatus on the Hydraulic Bench.
2. Join the hydraulic bench with our apparatus to perform the experiment. Connect them using
flexible pipes.
3. Open the input valve to let the water flow through a tapered inclined pipe from the
hydraulic bench supply tank to the receiving tank.
4. In order to maintain a consistent water flow in the supply tank, adjust the flow using an
exit valve. The rate producing inflow and outflow are equal at the constant rate.
5. After adjusting the flow, note down the readings of the water level of each tube monometers
which are nothing but pressure heads at different points of Venturi nozzle.
6. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the Venturi nozzle at the locations of the tube
monometers.
7. Also, take the reading of single tube manometer.
8. Now, take the stopwatch and measure volumetric rate flow using the hydraulic bench
apparatus.
9. Also, note down the measuring tank dimensions.
10. Perform the same steps at least twice more for various values.

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3.5 Assessment of Experiment:

The measured values are compared to Bernoulli’s equation and the Bernoulli’s equation
for constant head h.
Allowance for friction losses and conversions of the pressures p1 and p2 into the static
pressure heads h1 and h2 yields.
3.6 Diagram:

Figure3. 3: Venturi Area

p1: Pressure at cross-section A1 w2: Flow velocity at A2

h1: Pressure head at cross-section A1 hv: Pressure loss head
w1: Flow velocity at A1 p2: Pressure at cross-section A2
h2: Pressure head at cross-section A2
𝝆: Density of medium = constant for incompressible fluids such as water
3.7 Formulas:
• h(dynamics) = h(total) – h(static)
• W(measured) = √2gh(dynamics)
• W(calculated) = V/A
3.8 Observation and Calculations:
Table3. 1:Ob's & Cal
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 Time Volume Flow rate
(T) (L) (Ls-1)
h(static)

h(total)

h(dynamic)

W(measured)

W(calculate)

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3.9 Specimen Calculation:

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3.9 Conclusions:
• On the basis of the test result, it can be concluded that there is a difference in
measured and theoretical values flow rates. This is because of the friction losses in
the real fluid; the ideal fluid does not have friction losses.
• From the experiment, it can be concluded that with the decrease in the area of flow
there is an increase in velocity and a decrease in the flow pressure of the fluid.

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Lab Session 4: -
Experiment #03
4.1 Objective:
To investigate the velocity when a force strike through a jet on different shapes.
4.2 Apparatus:
1. Impact of Jet Apparatus
2. Hydraulic Bench (as water source)
3. Stopwatch
4. Calculator

Figure4. 1: Impact of jet Apparatus

4.2.1 Label:
1. Weight
2. Deflector
3. Nozzle
4. Water Supply
5. Water Drains
6. Tank
7. Lever Apparatus
In order to determine which shape receives the most object force, we also need three different
object shapes.
4.3 Object shapes:
1. Flat
2. Hemispherical
3. Conical

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Figure4. 2: Flat, Hemispherical, Conical shapes

4.4 Nozzle diameter:
5mm
4.5 Theory:
The Impact of a Jet device shows the force that a jet of water produces when it collides
with a flat plate or hemispherical cup. This force can be compared to the momentum flow rate in
the jet. The inclusion of the 120° conical plate and 30° angled plate broadens the scope of the
investigations.
From the outlet of a nozzle attached to a pipe where the liquid is flowing under pressure,
the liquid emerges as a jet. A jet is a stream of fluid that is ejected into the environment, typically
from a nozzle, aperture, or opening of some sort.
There is a change in velocity and thus a change in momentum during deceleration,
acceleration, and deflection of a flowing fluid. Forces originate from modifications in momentum.
In actuality, the motive forces are employed to transform kinetic energy into work produced, as in
a Pelton turbine.

Figure4. 3: Impact of Jet Apparatus

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4.6 Jet Force (Theoretical):

• The theoretical jet force is calculated from the principle of linear momentum
• The density of water equal
• In general, the jet force is
F(x) = 2 ρ.Q.V1
F(x): the jet force. Q: flow rate.
V1: water velocity by which the jet strikes the vane. 𝛒: density of water.
4.7 General Formulas:
• V1= √VO−2.g.m
• VO=Q/A
• F(th)=mg
• Error=[(F(th)−FX)/F (th)] *100
4.7.1 Formula for Flat Object:
Fx = ρ×Q×V1
4.7.2 Formula for Hemispherical Object:
Fx=2×ρ×Q×V1
4.7.3 Formula for Conical Object:
Fx = ρ×Q×V1(1-cos 45)
4.8 Procedure:
1. First of all, place the apparatus on the hydraulic bench
2. Check and note the nozzle's exit diameter before removing the clear cylinder and top plate
from the apparatus (by releasing the knurled nuts).
3. Screw the Flat shape object to middle shaft and, then close the upper cap and screw its nuts.
4. Now adjust the water flow and by using the hydraulic bench flow rate valve.
5. As the object is placed over the nozzle at a very small distance, the pressure of the nozzle
pushes the object upward compressing the spring over the top plate.
6. Now put weight of 50 g on the spring shaft gently and, if scale is not adjusted put on some
more weight as per need to make it equal to the scale over shaft.
7. Note the values of weight.
8. Now find the flow rate of water flowing using the hydraulic bench, stopwatch and
calculator.
9. Repeat this process for three time to find the %error.
10. Repeat the same process for hemispherical shape object and conical shape object.
11. At last, compare all the values to find out that in which type of object the force is maximum.

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4.9 Observations and Calculations:

4.9.1 For Flat Object:
Table4. 1: Ob’s & Cal for Flat Shape object
Mass Force Volum Time Flow rate Speed Speed Force Error
e
m(g) Fx(N) T(sec) Q(m3/s) V1(m/s) V0(m/s) Fth(N) (%)
V(lit)

4.9.2 For Hemispherical Object:

Table4. 2: Ob’s & Cal for Hemispherical Shape object
Mass Force Volum Time Flow rate Speed Speed Force Error
e
m(g) Fx(N) T(sec) Q(m3/s) V1(m/s) V0(m/s) Fth(N) (%)
V(lit)

4.9.3 For Conical Object:

Table4. 3: Ob’s & Cal for Conical Shape object
Mass Force Volume Time Flow rate Speed Speed Force Error
m(g) Fx(N) V(lit) T(sec) Q(m3/s) V1(m/s) V0(m/s) Fth(N) (%)

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4.10 Specimen Calculation:

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4.11 Graphs:
4.11.1 For Flat Object:
1.2

0.8
Forces

0.6
F-theoratical
0.4
F-exp
0.2

0
1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.5 1.52
Flowrate x 10-4

Graph 4.1: Graph for Flat Shape Object

4.11.2 For Hemispherical Object:
2.5

2
Forces

1.5

1 F-theoratica
F-exp
0.5

0
1.5 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57
Flowrate x 10-4

Graph 4.2: Graph for Hemispherical Shape Object

4.11.3 For Conical Object:
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Forces

0.25
0.2 F-theoratical
0.15
F-exp
0.1
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Flowrate x 10-4

Graph 4.3: Graph for Conical Shape Object

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4.12 Conclusions:
• From this experiment, it can be concluded that there is a slight difference between
theoretical and experimental values of force.
• From the graphs it is seen that the force over hemispherical surface is greater than
flat surface and conical shape surface.
• The water has to deflect 180 degrees in hemispherical shape surface, that’s why it
has higher force value while in flat object water has to deflect 90 degrees and in
conical object water has to deflect 30 degrees.

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Lab Session 5: -
Experiment #04
5.1 Objectives:
To observe the Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent flow and to determine the
corresponding Reynolds number by using Osborne Reynold Apparatus.
5.2 Apparatus:
1. Osborne Reynold Apparatus
2. Volumetric Jug
3. Syringe
4. Dissolvable Ink
5. Hydraulic Bench (as water source)
6. Stopwatch
7. Calculator

Figure5. 1: Osborne Reynold Apparatus

5.2.1 Label:
1. Tank for ink with inlet pipe
2. Overflow
3. Water supply
4. Water drains
5. Pipe section with valve
6. Water tank with glass beads

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5.3 Related Theory:

This experiment replicates Osborne Reynolds' work on the "Reynolds Number," which
describes laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow. The experimenter may see the flow with the
Reynolds Apparatus and decide if it is laminar, transitional, or turbulent. The flow rate is managed
by the globe valve at the exit, while an overflow tank keeps the pressure head on the flow tube
constant. In order to see the flow, Dissolvable ink is injected into the flow tube's bell mouth. By
gathering the liquid in a beaker near the outflow and timing how long it takes to fill a specific
volume, flow rates (and hence average flow velocity, v) can be calculated. Before starting the
experiment, the equipment should also be levelled.
5.3.1 Reynold Number:
When a fluid experiences relative internal movement as a result of various fluid velocities,
the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces is known as the Reynolds number. A boundary layer
is a location where the behavior of these force’s changes, such as the bounding surface inside a
pipe.
5.3.2 Laminar Flow:
In laminar flows, fluid particles move in layers, sliding over each other, causing a small
energy exchange to occur between layers. Laminar flow occurs in fluids with high viscosity,
moving at a slow velocity.

Figure5. 2: Laminar Flow

5.3.3 Transitional Flow:
A flow in which the viscous and Reynolds stresses are of approximately equal magnitude. It is a
transitional between laminar flow and turbulent flow. See the laminar boundary layer, turbulent
boundary layer in Figure 5.3.

Figure5. 3: Transitional Flow

5.3.4 Turbulent Flow:

The turbulent flow, is characterized by random movements and intermixing of fluid
particles, with a great exchange of energy throughout the fluid. This type of flow occurs in fluids
with low viscosity and high velocity.

Figure5. 4: Turbulent Flow

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The dimensionless Reynolds number is used to classify the state of flow. The Reynolds
Number Demonstration is a classic experiment, based on visualizing flow behavior by slowly and
steadily injecting ink into a pipe.
5.3.4 Different types of Flowing Fluid:
• If the Reynold number is less than 2300 than the flow is Laminar flow,
i.e., Re < 2300 → Laminar Flow
• If the Reynold number is equal to 2300 than the flow is Transitional Flow,
i.e., Re = 2300 → Transitional Flow
• If the Reynold number is greater than 2300 than the flow is Turbulent Flow,
i.e., Re > 2300 → Turbulent Flow

Figure5. 5: Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow of Fluid

5.4 Practical Applications:
The Reynolds number has many real-world applications because it gives engineers
immediate information of the flow conditions in soils, streams, and pipes, enabling them to apply
the appropriate correlations to the problem at hand.
For dimensions analysis and similitude, it is also very helpful. For instance, the Reynolds
number of the flow operating on the model in the lab and the prototype in the field should be the
same if forces acting on a ship need to be investigated in the lab for design purposes.
5.5 Related Formulas:
Area of tube = A = (π × d2) / 4
Flow Rate = Q = V / t
Velocity = W = Q / A
Reynold Number = Re = (W × d) / ℽ

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5.6 Procedure:
• Set up the Osborne Reynold Apparatus on the Hydraulic Bench.
• Connect Osborne Reynold Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench using hose pipe and
connection.
• Fill up the syringe with Ink And mix it with some water then set this mixture to top of the
water tank.
• Set the flow rate through the control valve and open the ink valve slowly.
• In order to find the Fluid flow rate, fix the volume to be noted in the Volumetric Jug and
note the time using stopwatch.
• Note the values.
• Calculate the flow rate and velocity of the fluid flowing.
• Then find the Reynold number using above formula.
• Get more values by changing flow rates.
• Compare the values by drawing graph between flow rate and Reynold number.
5.7 Observations and Calculations:
Table5. 1: Ob’s & Cal
Sr.no Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity Reynold No.
V(l) t(s) Q(m3/s) W(m/s) Re
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

5.8 Specimen Calculation:

The diameter of the tube is 10mm or 0.01 m.
The value of ℽ is equals to 1 × 10-6 m2 / sec.

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5.9 Graph:
12000

10000
Reynold Number

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1.205 2.73 3.13 1.12 4.15 8.6 8.48 0.76
Flow Rate × 10-5

Graph 5.1: Reynold Number Vs Flow Rate

5.10 Conclusions:
• The glass beads are used to prevent splashing in the water tank so that the flow is
smooth through-out the tube and flow type can be seen clearly.
• The ink is used to observe the Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow in the
transparent pipe section.
• Reynold number is directly related to the velocity of the fluid flowing through the
transparent pipe.
• As water flow rate increases, the Reynold number calculated also increases and the
ink line change from thin thread to swirling in shape.
• The Laminar flow occurs when the fluid is flowing slowly and turbulent flow occurs
when the fluid flowing is fast.
• The Transitional flow occurs disorderly between laminar and turbulent flow.

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Lab Session 6: -
Experiment #05
6.1 Objectives:
To investigate the pressure loss or head loss for flow in pipe of uniform diameter by
using losses in pipe apparatus.
6.2 Apparatus:
1. Losses in Pipe System
2. Hydraulic Bench
3. Stopwatch

Figure6. 1: Losses in Pipe System Apparatus

6.2.1 Label:
1. Tube Manometers
2. Various Pipe Sections
3. Pipe Section for Interchangeable Shut-off/Measuring Objects
4. Annular Chamber
5. Ball Valve
6.3 Related Theory:
Real fluids experience pressure losses during flow because of turbulence and friction.
There are pressure losses in pipelines, pipeline systems, fittings, and measuring equipment. When
designing piping systems, it is important to account for these pressure losses.
Losses in pipe systems allow studying the pressure losses in pipes, piping elements, and
shut-off devices. In addition, the differential pressure method is presented for measuring the flow
rate.
The experimental unit contains six different pipe sections capable of being shut off
individually. The pipe sections are equipped with piping elements such as bends, elbows, and
branches. In one pipe section, different shut-off devices and measuring objects are installed to
determine the flow rate. The measuring objects are made of transparent material and provide

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excellent insight into the inner structure. The pressure measuring points in the piping system are
designed as annular chambers. This creates a largely interference-free pressure measurement

Figure6. 2: Losses in Pipe System

The experiments measure the pressure losses in pipes and piping elements, such as branches and
bends. The opening characteristic of the shut-off devices are also recorded. The pressures are
measured with twin tube manometers.
6.4 Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on the hydraulic bench and balance it.
2. Connect losses in pipe system with hydraulic bench via hose pipe.
3. Firstly, allow fluid to flow through it so that any air bubbles or anything isn’t left in pipes.
4. Close the fluid flow and close all the valves except Valve 2 & Valve 11 to allow water to
flow through single pipe.
5. Connect double tube Manometer with fluid flowing pipe from both sides so that we can
find out the pressure loss in the pipe.
6. Now let the water flow and measure the pressure difference in the tubes and note the values.
7. Calculate the water flow rate using Hydraulic Bench.
8. Check and note the temperature to find the Reynold number.
9. Temperature was noted 29‫ﹾ‬C and value of ℽ is equals to 0.819 × 10-6.
10. Repeat this process at different flow rates.
6.5 Related Formulas:
Area = A = (π × D2) / 4
Head Loss = hL = h1 – h2
Hydraulic Gradient = i = hL / L
Flow Rate = Q = V / (T × 1000)
Velocity = V = Q / A
Reynold Number = Re = (V × D) / ℽ
Friction Factor = f = (2 × g × D × hL) / (V2 × L)

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6.6 Observations and Calculations:

Table6. 1: Ob's & Cal
Sr no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Head h1
Manometric (mm)
Tube h2
(mm)
Head Loss hL
(mm)
Hydraulic i
Gradient
Volume V
(l3)
Time T
(s)
Flow Rate Q
(m3/s)
Velocity V
(m/s)
Reynold Re
Number
Friction f
Factor
Log i

Log V

Log f

Log Re

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6.7 Specimen Calculations:

Temperature = 29‫ﹾ‬C ℽ = 0.819 × 10-6
g = 9.81 m2/s L = 800 mm
D = 15 mm A = 1.767 × 10-4 m2

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6.8 Graphs:
6.8.1 Graph 1: -
60

HEAD LOSS (mm)

50 48
40 38
30
23
20
10 11
5 5 5
0
6.289 6.757 7.633 9.174 11.628 21.276 13.698
FLOW RATE × 10-5 (m3/s)

Graph 6.1: Head Loss Vs Flow Rate

6.8.2 Graph 2: -
60
HEAD LOSS (mm)

50 48
40 38
30
23
20

10 11
5 5 5
0
3.814 3.844 3.898 3.978 4.081 4.343 4.152
REYNOLD NUMBER

Graph 6.2: Head Loss Vs Reynold Number

6.8.3 Graph 3: -
60

50
HEAD LOSS (mm)

48
40
38
30
23
20

10 11
5 5 5
0
-0.448 -0.418 -0.364 -0.185 -0.182 0.0806 -0.11
VELOCITY (m/s)

Graph 6.3: Head Loss Vs Velocity

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6.8.4 Graph 4:
60

HEAD LOSS (mm)

50
48
40
38
30
23
20

10 11
5 5 5
0
800 800 800 800 800 800 800
LENGTH (mm)

Graph 6.4: Head Loss Vs Length

6.9 Conclusion:
• As the fluid’s flow rate is increase the velocity of water flowing is also increased
and the friction factor value decreases.
• Lower value of friction factor more fluid flow is turbulent.
• Through these graphs it is concluded that when there is more pressure difference
in both sides of the manometric tubes then we get greater Reynold number value,
from this we can say that the fluid flow is more turbulent.
• Pressure difference in manometric tubes is due to micropores on the inner side
of the pipe.
• Fluid experiences more friction when flowing slowly.

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Lab Session 7: -
Experiment #06
7.1 Objectives:
To determine the Metacentric Height of a ship model.
7.2 Apparatus:
1. Metacentric Height Apparatus/Floating Bodies
2. Hydraulic Bench

Figure7. 1: Metacentric Height Apparatus

7.3 Related Theory:
7.3.1 Metacenter:
A floating body will spin about a point when it is given a minor displacement, this point is
known as the Metacenter. In other words, the point where the vertical line through the new center
of buoyancy intersects with the lines running through the body’s previous center of buoyancy and
center of gravity.
7.3.2 Metacentric Height:
The distance between center of gravity of a floating body and Metacenter is called as
Metacentric height.
It is a measurement of a floating body’s static stability. The significant metacentric height
increases stability. An extremely great metacentric height would result in a shorter rolling time,
which would be uncomfortable for the ship’s passengers. This is why a ship intended for
passengers is built for a limited amount of metacentric height, yet enough metacentric height. In
order to offer stability as well as comfort.

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Figure7. 2: Ship Model

7.3.3 Why to find Metacentric Height?
It is necessary for the stability of a floating body because the body will be stable if the
metacenter is above the center of gravity since the restoring couple will cause the body to shift
back to its original location.
7.3.4 Center of Buoyancy:
The center of buoyancy is the location through which the force of buoyancy is intended to
move. OR The center of buoyancy refers to the place in the middle of a body that is submerged.
7.3.5 Types of Stability:
There are two types of Stability of floating objects,
1. Static Stability
2. Damaged Stability
7.3.5.1 Static Stability:
A floating object is stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a
small displacement. For example, floating objects will generally have vertical stability, as if the
object is pushed down slightly, this will create a greater buoyancy force, which, unbalanced by
the weight force, will push the object back up.

Figure7. 3: Ship’s Static Stability

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Rotational stability is of great importance to floating vessels. Given a small angular

displacement, the vessel may return to its original position (stable), move away from its original
position (unstable), or remain where it is (neutral).
7.3.5.2 Damaged Stability:
If a ship floods, the loss of stability is caused by the increase in KB, the center of buoyancy, and
the loss of waterplane area - thus a loss of the waterplane moment of inertia - which decreases the
metacentric height. This additional mass will also reduce freeboard (distance from water to the deck) and
the ship's down flooding angle (minimum angle of heel at which water will be able to flow into the hull).

Figure7. 4: Ship’s Damaged Stability

7.4 Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment on the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench (some quantity of water
should be present in the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench).
2. Adjust the position of the horizontally movable mass to the right and record its distance
from the vertical rod.
3. Adjust the position of the vertically movable mass and record its distance from the
horizontal rod.
4. For the current position of the horizontally and vertically movable masses, measure the
angle of tilt.
5. Compute the metacentric height for this position of the movable masses.
6. Repeat steps 2−5 for various positions of the movable masses and the water level in the
volumetric tank.
7. Adjust the position of the horizontally movable mass to the left and record its distance from
the vertical rod.
8. Adjust the position of the vertically movable mass and record its distance from the
horizontal rod.
9. For the current position of the horizontally and vertically movable masses, measure the
angle of tilt.
10. Repeat steps 7−11 for various positions of the movable masses and the water level in the
volumetric tank.
11. Compute the metacentric height for this position of the movable masses.

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7.5 Related Formulas:

Horizontal Position of Center of Gravity = Xs = (m × h × X) / (m + mv + mh)
Height of Vertical Sliding = Zs = {(mv × Z) + (m + mh) × Zg} / (m + mv + mh)
Stability Gradient = dXs / dα = Xs / α
7.6 Observations and Calculations:
Table7. 1: Ob’s & Cal
Sr no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Position of Horizontal Sliding

Weight
X (mm)

Horizontal Position of Center of

Gravity
Xs (mm)

Height of Vertical Sliding

Weight
Z (mm)

Center of Gravity Position

Zs

Angle

Stability Gradient

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7.7 Specimen Calculations:

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7.8 Graphs:
7.8.1Graph 1: -

Horizontal position Vs Angle

30

25

20
Angle
15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Horizontal Position

Graph 7.1: Horizontal Position Vs Angle

7.8.2 Graph 2: -
Vertical Position Vs Angle
30

25

20
Angle
15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Vertical Position

Graph 7.2: Vertical Position Vs Angle

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7.8.3 Graph 3: -
Stability Gradient Vs Angle
200
180
160
140
Z in 120
cm 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Stability Gradient

Graph 7.3: Stability Gradient Vs Angle

7.9 Conclusion:
• After performing this experiment, we are able to understand how we find the
metacentric height of a ship model.
• It is very important to find the meta-center of a ship.
• If the distance between the meta-center and center of gravity of ship are greater the
ship will be more stable and vice visa.
• This process is also used to find the height for loading containers over a merchant
ship.

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Lab Session 8: -
Experiment #07
8.1 Objectives:
To find discharge coefficient of an orifice under a constant load.
8.2 Apparatus:
1. Orifice Discharge Apparatus 3. Hydraulic Bench
2. Stopwatch 4. Calculator

Figure8. 1: Orifice Discharge Apparatus

8.2.1 Label:
1. Inlet strainer 5. Pitot tube
2. Water connection 6. Water jet
3. Overflow 7. Measuring device for jet diameter
4. Twin tube manometers
8.2.2 Description:
The Orifice Discharge accessory consists of a cylindrical clear acrylic tank which has an
orifice fitted in the base. A traverse assembly is provided which enables a piton tube to be
positioned anywhere in the jet.

Figure8. 2: Orifice Discharge Apparatus

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8.3 Related Theory:

8.3.1 Orifice:
A plate with a central hole that is positioned across the flow of a liquid, typically between
valves in a pipeline, is referred to as an orifice meter. The flow quantity may be measured thanks
to the pressure differential caused by the flow velocity through the hole. According to Figure 1,
the orifice is where fluid passes through the left side of the pipe at pipe diameter D1 before being
constrained to D2 by the restricting plates. At P1 and P2, the pressure difference is gauged.
Different measurement tools, such as piezometer tubes or pressure gauges, can be used to gauge
this pressure.

Figure8. 3: Orifice Plate View

8.3.2The Vena Contracta:
The vena contracta is the location of the smallest cross-sectional diameter of the flow of
liquid after the orifice of the meter. This is also shown in Figure 2 above. This Secondary flow
phenomenon is the result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90-degree corner formed by
the orifice plates. Some common properties of the vena contracta are: constant pressure across the
cross-sectional area and all the streamlines of flow are parallel at this location (Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics). To calculate the theoretical flow rate through the meter you multiply the
velocity of the fluid by the area of the orifice. This value unfortunately will not match the actual
flow rate through the orifice of the meter. This is due to two main sources of error. The first is the
mechanical losses due to friction along the walls of the meter. The second is the reduction in the
area of flow due to the vena contracta phenomenon discussed above. To account for these sources
of error, a discharge coefficient is introduced into the calculation. The standard value for the
discharge coefficient of an orifice meter is 0.6.
8.4 Practical Applications:
1. The metering of fluid flow in pipes and reservoirs
2. Flow entering a culvert or storm drain inlet may act as orifice flow
3. The bottom outlet of a dam
4. The coefficients of velocity and discharge are necessary to accurately predict flow rates
from orifices.

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8.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the Orifice Discharge apparatus on the hydraulic bench.
2. Connect apparatus with hydraulic bench using hose pipe.
3. Take the cylindrical orifice and insert it at the inlet of the water jet.
4. Initially let the water flow through the apparatus to set the water jet and to eliminate any
air bubbles in the tubes.
5. Now set the water flow rate at a fix point so that we can take our readings.
6. While keeping the flow rate steady take the readings from the twin manometer tubes.
7. One reading is steady due to the water level in the tank and the other one is from the water
jet due to the pressure of water dropping at its opening.
8. Now that we have taken our reading from the twin manometer tubes, we have to calculate
the flow rate of fluid.
9. By using hydraulic bench, we calculate the flow rate of water.
10. At last, we calculate the remaining unknown values by using above data to find the
discharge coefficient.
11. Repeat this process for two more times to get 3 different values for cylindrical shape
channel.
8.6 Inlet Shapes:
There are 5 different inlet shapes.
Table8. 1: Orifice Inlet Shapes
Channel Orifice Cone Cone Rounded
(Inlet) (Outlet)

8.7 Related Formulas:

Velocity of Jet = Wjet = √(2×g×htotal)
Calculated Velocity = Wtheo = √(2×g×hstatic)
Flow Rate = Q = V / T
Contraction Coefficient = 𝜶 = d2jet / d2inlet
Velocity Coefficient = 𝝋 = √htotal / √hstatic
Discharge Coefficient = 𝝁 = 𝜶 × 𝝋

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8.8 Observations and Calculations:

Table8. 2: Ob’s & Cal
Channel Orifice Cone (Inlet)

Static Head
hstat (mm)

Total Head
htotal (mm)

Jet Diameter
djet (mm)

Flow Rate
Q (m3/s)

Velocity of Jet
Wjet (m/s)

Calculated
Velocity
Wtheo (m/s)
Contraction
Coefficient
𝜶
Velocity
Coefficient
𝝋
Discharge
Coefficient
𝝁
8.9 Specimen Calculations:

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8.10 Conclusions:
1. The inlet strainer is used to prevent splashing so that water flow in the orifice inlet
is not disturbed.
2. The static head value in the manometric tube depends upon the water level in the
tank.
3. The static head value is less than the total head value because in total head the water
is flowing with height pressure and also static pressure so in total its value is greater
than static head.

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Lab Session 9: -
Experiment #08
9.1 Objective:
To determine the discharge coefficient of weirs at different flow rates.
9.2 Apparatus:
• Flow Over Weirs/Notches
• Hydraulic Bench
• Stopwatch
• Calculator

Figure9. 1: Flow Over Weirs Apparatus

9.2.1 Description:
A flow measuring weir is simply a structure over which water flows in such a way that a
volumetric flow rate can be calculated it lets you know how much water is flowing. Many times,
a flow-measuring weir is simply a thin plate across a flowing stream, but weirs can also be broad,
thick structures.

Figure9. 2: Flow Over Rectangular Weir

9.2.2 Label:
1. Water Flowing from Hydraulic Bench 3. Nappe
2. Rectangular Shape Weir 4. Level Gauge

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9.3 Theory:
9.3.1 Weirs:
Different types of valves regulate the flow rate in pipes and ducts. However, since liquid
flow in open channels is unconstrained, the flow rate is managed by partially obstructing the
channel. This is accomplished by either allowing the liquid to pass over or under the impediment.
A weir is an obstruction that allows liquid to flow over it, and an underflow gate is an obstruction
with a bottom aperture that permits liquid to flow underneath it. Both measuring and controlling
the flow rate via the channel are possible with such apparatus.
A weir is a flow control device in which the water flows over the obstruction. Both
rectangular and triangular weirs have been employed in this experiment. In water supply,
wastewater, and sewage systems, rectangular weirs as well as triangular or v-notch weirs are
frequently employed. They are made up of a sharp-edged plate with a water flow profile that is
rectangular, triangular, or V-shaped. In dam spillways, where the broad edge is submerged along
the entire stream, broad-crested weirs can be seen. Only if they are calibrated will flow measuring
systems with broad-crested weirs meet accuracy criteria.
9.3.2 Flow through a Rectangular Weir:
A rectangular weir in a thin squared-edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown in Fig
8.3.

Figure9. 3: Flow through a Rectangular Weir

Consider the flow in an element of height 𝛿h at a depth h below the surface. Assuming that the flow
is everywhere normal to the plane of the weir and the free surface remains horizontal up to the plane of the
weir, then using Bernoulli’s equation with no head loss and 1-D flow, we get the velocity at point 2 as
shown in Fig

Figure9. 4: Free Overfall at the Plate Weir

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9.3.2.1 Label:
1. Plate Weir 4. V Flow Velocity
2. Nappe 5. ho Head
3. Draw Down 6. W Height of Weir
𝝆1 + 1/2 𝝆 V12 + 𝝆 gz1 = 𝝆 2 + 1/2 𝝆 V22 + 𝝆 gz2
P1 = Patm; P2 = Patm
V1 = 0; z1 – z2 = h
V2 = √(2𝑔ℎ)
Where, V2 is velocity through the element.
Theoretical discharge through element 𝛿Q = VdA = √𝟐𝐠𝒉𝐁𝛅𝐡
Where, B is the width of the weir.
Integrating to obtain the total discharge between h = 0 and h = H
𝐇
Qtheo = B√𝟐𝐠. ∫𝟎 𝐡𝟏/𝟐 . 𝐝𝐡
Qtheo = 2/3 B√𝟐𝐠. 𝐇 𝟑/𝟐
9.3.3 Flow Through a Triangular Weir (V-Shaped Weir):
A sharp-edged triangular weir with an included angle of θ is shown in Fig 8.4.

Figure9. 5: Flow Through a Triangular Weir

The triangular notch has advantages over the rectangular notch since the shape of the nappe does
not change with a head so the coefficient of discharge does not vary so much. A triangular notch can also
accommodate a wide range of flow rates.
Again, consider an element of height 𝛿h at a depth h
Breadth of the element, b = 2 (H – h) Tan(θ/2)
Hence, Area of element, A = 2 (H – h) Tan(θ/2) 𝛿h
Velocity through element, V2 = √𝟐𝐠𝒉
Theoretical discharge through element 𝛿Q = VdA = √𝟐𝐠𝒉 2 (H – h) Tan(θ/2) 𝛿h
Integrating to obtain the total discharge between h = 0 and h = H
𝑯
Qtheo = 2 tan(θ/2) √𝟐𝐠 ∫𝟎 [𝐇𝒉𝟏/𝟐 – 𝒉𝟑/𝟐 ] 𝐝𝐡
Qtheo = 8/15 tan(θ/2) √𝟐𝒉 𝑯𝟓/𝟐

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9.4 Experimental Procedure:

1. Set up the apparatus over the Hydraulic Bench as shown in Fig 8.1.
2. Make sure that flow is not disturbed (smooth flow is required).
3. Firstly, connect rectangular weir to the wall of hydraulic bench.
4. Slowly open the flow regulating valve of the hydraulic bench so that water can reach to the
datum level of weir.
5. Increase the flow rate to get the head over the weir and to calculate the flow rate using
hydraulic bench.
6. Again, increase the flow rate to get another reading.
7. Turn off the bench and replace rectangular weir with V-shaped weir.
8. Repeat same process for 3 times.
9.5 Related Formulas:
9.5.1 For Rectangular Weir:
Coefficient of Discharge = Cd = 𝑽̇Theo / 𝑽̇M
𝑽̇M = Volume / Time
𝑽̇Theo = 2/3 𝝁. 𝒃. 𝒛 √𝟐𝒈𝒛
9.5.2 For V-Shaped weir:
Coefficient of Discharge = Cd = 𝑽̇Theo / 𝑽̇M
𝑽̇M = W / Time
𝑽̇Theo = 8/15 𝝁. 𝒛𝟐 .tan(θ/2). √𝟐𝒈𝒛
9.6 Observations and Calculations:
Table9. 1: Ob’s & Cal for Rectangular Weir
Sr Height Head Time Flow Rate Flow Rate Discharge Coefficient
no. h (cm) z (cm) T (sec) 𝑽̇Theo (L/sec) 𝑽̇M (L/sec) Cd %

1.

2.

3.

Table9. 2: Ob’s & Cal for Rectangular Weir

Sr Height Head Time Flow Rate Flow Rate Discharge Coefficient
no. h (cm) z (cm) T (sec) 𝑽̇Theo (L/sec) 𝑽̇M (L/sec) Cd %
1.

2.

3.

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9.7 Specimen Calculation:

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9.8 Conclusion:
• As the flow rate increases the discharge coefficient becomes more accurate to the
theoretical value.
• When the flow rate is too low, it clings to the notch and flows down it. This changes
the coefficient of discharge because now the water isn't only being affected by
gravity it is having to resist the friction of the surface of the notch.
• The limitations of the theory are, it has to be level so the only force on the water is
gravity, there has to be a constant flow, and constant pressure.
• The theory behind this experiment makes an assumption that there is a minimum
height of water above the notch and any heights below this start to deviate from
theory at an increasing rate.
• The lower flow rates produce lower heights above the notch creating larger changes
from the theoretical equations.

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Lab Session 10: -

Experiment #09
10.1 Objective:
To determine the Hydraulic Pressure Force and Location of Center of Pressure for Partially
Submerged Bodies.
10.2 Apparatus:
1. Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus
2. Water
3. Dissolvable Ink
4. Weight Hangers
5. Weights

Figure10. 1: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus

10.3 Description of Apparatus:
The Hydrostatic Pressure accessory has been designed to determine the static thrust exerted by a
fluid on a submerged surface and enables comparison of the measured magnitude and position of
this force with simple theory. FEATURES: Determination of the center of pressures with an angle
of 90°, partially submerged.
10.4 Related Theory:
10.4.1 Hydro-Static Pressure:
The pressure that a fluid exerts when it is in an equilibrium with gravity is known as hydrostatic
pressure. In this situation, a fluid is referred to be a hydrostatic fluid. In order to ascertain the
hydrostatic pressure of water on a flat surface, we conducted a hydrostatic pressure lab. The
contraption was balanced by adding weight and then adding water until the tank was full.
Therefore, we can use the provided equations to determine the force on the flat surface.

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Figure10. 2: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts

10.4.2 Label:
1. Hanger with Scale
2. Weights
3. Transparent Plastic Disc with Angular and Fill Level Scale,
4. Water Tank
5. Axis of Rotation
6. Movable Weight
10.4.3 About Apparatus:
The equipment is comprised of a rectangular transparent water tank, a fabricated quadrant,
a balance arm, an adjustable counter-balance weight, and a water-level measuring device (Figure
1.1).
The water tank has a drain valve at one end and three adjustable screwed-in feet on its base
for leveling the apparatus. The quadrant is mounted on a balance arm that pivots on knife edges.
The knife edges coincide with the center of the arc of the quadrant; therefore, the only hydrostatic
force acting on the vertical surface of the quadrant creates a moment about the pivot point. This
moment can be counterbalanced by adding weight to the weight hanger, which is located at the
left end of the balance arm, at a fixed distance from the pivot. Since the line of actions of
hydrostatic forces applied on the curved surfaces passes through the pivot point, the forces have
no effect on the moment. The hydrostatic force and its line of action (center of pressure) can be
determined for different water depths, with the quadrant’s vertical face either partially or fully
submerged.
A level indicator attached to the side of the tank shows when the balance arm is horizontal.
Water is admitted to the top of the tank by a flexible tube and may be drained through a cock in
the side of the tank. The water level is indicated on a scale on the side of the quadrant [1].

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Figure10. 3: Structure of Apparatus Body

10.5 Related Formulas:
𝒆 = 𝟏/𝟔 𝒔
𝑳𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 − 𝟏/𝟑𝒔
a) Theoretical Force
𝑺
𝑭𝑷 = (𝝆𝒈 )(𝑺 × 𝒃)
𝟐
b) Experimental Force
𝑭𝑮 𝒍 = 𝑭𝑷 𝑳 𝑫

Where,
S = Water Level
e = Distance of center of pressure from planer center of force of active surface
LD = Distance to center of motion of this unit
b = breadth of surface = 75mm – weight of liquid
𝜌 = Density of water (Kg/mm3)
10.6 Procedure:
1. Set up the Apparatus in Horizontal position.
2. Use Horizontal position measuring tool to balance it properly.
3. By moving the moveable weight keep the transparent disk at zero position.
4. Now that the apparatus is set, we are ready to fill water in it and take our readings.
5. Firstly, fill up the water to the 50mm height of the water tank, it will move downward.
6. Use dissolvable ink to see clearly through transparent water tank.
7. Apply some weight on the hanger over scale to balance it at zero position.
8. The weight applied over hanger and length of the scale is then used to find the hydraulic
pressure force.
9. Again, fill water to 70mm height of the transparent water tank, it will again move
downward.
10. Again, apply some weight to keep angle zero and note its readings.
11. To take another reading, fill water to 96mm height and apply load to keep angle zero.

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10.7 Observation and Calculation:

Table10. 1: Ob's & Cal
Lower arm Appendix Weight Water Level Reading Calculated Arm Resultant Force
L (mm) FG (N) S (mm) LD (mm) FP (N)
165 1 50 183.33 0.9

295 1 70 101.67 2.9

300 2 96 168 3.571

10.8 Specimen Calculation:

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10.9 Graph:
4

3.5 3.571
Hydro-static Pressure Force

3
2.9

2.5

1.5

1
0.9

0.5

0
50 70 96
Depth of water in mm

Graph 10.1: Hydraulic Pressure Force Vs Depth of water

10.10 Conclusions:
• In this experiment, it is concluded that as body is submerged into water the more
hydro-static force is exerted over the body.
• From graph 10.1, it can be concluded that when depth of water increases in the water
tank the more hydro-static force is exerted over body and also, more load is required
to apply over weight hanger.
• These experiments are used to find the hydro-static force over the submarines and
ships.

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Lab Session 11: -

Experiment #10
11.1 Objective:
To determine the Hydraulic Pressure Force and Location of Center of Pressure for Fully
Submerged Bodies.
11.2 Apparatus:
1. Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus
2. Water
3. Dissolvable Ink
4. Weight Hangers
5. Weights

Figure11. 1Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts

11.3 Description of Apparatus:
The Hydrostatic Pressure accessory has been designed to determine the static thrust exerted
by a fluid on a submerged surface and enables comparison of the measured magnitude and position
of this force with simple theory. FEATURES: Determination of the center of pressures with an
angle of 90°, partially submerged.
11.4 Related Theory:
11.4.1 Hydro-Static Pressure:
The pressure that a fluid exerts when it is in an equilibrium with gravity is known as
hydrostatic pressure. In this situation, a fluid is referred to be a hydrostatic fluid. In order to
ascertain the hydrostatic pressure of water on a flat surface, we conducted a hydrostatic pressure
lab. The contraption was balanced by adding weight and then adding water until the tank was full.
Therefore, we can use the provided equations to determine the force on the flat surface.

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Figure11. 2: Hydro-static Pressure Apparatus Parts

11.4.2 Label:
1. Hanger with Scale
2. Weights
3. Transparent Plastic Disc with Angular and Fill Level Scale,
4. Water Tank
5. Axis of Rotation
6. Movable Weight
11.4.3 About Apparatus:
The equipment is comprised of a rectangular transparent water tank, a fabricated quadrant,
a balance arm, an adjustable counter-balance weight, and a water-level measuring device (Figure
1.1).
The water tank has a drain valve at one end and three adjustable screwed-in feet on its base
for leveling the apparatus. The quadrant is mounted on a balance arm that pivots on knife edges.
The knife edges coincide with the center of the arc of the quadrant; therefore, the only hydrostatic
force acting on the vertical surface of the quadrant creates a moment about the pivot point. This
moment can be counterbalanced by adding weight to the weight hanger, which is located at the
left end of the balance arm, at a fixed distance from the pivot. Since the line of actions of
hydrostatic forces applied on the curved surfaces passes through the pivot point, the forces have
no effect on the moment. The hydrostatic force and its line of action (center of pressure) can be
determined for different water depths, with the quadrant’s vertical face either partially or fully
submerged.
A level indicator attached to the side of the tank shows when the balance arm is horizontal.
Water is admitted to the top of the tank by a flexible tube and may be drained through a cock in
the side of the tank. The water level is indicated on a scale on the side of the quadrant [1].

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(Narowal Campus)

Figure11. 3: Structure of Apparatus Body

11.5 Related Formulas:
𝒆 = 𝟏/𝟔 𝒔
𝑳𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 − 𝟏/𝟑𝒔
c) Theoretical Force
𝑺
𝑭𝑷 = (𝝆𝒈 )(𝑺 × 𝒃)
𝟐
d) Experimental Force
𝑭𝑮 𝒍 = 𝑭𝑷 𝑳 𝑫

Where,
S = Water Level
e = Distance of center of pressure from planer center of force of active surface
LD = Distance to center of motion of this unit
b = breadth of surface = 75mm – weight of liquid
𝜌 = Density of water (Kg/mm3)
11.6 Procedure:
1. Set up the Apparatus in Horizontal position.
2. Use Horizontal position measuring tool to balance it properly.
3. By moving the moveable weight keep the transparent disk at zero position.
4. Now that the apparatus is set, we are ready to fill water in it and take our readings.
5. Firstly, fill up the water to the 110mm height of the water tank, it will move downward.
6. Use dissolvable ink to see clearly through transparent water tank.
7. Apply some weight on the hanger over scale to balance it at zero position.
8. The weight applied over hanger and length of the scale is then used to find the hydraulic
pressure force.
9. Again, fill water to 120mm height of the transparent water tank, it will again move
downward.
10. Again, apply some weight to keep angle zero and note its readings.
11. To take another reading, fill water to 130mm height and apply load to keep angle zero.

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11.7 Observation and Calculation:

Table11. 1: Ob's & Cal
Lower arm Appendix Weight Water Level Reading Calculated Arm Resultant Force
L (mm) FG (N) S (mm) LD (mm) FP (N)
240 3 110 150.139 4.79

275 3 120 150.119 5.49

237 4 130 150.104 6.32

11.8 Specimen Calculation:

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11.9 Graph:
7

6.32
6
Hydro-static Pressure Force

5.49
5
4.79

0
110 120 130
Depth of Water in mm

Graph 11.1: Hydraulic Pressure Force Vs Depth of Water

11.10 Conclusions:
• In this experiment, it is concluded that as body is submerged into water the more
hydro-static force is exerted over the body.
• From graph 10.1, it can be concluded that when depth of water increases in the water
tank the more hydro-static force is exerted over body and also, more load is required
to apply over weight hanger.
• These experiments are used to find the hydro-static force over the submarines and
ships.

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Lab Session 12: -

Experiment #11
12.1 Objective:
To determine losses in bends and fittings at different flow rate.
12.2 Apparatus:
• Energy Losses in Bends Apparatus
• Hydraulic bench
• Stop watch
• Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes,
• Spirit level, and
• Thermometer

Figure12. 1: Energy Losses in Bends Apparatus

12.3 Theory:
When a fluid moves through a pipe system, certain properties of the pipes and pipe components
can cause the fluid’s velocity and pressure to be altered. The pipe itself causes the fluid to
experience friction, which causes the fluid to lose kinetic energy as the fluid travels throughout the
pipes. The pipe components that cause energy losses include pipe bends, sudden area expansion
and contraction, and valves. The energy loss due to friction applied to the fluid from the pipes is
called major head loss, hL Major, and the energy loss due to pipe components is called minor head
loss, hL Minor. Together these losses make up the head loss, hL.

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Figure12. 2: Energy Losses in Bends Apparatus Parts

12.3.1 Label:
1. Purge valve
2. Manometers
3. Water inlet and outlet pipes
4. Membrane Valve
5. Flow control valve
6. Short Elbow 90
7. Middle elbow
8. Hand pump
9. Miter
The energy loss which occurs in a pipe fitting (so-called secondary loss) is commonly
expressed in terms of a head loss (h, meters) in the form:
𝒗𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = 𝑲
𝟐𝒈
Where,
K = the loss coefficient
v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting.
Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment.
For the pipe fitting experiment, the head loss is calculated from two manometer readings, taken
before and after each fitting, and K is then determined as 46 Due to the change in pipe cross-
sectional area through the enlargement and contraction, the system experiences an additional
change in static pressure. This change can be calculated as to eliminate the effects of this area
change on the measured head losses, this value should be added to the head loss readings for the
enlargement and the contraction.

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Note that (h1 – h2) will be negative for the enlargement and will be negative for the contraction.
For the gate valve experiment, pressure difference before and after the gate is measured directly
using a pressure gauge. This can then be converted to an equivalent head loss using the equation
bar = 10.2 m water The loss coefficient may then be calculated as above for the gate valve. The
losses of kinetic energy of a fluid that circulates through a pipe. These are caused by mainly by
abrupt variations of velocity due to:
• Abrupt changes of pipe section: widenings or narrowing’s
• Perturbation of the normal current flow, due to changes of the direction caused by the
existence of an elbow.
• Friction
12.4 Types of Bends:

Figure12. 3: Types of Pipe Joints

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
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12.5 Procedure:
1. Assemble the equipment on hydraulic bench.
2. To connect the input tube from the equipment to the pulse mouth of the bench with the
quick switch and connect a flexible conduct to its outlet, so that it can drain in the
volumetric tank.
3. Fill the manometric pipes following the procedure indicated in practice.
4. Once the system is pressurized, turn on the pump and open gradually and slightly the
valve of the bench or group VC, while you open gradually the control valve of the
equipment, VCC.
5. Once the valve of bench is completely open, regulate the flow with the control valve of
the equipment, VCC.
6. Write down the readings indicated in the manometric pipes which are associated with
the short elbow of 90 respectively.
7. Repeat the previous steps varying the flow by opening the control valve of the
Equipment.

12.6 Moody’s Chart:

Figure12. 4: Moody's Diagram

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12.7 Observation & Calculations:

Table12. 1: Ob's & Cal
i h1 h2 h1-h2 Time Volume Flow rate
(mm) (mm) (mm) T (sec) V (lit) Q (m3/sec)
Miter

Elbow

Short Bend

Long Bend

Contraction

Enlargement

12.8 Specimen Calculations:

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 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
(Narowal Campus)

12.9 Graph:
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
Flow Rate

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
HL

Graph 12.1: Flow Rate Vs Head loss

12.10 Comments:
• Major losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous
effects of the medium and roughness of the pipe wall.
• Minor losses, on the other hand, are due to pipe fittings, changes in the flow
direction, and changes in the flow area.

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