Content Analysis In

Qualitative Research
By Dr. Aftab Hussain
Objectives
1. Define content analysis.
2. Describe when it is appropriate to use content analysis.
3. List the steps involved in content analysis.
4. Describe the importance of categorization in content analysis.
5. Describe the two major coding categories.
6. Identify how reliability and validity is established in content analysis research.
7. Describe how data is analyzed in content analysis research.
8. Identify two major advantages and disadvantages of content analysis.
9. Examine a journal article written about research that uses content analysis.
Overview

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words,
themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text).
Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings,
and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts.
As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search
for bias or partiality.
Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text.
Define content analysis
Analysis of the contents of communication.
Technique that allows us to study human behavior indirectly through analyzing communications.
Textbooks, Newspapers, Essays, Magazines, Articles, Cookbooks, Songs, Political Speeches, Novels, Advertisements, and
Pictures.

According to Mayring (2000), qualitative content analysis is “an approach of empirical, methodological controlled analysis of
texts within their context of communication, following content analytic rules and step-by-step models, without rash
quantification” (p. 23).
Content analysis (introduction)
Content analysis is a technique for examining the content or information and
symbols contained in written documents or other communication media
(e.g., photographs, movies, song lyrics, advertisements).
To conduct a content analysis, we identify a body of material to analyze (e.g.,
school textbooks, television programs, newspaper articles) . then create a
system for recording specific aspects of its content.
Content analysis is a nonreactive method because the creators of the content
didnt know whether anyone would analyze it.
Content analysis lets us discover and document specific features in the
content of a large amount of material that might otherwise go unnoticed.
We most frequently use content analysis for descriptive purposes, but
exploratory or explanatory studies are also possible .
When to use QCA
When you are dealing with rich data that requires interpretation
On verbal data
On visual data
On data that you have sampled from other sources (documents,
internet, etc.)
On data that you have collected yourself (interviews, focus groups,
etc.)
 Key features of qualitative research
Interpretive
Naturalistic
Situational
Reflexive
Has emergent flexibility
Inductive
Case-oriented
Puts emphasis on validity
Qualitative and quantitative content analysis
QCA, compared against quantitative content analysis, is often referred to as “latent level analysis,
because it concerns a second-level, interpretative analysis of the underlying deeper meaning of the
data” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 246); while the latter is usually described as “manifest level analysis”,
providing an objective and descriptive overview of the “surface meaning of the data.”

The techniques of data sampling are different, as the quantitative approach requires random
sampling or other techniques of probability to ensure validity, while qualitative analysis uses
intentionally chosen texts.

There are different products of the two approaches; while quantitative analysis caters for statistical
methods and numerical results, the qualitative approach brings descriptions.
Mixing of both

Mixing qualitative Despite of these

and quantitative differences, it has
methods is known as been highlighted by
one of the ways of numerous scholars
using triangulation, that, in research
which, according to practice, the two
Flick (2010, p. 405), is approaches are often
“used as a strategy of applied in
improving the quality combination
of qualitative (Dörnyei, 2007; Flick,
research …”. 2007; Zhang &
Wildemuth, 2009).
Why to use content analysis?
1. Researchers use QCA is to illustrate the range of meanings of phenomena,
describe the characteristics of message content, and identify themes or
categories within a body of text.
2. Bryman (2008) maintained that QCA comprises a searching out of underlying
themes in the texts being analyzed by researchers.
3. Researchers, if they intend to better explain the characteristics of message
content, or understand phenomena, must possess an encyclopedic knowledge of
QCA.
4. Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups
5. Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or
institution
 The goals of content analysis

To examine trends and relationships in the text and multimedia

produced or used in the fields context to provide an insight into it.
To identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an
individual, group or institution.
To describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications
To determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups.
 THE GOALS

• To reduce large amounts of unstructured content.

• To Identify and present important aspects of the content.
• To focus on groups or individual intention .
• To support some argument by understanding the characteristic of the
content .
• To determine the behavioral and psychology
Three Approaches To Content
Analysis
 1.CONVENTIONAL CONTENT ANALYSIS
Conventional content analysis is generally used with a study design whose aim is to
describe a phenomenon.
This type of design is usually appropriate when existing theory or research literature on a
phenomenon is limited. Researchers avoid using preconceived categories (Kondracki &
Wellman, 2002), instead allowing the categories and names for categories to flow from
the data.
Researchers immerse themselves in the data to allow new insights to emerge
(Kondracki & Wellman, 2002).
With a conventional approach to content analysis, relevant theories or other research
findings are addressed in the discussion section of the study. The discussion would include
a summary of how the findings from her study contribute to knowledge in the area of
interest and suggestions for practice, teaching, and future research.
Cont….
The advantage of the conventional approach to content analysis
is gaining direct information from study without imposing
preconceived categories.

One challenge of this type of analysis is failing to develop a complete

understanding of the context, thus failing to identify key categories.
This can result in findings that do not accurately represent the data.
Note: Many qualitative methods share this initial approach to
study design and analysis.
 2.DIRECT CONTENT ANALYSIS
The goal of a directed approach to content analysis is to validate or extend
conceptually a theoretical framework or theory. Existing theory or research can help
focus the research question. It can provide predictions about the variables of interest
or about the relationships among variables, thus helping to determine the initial
coding scheme or relationships between codes.
Using existing theory or prior research, researchers begin by identifying key concepts
or variables as initial coding categories (Potter & Levine- Donnerstein, 1999).
Operational definitions for each category are determined using the theory.
The second strategy that can be used in directed content analysis is to begin coding
immediately with the predetermined codes.
Cont….
The main strength of a directed approach to content analysis is that existing
theory can be supported and extended.
Disadvantages
Researchers might be more likely to find evidence that is supportive rather than
non-supportive of a theory.
Second, in answering the probe questions, some participants might get cues to
answer in a certain way or agree with the questions to please researchers.
Third, an overemphasis on the theory can blind researchers to contextual
aspects of the phenomenon.
 3.SUMMATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS
A study using a summative approach to qualitative content analysis starts with identifying
and quantifying certain words or content in text with the purpose of understanding the
contextual use of the words or content.
A summative approach to qualitative content analysis goes beyond mere word counts to
include latent content analysis. Latent content analysis refers to the process of interpretation
of content (Holsti, 1969).
In this analysis, the focus is on discovering underlying meanings of the words or the content
(Babbie, 1992;). Researchers report using content analysis from this approach in studies that
analyze manuscript types in a particular journal or specific content in textbooks.
Cont….
In a summative approach to qualitative content analysis, data analysis begins with searches for occurrences of
the identified words by hand or by computer. Word frequency counts for each identified term are calculated,
with source or speaker also identified.

It allows for interpretation of the context associated with the use of the word or phrase. Researchers try to
explore word usage or discover the range of meanings that a word can have in normal use.

ADVANTAGES: It is an unobtrusive(not easily noticed) and nonreactive way to study the phenomenon of
interest (Babbie, 1992). It can provide basic insights into how words are actually used.

DISADVANTAGES: The findings from this approach are limited by their inattention to the broader meanings
present in the data. this type of study relies on credibility.
 Methodology
All approaches to qualitative content analysis require a similar analytical process of
seven classic steps, including formulating the research questions to be answered,
selecting the sample to be analyzed, defining the categories to be applied, outlining
the coding process and the coder training, implementing the coding process,
determining trustworthiness, and analyzing the results of the coding process
(Kaid,1989).

Different research purposes require different research designs and analysis

techniques (Knafl & Howard, 1984).
The question of whether a study needs to use a conventional, directed, or
summative approach to content analysis can be answered by matching the specific
research purpose and the state of science in the area of interest with the
appropriate analysis technique.
Data Analysis
Frequencies
Proportions of an specific occurrence to a total occurrences.
Themes
Computer Analysis
 PROCESS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis is a research technique for systematically analyzing written or
recording communication. It has been used to study books, essays. news articles,
speeches, pamphlets and other written material.

Despite its name, content analysis is more of a data reduction technique than an
analytical one because it breaks down lengthy text material into more manageable
units of data.

One can use different modes such as transcripts of interviews/discourses, protocols

of observation, video tapes and written documents for communication.

The method of analysis comprises following 8 steps

General steps for conducting a conceptual content analysis:

1. Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes

2. Decide how many concepts to code for: develop a pre-defined or interactive

set of categories or concepts. Decide either: A. to allow flexibility to add
categories through the coding process, or B. to stick with the pre-defined set of
categories.

Option A allows for the introduction and analysis of new and important
material that could have significant implications to one’s research question.
Option B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the data for
specific concepts.
Cont….
3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept.
The decision changes the coding process.

When coding for the existence of a concept, the researcher would

count a concept only once if it appeared at least once in the data and
no matter how many times it appeared.

When coding for the frequency of a concept, the researcher would

count the number of times a concept appears in a text.
 Cont….
4. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts:
Should text be coded exactly as they appear or coded as the same when they appear in different forms?
For example, “dangerous” vs. “dangerousness”.
The point here is to create coding rules so that these word segments are transparently categorized in a
logical fashion.
The rules could make all of these word segments fall into the same category, or perhaps the rules can be
formulated so that the researcher can distinguish these word segments into separate codes.
What level of implication is to be allowed? Words that imply the concept or words that explicitly state the
concept? For example, “dangerous” vs. “the person is scary” vs. “that person could cause harm to me”.
These word segments may not merit separate categories, due the implicit meaning of “dangerous”.
Cont….
5. Develop rules for coding your texts. After decisions of steps 1-4 are
complete, a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text into
codes. This will keep the coding process organized and consistent.

The researcher can code for exactly what he/she wants to code. Validity of
the coding process is ensured when the researcher is consistent and coherent
in their codes, meaning that they follow their translation rules. In content
analysis, obeying by the translation rules is equivalent to validity.

6. Decide what to do with irrelevant information: should this be ignored

(e.g. common English words like “the” and “and”), or used to reexamine the
coding scheme in the case that it would add to the outcome of coding?
Cont…..
7. Code the text: This can be done by hand or by using software. By using software,
researchers can input categories and have coding done automatically, quickly and
efficiently, by the software program.
When coding is done by hand, a researcher can recognize errors far more easily (e.g.
typos, misspelling). If using computer coding, text could be cleaned of errors to
include all available data.
This decision of hand vs. computer coding is most relevant for implicit information
where category preparation is essential for accurate coding.

8. Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible.

Determine what to do with irrelevant, unwanted, or unused text: reexamine, ignore, or
reassess the coding scheme.
Interpret results carefully as conceptual content analysis can only quantify the
information. Typically, general trends and patterns can be identified.
 TYPE OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

Conceptual analysis

Procedural analysis

Relational analysis

Emotional analysis
 1.Conceptual Analysis
What It Is: Conceptual analysis focuses on identifying and
exploring the presence and frequency of concepts
within qualitative data. It's akin to keyword searching
but imbued with a deeper level of interpretation. The
aim is to quantify and interpret patterns related to these
concepts to infer their significance in the dataset.
Example: If you're studying mental health discussions in
online forums, a conceptual analysis might involve
quantifying how frequently terms like "anxiety,"
"depression," and "therapy" appear, and in what
contexts, to understand focus areas within public
discourse.
 2.Procedural analysis

What It Is: This method is about dissecting the step-by-step

processes described within your data. It's particularly useful
for understanding sequences of actions or the operational
aspects of a phenomenon. Procedural analysis helps in
mapping out procedures or behaviors detailed in the text.
Example: In researching how therapists describe their
diagnostic process, procedural analysis would help outline
the common steps they mention, from initial consultation to
diagnosis, thereby constructing a typical diagnostic pathway.
3.Relational analysis
What It Is: Relational analysis goes beyond merely
identifying concepts to examine the relationships between
them. It aims to uncover how concepts interact within the
text, providing insights into the structure and dynamics of
the data. This type of analysis can reveal hierarchies,
sequences, and associations between concepts.
Example: Looking into narratives about workplace well-
being, relational analysis could identify how "stress" is
connected to "workload" and "support systems," mapping
out a network of factors contributing to employee mental
health.
Cont…
Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is chosen for
examination.
However, the analysis involves exploring the relationships between concepts.
Individual concepts are viewed as having no inherent meaning and rather the
meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts.
To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question and choose a
sample or samples for analysis.
The research question must be focused so the concept types are not open to
interpretation and can be summarized.
Next, select text for analysis. by balancing having enough information for a
thorough analysis so results are not limited with having information that is too
extensive so that the coding process becomes too arduous and heavy to supply
meaningful and worthwhile results.
Cont….
There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior to going on to the general steps.
1.Affect extraction: Affect extraction is essentially about identifying and
understanding the emotions conveyed in a piece of text. This method tries to
figure out how the person writing or speaking feels about certain topics or
concepts mentioned in the text. The main challenge with this approach is that
emotions are complex and can change depending on when and where
someone is, as well as who they are. Despite these challenges, affect
extraction can be quite powerful in understanding the emotional and
psychological state behind the words.
Let's simplify this with an example:
Example Text: "I felt a deep sense of joy walking through the park in spring. The
blossoming flowers and the warm sunshine lifted my spirits like nothing else."
Affect Extraction: In this text, the concepts explicitly mentioned are walking in the park during spring,
blossoming flowers, and warm sunshine. The affect extraction process would identify the emotions
associated with these concepts, which, in this case, are joy and uplifted spirits. Despite the simplicity of
the activity described, the text conveys a strong positive emotional response to the experience of nature
in spring.
This process involves understanding that the mention of "deep sense of joy," "lifted
my spirits," along with the context of a pleasant spring day, points towards positive
emotions. The challenge comes when trying to apply this understanding across
different contexts. For example, if someone from a different culture or with a
different personal background wrote about the same experience, they might use
different words or phrases to express their feelings, or they might focus on different
aspects of the experience based on what's emotionally significant to them.

Thus, affect extraction is a nuanced approach that requires careful consideration of

the language used, the cultural and individual background of the speaker or writer,
and the context in which the emotions are expressed.
2.Proximity analysis:
Proximity analysis in qualitative content analysis involves
looking closely at how certain ideas or concepts appear
together within a specific section of text. Imagine text as a
series of windows, each containing a set of words. When you
scan these windows, you're checking to see which ideas show
up together within these sets. By noticing which concepts
often occur close to each other, you can create what's called
a "concept matrix" — essentially, a map showing how these
ideas are connected or related, suggesting an overarching
theme or meaning in the text.
Let's break this down with an example for clarity:
Example Text: "The morning sun gently warms the quiet beach. The sound of the
waves and the soft sand underfoot create a peaceful retreat from the bustling city
life."
Proximity Analysis:
Concepts Identified: Morning sun, quiet beach, sound of waves, soft sand, peaceful retreat, bustling
city life.
Co-occurrence: The concepts of "morning sun," "quiet beach," "sound of waves," and "soft sand" occur
closely, painting a picture of a serene environment. This is contrasted with the concept of "bustling city
life," which is positioned as something from which one retreats.
Concept Matrix Creation: The interrelated co-occurring concepts suggest an overall theme of finding
peace and tranquility in nature, away from the chaos of urban settings.
By analyzing the proximity of these concepts, we can deduce that the text conveys a message about
the value of natural environments for relaxation and escape from the stress of city life. The concept
matrix, in this case, highlights the connection between the physical aspects of the beach setting and
the emotional response of peace it elicits, suggesting a broader meaning about the importance of such
environments for mental well-being.

Proximity analysis helps uncover the underlying themes or messages in a piece of text by mapping out
how closely related the mentioned concepts are, revealing the text's deeper significance.
3.Cognitive mapping: Cognitive mapping is a method used to visually
represent how different ideas or concepts within a text relate to
one another, essentially drawing a "map" of the text's meaning.
This technique can be applied following affect extraction or
proximity analysis to further clarify the relationships and
emotions tied to the concepts mentioned in the text.
By creating a visual model, cognitive mapping helps to illustrate
the overall theme or message in a more intuitive and accessible
way.
Let's use the provided example text to explain cognitive
mapping:
Example Text: "The morning sun gently warms the quiet beach. The
sound of the waves and the soft sand underfoot create a
peaceful retreat from the bustling city life."
Cognitive Mapping Process:
1. Identify Key Concepts: First, we pick out the main ideas in the text:
morning sun, quiet beach, sound of waves, soft sand, peaceful
retreat, bustling city life.
2. Analyze Relationships: Next, we look at how these concepts are
related. The morning sun, quiet beach, sound of waves, and soft
sand are all parts of the peaceful retreat. This retreat is
contrasted with the bustling city life, indicating a dichotomy
between nature and urban environment.
3. Create the Map: To visualize these relationships, we might draw a
central circle labeled "Peaceful Retreat" and surround it with
images or words representing the morning sun, quiet beach, sound
of waves, and soft sand. These could be connected with lines to
show their contribution to the peacefulness. Another part of the
map might depict the "Bustling City Life," possibly in a contrasting
color, with a line showing the contrast or escape from it to the
peaceful retreat.
Example of a Cognitive Map:
Central Circle: "Peaceful Retreat"
Connected to smaller circles labeled "Morning Sun," "Quiet Beach,"
"Sound of Waves," "Soft Sand"
Separate Area: "Bustling City Life"
A line or arrow pointing from this area to the "Peaceful Retreat"
indicating movement or contrast.
This cognitive map would visually represent the overall meaning
of the text: the beach environment provides a serene escape from
the hectic city life. By seeing these relationships visually, it can
become clearer how the text constructs a narrative or argument
about the value of natural spaces for peace and tranquility.
Cognitive mapping, therefore, is a powerful tool in qualitative
content analysis for visualizing the structure of a text's meaning,
making complex relationships between concepts easier to
understand and interpret.
 Cont…
General steps for conducting a relational content analysis:
1. Determine the type of analysis: after selecting sample, the researcher
needs to determine what types of relationships to examine and the level of
analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes.
2. Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns. A
researcher can code for existence of meanings or words.
3. Explore the relationship between concepts: once the words are coded,
the text can be analyzed for the following:

Strength of relationship: degree to which two or more concepts are related.

Sign of relationship: are concepts positively or negatively related to each other?
Direction of relationship: the types of relationship that categories exhibit. For example, “X implies Y” or “X occurs before
Y” or “if X then Y” or if X is the primary motivator of Y.
Cont….
4. Code the relationships: a difference between conceptual and
relational analysis is that the statements or relationships between
concepts are coded.

5. Perform statistical analyses: explore differences or look for

relationships among the identified variables during coding.

6. Map out representations: such as decision mapping and mental

models.
4.Emotional analysis
What It Is: Emotional analysis delves into the emotional
content and tone of the data, identifying and interpreting
expressions of feelings, moods, and attitudes. This
approach is valuable for understanding the affective
dimensions of the text, offering insights into the
emotional states and reactions of individuals or groups.
Example: In examining patient testimonials about coping
with chronic illness, emotional analysis would help in
identifying prevalent emotions, such as hope, frustration,
or acceptance, and how these relate to patients'
experiences and coping strategies.
RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY
 Reliability
Reliability here refers to replicability or consistency in the coding or
interpretation of content or portions of content. Reliability issues associated in
content analysis are with the ambiguity of word meanings or coding rules.
Three types of reliability are relevant to content analysis which are:
Stability refers to the extent which content classification in invariant over time.
Stability can be ascertained when the same content is coded more than once by
the same coder.it is relatively weak form of reliability.
Reproducibility(inter-coder reliability) refers to the extent to which content
classification produces the same results when the same text is coded by more
than one coder. High reproducibility is the minimum standard of for content
analysis.
Accuracy the strongest form of reliability refers to the extent to which the
classification of text corresponds to the a particular standard or norm.
 Validity Of A Content Analysis

1.Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon
definition of each specific category.
Using multiple classifiers, a concept category that may be an explicit variable can be broadened to include
synonyms or implicit variables.
2.Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Do conclusions correctly follow the data? Are results
explainable by other phenomena? This becomes especially problematic when using computer software for
analysis and distinguishing between synonyms.
For example, the word “mine,” variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device, and a deep hole in
the ground from which ore is extracted.
Software can obtain an accurate count of that word’s occurrence and frequency, but not be able to produce an
accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage. This problem could throw off one’s
results and make any conclusion invalid.
3.Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear definitions of concept categories, how they
are determined and how reliable they are at measuring the idea one is seeking to measure.
Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it depends on the three criteria for reliability.
Strength of content analysis
looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the
central aspect of social interaction
can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of
texts
allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories
and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert
systems (since knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit
statements about the relationships among concepts) is an unobtrusive
means of analyzing interactions provides insight into complex models of
human thought and language use
Advantages of Content Analysis
Directly examines communication using text
Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
Allows a closeness to data
Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
Unobtrusive(not easily noticed) means of analyzing interactions
Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method
A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews,
observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful for analyzing historical material,
especially for documenting trends over time.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Can be extremely time consuming
Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to
attain a higher level of interpretation
Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful
inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things
after the text is produced
Can be difficult to automate or computerize
Readings and references
1. Fang Hseih, Hsiu., Shannon, Sarah. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis,
Qualitative Health Research- Sage Publications, Vol. 15, No. 2, pg. 1277-1285.
2. Sandorova, Zuzuna. (2014). Content analysis as a research method in investigating the cultural
components in foreign language textbooks, Journal of language and culture education, pg. 95-123.
3. http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf
4. http://www.zoltandornyei.co.uk/uploads/2012-dornyei-csizer-rmsla.pdf
5. http://www.paxamerica.org/2012/09/01/qualitative-content-analysis-in-social-research-an-epigram
matic-summation-of-presidential-state-of-the-union-addresses/

6. http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf
7. http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf
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