INTRODUTION

Plasmas are often described as the fourth state of matter, alongside gases, liquids and
solids, a definition which does little to illuminate their main physical attributes. In fact,
plasma can exhibit behavior characteristic of all three of the more familiar states,
depending on its density and temperature, so we obviously need to look for other
distinguishing features. A simple textbook definition of plasma [1, 2] would be: a quasi-
neutral gas of charged particles showing collective behavior. This may seem precise
enough, but the rather fuzzy-sounding terms of ‘quasi-neutrality’ and ‘collectivity’ require
further explanation. The first of these, ‘quasi-neutrality’, is actually just a mathematical way
of saying that even though the particles making up a plasma consist of free electrons and
ions, their overall charge densities cancel each other in equilibrium. So if n e and ni are
respectively, the number densities of electrons and ions with charge state Z, then these are
locally balanced, i.e. ne ' Zni . (R.O Dendy et at 2016)

(1) The second property, ‘collective’ behavior, arises because of the long-range nature of
the 1/r Coulomb potential, which means that local disturbances in equilibrium can have a
strong influence on remote regions of the plasma. In other words, macroscopic fields
usually dominate over short-lived microscopic fluctuations, and a net charge imbalance ρ =
e (Zni − ne) will immediately give rise to an electrostatic field according to Gauss’s law, ∇ ·
E = ρ/ε0. Likewise, the same set of charges moving with velocities ve and vi will give rise to
a current density J = e (Znivi − neve). This in turn induces a magnetic field according to
Ampères law, ∇ × B = µ0J. It is these internally driven electric and magnetic fields that
largely determine the dynamics of the plasma, including its response to externally applied
fields through particle or laser beams—as, for example, in the case of plasma-based
accelerator schemes.

 Now that we have established what plasmas are, it is natural to ask where we can
find them. In fact they are rather ubiquitous: in the cosmos, 99% of the visible
universe—including stars, the interstellar medium and jets of material from
various astrophysical objects—is in a plasma state. Closer to home, the ionosphere,
extending from around 50 km (equivalent to 10 Earth radii) to 1000 km, provides
vital protection from solar radiation to life on Earth. Terrestrial plasmas can be
found in fusion devices (machines designed to confine, ignite and ultimately extract
energy from deuterium–tritium fuel), street lighting, industrial plasma torches and
etching processes, and lightning discharges. Needless to say, plasmas play a central
role in the topic of the present school, supplying the medium to support very large
travelling-wave field structures for the purpose of accelerating particles to high
energies. Table 1 gives a brief overview of these various plasma types and their
properties.(springer 2nd ed 2006)
Table 1: Densities and temperatures of various plasma types

Type Electron density Temperature

Ne (cm-3 ) Te (eVa )
Stars 1026 2×103
Laser fusion 1025 3×103
Magnetic fusion 1015 103
Laser-produced 1018 -1024 102-103
Discharges 1012 1-10
Ionosphere 106 0.1
Interstellar medium 1 10-2
a 1 eV ≡ 11 600 K
PLASMA CONFINEMENT METHOD

Magnetic Confinement Fusion

• The high temperatures of the plasma are needed to force the hydrogen atoms to fuse
together – that releases massive amounts of power.

• Magnets are used to control very hot plasma.

• There are several leading magnetic fusion institutions in the U.S. making progress on
fusion energy.

With magnetic confinement fusion, magnets are used to confine superheated plasma,
within which, fusion is achieved. The magnetic fields are produced by superconducting
coils surrounding a vessel, creating a “torus” in which the plasma is contained.6 The high
temperatures of the plasma are needed to force the hydrogen atoms to fuse together
(overcoming the natural electrostatic repulsion that exists for two positively charged
atoms). The machines used for magnetic fusion are called “tokamaks.” Once the atoms fuse,
energy is released, which can be captured to produce electricity. Efforts at achieving fusion
through magnetic confinement date back several decades

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Alcator C-Mod tokamak pushes the bounds of
knowledge on magnetic fields and plasma pressure, more than any other facility in the
world.7 This research works to solve the key engineering challenges that remain before
fusion energy can be commercialized. General Atomics operates another critical fusion
center on behalf of the Department of Energy, called DIII-D.8 It is the third largest tokamak
in the world, and focuses its research on plasma confinement and advanced tokamak
designs. The Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) operates the National Spherical
Torus Experiment (NSTX), constructed in collaboration with the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Columbia University, and the University of Washington at Seattle. Because of
its compact design, NSTX is a prototype for cheaper next-step fusion machines. 9 NSTX is
also developing possible breakthrough solutions on the materials needed to handle plasma,
a key engineering challenge that remains. Prior to its work developing the NSTX, PPPL was
host to the first significant release of fusion power (10 megawatts) in 1994 at the Toroidal
Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR). Currently, the largest tokamak in the world is the Joint
European Torus (JET), located in the United Kingdom.10 After Princeton’s TFTR
breakthrough in 1994, JET set the record for fusion energy produced, generating 70% of
input power.11 All of the tokamaks mentioned above have established the scientific
foundation upon which the internationally-backed ITER experiment will build. The ITER
experiment was originally agreed upon in the 1980’s by the international community with
the goal of developing fusion power for peaceful purposes.12 The European Union,
together with the support of six other nations - the U.S., Russia, China, India, Korea, and
Japan – the ITER magnetic fusion experiment will produce net power, providing definitive
proof of the viability of fusion power. ITER is designed to produce 500 megawatts of fusion
power for 500 seconds. ITER is currently under construction in the south of France, and the
European Union, as host of the project, is financing 45% of the cost, with the other six
nations contributing 9% each.13 It is expected to be in operation by 2020. (duder stad et al
2016)

Inertial Confinement Fusion

• Inertial confinement fusion uses lasers to heat and implode a very small fuel pellet.

• By crushing and fusing two atoms together using heat and pressure, energy is released.

• The National Ignition Facility (NIF) in California is conducting research to prove “ignition”
- more energy out than is put in.

Inertial confinement fusion would create fusion energy by heating and imploding a fuel
pellet, typically using lasers.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF), a lab housed within the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL) in California, is the world’s leading institution working on inertial
fusion. At the NIF, scientists are using the world’s largest lasers in order to achieve fusion
“ignition” – producing more energy out than is put in.

Alongside its national security mission, the NIF is designed to operate at a scale that could
provide the scientific demonstration for a 1,000 megawatt electrical power plant.

By concentrating lasers on a pellet of hydrogen atoms, extreme temperatures and pressure

cause the fuel pellet to implode, forcing the isotopes to fuse together and create energy.14
Completed in 2009, the NIF has been making steady progress with inertial fusion.

“The potential benefits of inertial fusion energy justify it as a part of the long-term U.S.
energy R&D portfolio.”15 – 2013 Report of the National Academies of Sciences.

In the summer of 2012, for a brief instant, the NIF’s lasers delivered 520 terawatts of
power, more than 1,000 times the amount of electrical output in the entire United States at
one moment in time. This exceeded the design specification for the facility, and is believed
to be sufficient to create the conditions necessary for ignition of the fusion fuel.

 As with any approach to fusion, a precise timeframe to energy gain cannot be

predicted accurately. What is important is to ensure that adequate resources and
time are devoted to maximizing the timely realization of this goal.When NIF
reaches ignition, the next step will be to build a full-scale demonstration plant
known as Laser Inertial Fusion Energy (LIFE). This is being designed as a fully
operational power plant, able to sell electricity on a commercial scale. (sliter LJ
2004 physics plasma 11 339)
 BASIC FUSION CONCEPT

NUCLEAR FUSION

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei usually deuterium and
tritium [hydrogen variant] combine to form one or more difference atomic nuclei and
subatomic particles [neutron or protons]. The difference in mass between the reactants
and products is manifested as either the release or absorption of energy. The difference in
mass arises due to the difference in nuclear binding energy between the atomic nuclei
before and after the reaction. Nuclear fusion is the process that power active or main-
sequence star and other high-magnitude stars where large amount of energy are release.

The sun is a main-sequence star and thus releases its energy by nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core the sun fuses 500 million tones of hydrogen each
second. A nuclear fusion process the produces atomic nuclei lighter than iron 56 or nickel-
62 will generally release energy. These elements have a relatively small mass and a
relatively large binding energy per nucleon. Fusion of nuclei lighter than these release
energy [an exothermic process] while the fusion of heavier nuclei results in energy
retained by the product nucleons, fusion uses lighter element such as hydrogen and helium
which are in general more fusible while the heavier element such as uranium, thorium and
Plutonium are more fissionable. The element astrophysical event of a supernova can
produce enough energy to fuse nuclei into element heavier than iron.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FUSION AND FISSION

There are several key differences between nuclear fusion and fission. Nuclear fusion is the
process of combining two or more atomic nuclei to form a larger nucleus, while nuclear
fission is the process of spitting a nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei. Fusion is the
processes that power the sun and other stars, while fission is the process used in nuclear
power plant and nuclear weapons. Fusions require extremely high temperature to occur,
while fission can occur at lower temperature. Fusion produce little or no radioactive waste,
while fission produces a significant amount of radioactive waste.
(www.iter.org/sci/beyonditer)

Fusion produces neutrons, while fission produces both neutrons and gamma rays.
This means that fusion reactor do not require as much shielding to protect against
radiation as fission reactors do. Additionally, fusion reaction have the potential to produce
more energy than fission reactions. However fusion reactor are still in the early stages of
development, and they have not yet been able to produce more energy than they require to
operate. Fission reactors, on the other hand, have been in use for decades and are a proven
technology.

Another important difference is that fusion reactions have the potential to be self-
sustaining, meaning they can produce enough energy to maintain the reaction without the
need for an outside energy source. Fission reactions, on the other hand, require a
continuous supply of fissile material to sustain the reaction. This is one of the reasons why
fusion is seen as a promising future energy source, while fission is viewed as a stop-gap
solution until fusion can be develop further.
NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION

Nuclear fusion reactions power the sun and other star. In a fusion reaction, two light nuclei
merge to form a single heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the total mass
of the resulting single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei. The left over
mass becomes energy. Einstein’s equation [E=MC ], while say in pert that mass and energy
can be converted into each other, explain why this process occurs. If scientist develop away
to harness energy from fusion in machine on earth, it could be an important method of
energy.

 Fusion can involve many difference element in the periodic table. However,
researcher working on fusion energy application are especially interested in the
deuterium-tritium[DT] fusion reaction. DT fusion produce a neutron and a helium
nucleus. In the process, it also releases much more energy than most fusion
reactions. In a potential future fusion power plant such as tokamak or stellator,
neutrons from DT reactions would generate power of our uses. Research focus on
DT reactions both because they produce large amount of energy and occur at
lower temperature than other element. ( www.iter.org/sci/whatisfusion)

FUSION REACTION FACTS

1. The ITEER international fusion energy experiment will be scientists first attempt at
creating a self-sustained fusion reaction for long duration. ‘burning plasmas’ in ITER will be
heated by the fusion reaction occurring in the plasma itself.

2. Fusion reaction experiment at the DOE’S national ignition facility at the Lawrence liver
more national laboratory require 192 laser beams to align on a DT target smaller than a
pea. This is like throwing a perfect strike in base ball from a pitcher’s mound 350 miles
away from the plate.

 (“Fusion Report: China’s Ambitious Path to Fusion Power”. (2011). 21st Century
Science and Technology, 47-56.
 ADVANTAGE OF FUSION ENERGY

 Fusion is a clean energy source, meaning it doesn’t produce any green house gases
or air pollution, fusion doesn’t require the mining or drilling of resource like coal or
oil, making it a sustainable source of energy. Fusion is also a very efficient form of
energy production, which some estimates saying that just a few kilograms of fusion
fuel could power an entire city for a year. ( Nuckooll Jet al 1972).

One of the key advantages of fusion energy is that the fuel source is clean and abundant.
Deuterium, one of the main fuels used in fusion reactors, can be extracted from sea water,
which is abundant and easily accessible. In contrast, fossil fuels like coal and oil are non-
renewable and are becoming increasingly scarce. Additionally, the process of extracting
and using fossil fuel releases large amounts of green house gases and other pollutants into
the environment. Fusion energy has the potential to be a completely clean and abundant
source of energy for the future.

1. No carbon emission- the oily by products of fusion reactions are small amounts of
helium’ an inert gas which can be safety released without harming the environment.

2. Abundant fuels- Deuterium can be extracted from water and tritium will be produced
inside the power station from lithium, an element abundant in the earth crust and sea
water. Even with widespread adoption of fusion power stations, these fuel supplies would
last for many thousands of year.

3. less radioactive waste than fusion- There is no radioactive waste by product from the
fusion. Only reactor component become radioactive; the level of activity depend on the
structural material used.

4. Reliable power- Fusion power plants will be designed to produce a continuous supply of
large amount of electricity. Once established in the market, cost are predicated to be
broadly similar to other energy sources.
CONCLUSION

Plasma physics and fusion energy research are exciting and rapidly developing field and
offer the potential for clean safe and abundant energy. There are still many challenges to
overcome before fusion reactors can be developed for commercial use, but the progress
being for the future, and it’s importance to continue to invest in research and development
to make it a reality.

In conclusion, plasma physics and fusion energy are incredibly exciting fields of
research that have the potential to revolutionize our energy production. Plasma physics
has enabled us to study and understand some of the most fundamental forces in the
universe, and fusion energy has the potential to provide us with a clean sustainable source
of energy for generation to come. It’s clear that these two field are poised to play a major
role in the future of our society and out planet.
REFERENCES

 2006F.F. Chen, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 2nd ed. (Springer, New
York,).
 R.O. Dendy (ed.), Plasma Physics: An Introductory Course (Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1993).
 ITER. (2012). Progress in Fusion. Retrieved February 2013, from ITER web site:
http:// www.iter.org/sci/beyonditer
 American Security Project conducted a survey of the fusion industry and published
a map, detailing their locations. “Fusion’s Reach Across America.” Retrieved from:
http:// americansecurityproject.org/issues/climate-energy-and-security/energy/
fusion2020/ about/fusions-reach-across-america.
 “Fusion Report: China’s Ambitious Path to Fusion Power”. (2011). 21st Century
Science and Technology, 47-56.
 Duder stad t JJ and moses GA 1982 inertial confinement fusion (New York wiley).
 LindiJD, Amend t P, Berger RL, Gail CG, Glenzer SH, Haan SW, Kauffman RL, Landen
OL and Silter LJ 2004 physic plasma 11 339.
 Nuckooll Jet 1972 al Nature 239 139.
 “Plasma physics and fusion energy” by Paul Bellan published by Cambridge
university pree.