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UNIT II

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
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UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES
S.No Topics Page No
1 Construction and Working principle DC Separately 2.3
2 Construction and Working principle Self excited Generators 2.6
3 EMF equation 2.9
4 DC Generators Types and Applications 2.11
5 Working Principle of DC motors 2.12
6 Torque Equation 2.14
7 DC motors Types and Applications 2.16
8 Transformer Construction 2.17
9 Transformer Working principle 2.20
10 Transformer Applications 2.23
11 Three phase Alternator 2.24
12 Synchronous motor 2.26
13 Three Phase Induction Motor 2.29
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1. CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE DC SEPARATELY
EXCITED GENERATORS

DC GENERATOR

DC Generator
❖ A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts
mechanical power into DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic
induction.
❖ A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the
magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC
generator has a field winding and an armature winding.
❖ The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is
converted into direct voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator.
The armature winding of DC Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field winding
is placed on the stator.
Construction of a DC Generator
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator

A DC generator consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke
The outer frame of a DC generator is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is
known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes
❖ It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
❖ It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
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Magnetic Field System
➢ The magnetic field system of a DC generator is the stationary part of the machine. It
produces the main magnetic flux in the generator. It consists of an even number of pole
cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field system
of DC generator has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a
pole shoe having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes
❖ It provides support to the field coils.
❖ It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.
➢ The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one
another such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south
poles are produced in the direction of rotation.
Armature Core
➢ The armature core of DC generator is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field
poles. It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots.
The armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations which are insulated from each
other and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly
to the shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated
armature core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.
Armature Winding
➢ The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are
suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature
winding. There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap
winding.
Commutator
➢ A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in the
armature winding into the direct voltage across the load terminals. The commutator is made
of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica
sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
Brushes
➢ The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from the
armature winding. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called
brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and
maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current flows from the armature
winding to the external circuit through the commutator and carbon brushes.
Working of a DC Generator
➢ Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop
„ABCD‟ is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When
the loop rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil sides „AB‟ and „CD‟ changes
continuously. This change in flux linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced
EMF in one coil side adds the induced EMF in the other.
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The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

❖ When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of coil
sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
❖ When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux
and hence, a small EMF is generated.
❖ When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic flux,
therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
❖ When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus
a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
❖ When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving parallel
to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.
❖ At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction
at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

➢ It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side
(say AB) has EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other
direction when under the influence of S-pole.
➢ Hence, when a load is connected across the terminals of the generator, an alternating
current will flow through it. Now, by using a commutator, this alternating emf generated
in the loop can be converted into direct voltage. We then have a DC generator.

EXCITATION OF DC GENERATORS
A DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into DC electrical
energy. DC generators are classified into two types on the basis of their methods of field excitation
as follows
❖ Separately Excited DC Generator

❖ Self-Excited DC Generator
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SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR
A separately excited DC generator is the one whose field winding is supplied by an independent
external DC source (like a battery). The magnitude of generated voltage depends upon the speed
of rotation of armature and the field current, i.e., greater the speed and the field current, higher is
the generated voltage.

In practice, the separately excited DC generators are rarely used.

Refer the equivalent circuit of DC generator,

Armature current, Ia = IL
Terminal voltage,VT = Eg−IaRa
Developed electric power=EgIa
Power delivered to load=EgIa−I2aRa = VTIa=VTIL

2. SELF-EXCITED DC GENERATOR
A self-excited DC generator is the one whose field winding is excited by the current from the
output of the generator itself. Depending upon the connection of field winding with the
armature, the self-excited DC generators are of three types
❖ Series Generator
❖ Shunt Generator
❖ Compound Generator

Series Generator
❖ In case of a series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature of
the generator so that whole armature current would flow through the field winding as well
as the load. Since the load current flows through the field winding of the generator, so the
field winding has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance. The DC series generators
are used in special applications like boosters.
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Refer the equivalent circuit of the series generator,

Armature current, Ia=Ise=IL=I(Say)
Terminal voltage,VT=Eg−I(Ra+Rse)
Power developed in armature=EgIa
Power delivered to load=EgIa−I2aRa(Ra+Rse)=V TI a=V TI L

Shunt Generator
❖ In case of a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
of the generator so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt
field winding has many turns of thin wire having high resistance so that only a fraction of
armature current flows through the shunt field winding and the rest flows through the load.

Refer the equivalent circuit of DC shunt generator,

Armature current, Ia = IL+Ish
Shunt field current, Ish = VTRsh
Terminal voltage, VT = Eg−IaRa

Power developed in armature = EgIa

Power delivered to load = VTIL
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Compound Generator
❖ In case of a compound generator, there are two field winding on each pole – one is in series
and the other is in parallel with the armature. The DC compound generators are of two
types
➢ Short Shunt Compound Generator
➢ Long Shunt Compound Generator

Short Shunt Compound Generator

In a short shunt generator, only shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature

Series field current, Ise =IL

Shunt field current, Ish =VT+IseRseRsh

Terminal voltage, VT =Eg−IaRa−IseRse
Power developed in armature = EgIa

Power delivered to load = VTIL

Long Shunt Compound Generator

❖ In a long shunt generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with both series
field and armature winding.
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Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL+Ish

Shunt field current, Ish = VTRsh

Terminal voltage, VT = Eg−Ia(Ra+Rse)

Power developed in armature = EgIa

Power delivered to load = VTIL
Important − In compound generator, the majority of MMF is established by the shunt field
winding. If the series field flux assists the shunt field then the generator is called cumulatively
compounded and when they oppose each other, the generator is called differentially
compounded.

3. EMF EQUATION

When the armature of a DC generator rotates in magnetic field, an emf is induced in the armature
winding, this induced emf is known as generated emf. It is denoted by Eg.

Derivation of EMF Equation of DC Generator

Let
φ=Magnetic flux per pole in Wb

Z=Total number of armature conductors

P=Number of poles in the machine
A=Number of parallel paths

Where, A=P…for LAP Winding = 2…forWaveWinding

N=Speed of armature in RPM
Eg= Generated EMF = EMF per parallel path
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Therefore, the magnetic flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature being,
φ=Magnetic flux per pole in Wbdφ = P×φWb
Time taken in completing one revolution is given by,
60
dt = sec onds
N
Hence, according to law of electromagnetic induction, the emf generated per conductor is,

Since, the number of conductors in series per parallel path is,

Therefore,
Total Generated EMF, Eg = EMF Per Parallel Path

⇒ Eg = (Eg / Per conductor) × (No. of Conducters / Parallel Path)

Hence, the EMF equation of a DC generator is,

It is clear from eqn. (1), that for any dc generator Z, P and A are constant so that E g 𝖺 Nϕ. Therefore,
for a given DC generator, the induced EMF in the armature is directly proportional to the flux per
pole and speed of rotation.
Case 1 – For Lap winding, number of parallel paths A = P. Thus,

Case 2 – For Wave winding, number of parallel paths A = 2. Thus,

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4. DC GENERATORS TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

S.no DC Generator Types Applications

1 Series Generator Used for supplying field excitation current in DC
locomotives for regenerative breaking.
Used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the
feeder in various types of distribution systems such as
railway service.
Used in series arc lightning, booster, etc.
2 Shunt Generator They are used for general lighting.
They are used to charge battery because they can be
made to give constant output voltage.
They are used for giving the excitation to the
alternators.
They are also used for small power supply (such as a
portable generator).
3 Long Shunt Generator Cumulative compound generators are used
4 Short Shunt Generator for supplying power to DC motors. Cumulative
compound generators are used for lighting, power
supply purposes and for heavy power services, etc. The
differential compound generators are used for arc
welding purposes where a large voltage drop and
constant current is required
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5. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTORS

❖ A DC motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical

energy input into the mechanical energy output.
❖ The operation of the DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor. The
magnitude of the force is given by,
F = BIl Newtons

The direction of this is given by the Fleming‟s left hand rule.

Construction of a DC Motor
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Motor

A DC motor consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke
❖ The outer frame of a DC motor is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is
known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes
➢ It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
➢ It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
Magnetic Field System
❖ The magnetic field system of a DC motor is the stationary part of the machine. It produces
the main magnetic flux in the motor. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to
the yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field system of DC motor has
salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a pole shoe having a
curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes
❖ It provides support to the field coils.
❖ It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.
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❖ The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one
another such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south
poles are produced.
Armature Core
❖ The armature core of DC motor is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles.
It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The
armature core is a made up of soft steel laminations which are insulated from each other
and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the
shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature
core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.
Armature Winding
❖ The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are
suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature
winding. There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap
winding.
Commutator
❖ A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current input to the motor
from the DC source into alternating current in the armature winding. The commutator is
made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by
mica sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
Brushes
❖ The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from the DC
source into the armature windings. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a
metal box called brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is
adjusted and maintained at constant value by means of springs. Thecurrent flows from the
external DC source to the armature winding through the carbon brushes and commutator.
Working of DC Motor
❖ Consider a two pole DC motor as shown in the figure. When the DC motor is connected
to an external source of DC supply, the field coils are excited developing alternate N and
S poles and a current flows through the armature windings.
❖ All the armature conductors under N pole carry current in one direction (say into the
plane of the paper), whereas all the conductors under S pole carry current in the opposite
direction (say out of the plane of the paper).
❖ As each conductor carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic field, hence a mechanical
force acts on it.
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❖ By applying Fleming‟s left hand rule, it can be seen that the force on each conductor is
tending to move the armature in anticlockwise direction. The force on all the conductors
add together to exert a torque which make the armature rotating.
❖ When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in the
conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the influence of next pole of
opposite polarity. As a result of this, the direction of force on the conductor remains the
same. Therefore, the motor being rotating in the same direction.

6. TORQUE EQUATION
❖ The torque is defined as the turning moment of a force about an axis. It is measure by the
product of the force (F) and perpendicular distance (r) of the line of action of force from
the axis of rotation, i.e.,
Torque,τ=F×r…(1)
The torque is measured in Newton-meters (Nm).
Armature Torque of DC Motor
❖ In a DC motor, a circumferential force (F) at a distance r which is the radius of the armature
is acted on each conductor, tending to rotate the armature. The sum of the torques due to
all the armature conductors is known as armature torque (τa).
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Let,
P = Number of poles

r = Radius of the armature

l = Effective length of each conductor

Z=Total number of armature conductors

A = Number of parallel paths

i = Current in each conductor

B = Magnetic flux density

φ = Flux per pole

Therefore,

Force on each conductor, F=Bil

Torque developed by one conductor = F×r

∴Total armature torque, τa = Z×(F×r) = ZBilr

Since

Where
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7. DC MOTORS TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

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S.no DC Motor Types Applications

1 Series Motor These motors are used wherever stable speed is required.
This kind of DC motor can be used in Centrifugal
Pumps, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Lathe
Machines, Blowers, Fans, Conveyors, Spinning
machines
2 Shunt Motor The applications of shunt DC motor include the
following. These motors are used wherever
stable speed is required. This kind of DC motor
can be used in Centrifugal Pumps, Lifts,
Weaving Machine, Lathe Machines, Blowers,
Fans, Conveyors, Spinning machines,
3 Long Shunt Motor A compound motor is used in Presses, Shears,
4 Short Shunt Motor Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners,

8. TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

A transformer is a static device which transfer power from one circuit to another circuit without
changing its frequency
❖ A transformer has a primary coil to which input is given and a secondary coil from which
the output is collected. Both of these coils are wound on a core material. Usually an
insulator forms the Core of the transformer.
The following figure shows a practical transformer.
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From the above figure, it is evident that few notations are common. Let us try to have a note of
them. They are −
Np = Number of turns in the primary winding
Ns = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Ip = Current flowing in the primary of the transformer
Is = Current flowing in the secondary of the transformer
Vp = Voltage across the primary of the transformer
Vs = Voltage across the secondary of the transformer
Φ = Magnetic flux present around the core of the transformer.

Transformer in a Circuit
❖ The following figure shows how a transformer is represented in a circuit. The primary
winding, the secondary winding and the core of the transformer are also represented in
the following figure.

❖ Hence, when a transformer is connected in a circuit, the input supply is given to the
primary coil so that it produces varying magnetic flux with this power supply and that flux
is induced into the secondary coil of the transformer, which produces the varying EMF of
the varying flux. As the flux should be varying, for the transfer of EMF from primary to
secondary, a transformer always works on alternating current AC.
Transformer Construction
❖ A transformer consists of primary and secondary windings put on a magnetic core. The
magnetic core is used to provide a definite path to the magnetic flux. The core of the
transformer is made from thin sheets, called laminations, of silicon steel. The laminations
are insulated from one another by the layer of heat resistant enamel insulation coating and
are clamped together.
❖ Depending upon the arrangement of the primary and secondary windings on the core, the
transformers are of two types
❖ Core Type Construction
❖ Shell Type Construction
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Core Type Transformer Construction
❖ In core type construction of the transformer, the magnetic core consists of two vertical lags
called limbs and two horizontal sections called yokes. In order to reduce the leakage flux
to its minimum value, half of each winding is placed on each lag of the core

❖ The low voltage (lv) winding is placed next to the core and the high voltage (hv) winding
is placed around the low voltage winding. This reduces the requirement of insulating
material. Hence, the primary and secondary windings are arranged as concentric coils, thus
known as concentric winding or cylindrical winding.
❖ The core type construction of transformer is easier to dismantle for maintenance. The
natural cooling is good in the core type transformer. Therefore, core type transformers are
suitable for high voltage and small output applications.

Shell Type Transformer Construction

❖ In the shell type construction of the transformer, the magnetic core consists of three vertical
lags and two horizontal sections. Both the primary and secondary windings are wound on
the central limb and the two outer limbs provide the low reluctance flux path
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❖ Therefore, the shell type construction involves the use of a double magnetic circuit. The
low voltage (lv) winding is placed next to the core (on the central limb) and around the low
voltage winding the high voltage (hv) winding is placed. This arrangement reduces the
requirement of insulating material.
❖ The shell type construction of the transformer provides better support against the
electromagnetic forces between the current carrying conductors, which are very high under
short circuit conditions.
❖ In shell type transformers, a shorter magnetic path is available, hence it requires a small
magnetising current. The natural cooling is poor in shell type transformer, because the coils
are placed on the central limb. The shell type transformers are mainly used in low voltage
and high output applications

9. TRANSFORMER WORKING PRINCIPLE

❖ The working of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual inductance between two
coils which are magnetic coupled.

❖ According to the principle of mutual inductance, when an alternating voltage is applied to

the primary winding of the transformer, an alternating flux ϕm which is called as the mutual
flux is produced in the core.
❖ This alternating flux links both the windings magnetically and induces EMFs E 1 in the
primary winding and E2 in the secondary winding of the transformer according to
Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction.
❖ The EMF (E1) is called as primary EMF and the EMF (E2) is known as secondary EMF
and being given as,
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❖ From the above expression it can be seen that the magnitude of EMFs E 1 and E2 depend
upon the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer
respectively, i.e., if N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, thus the transformer will be a step-up transformer
and if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1, thus the transformer will be a step-down transformer.

❖ If a load is now connected across the secondary winding, the EMF E 2 will cause a load
current I2 to flow through the load. Therefore, a transformer enables the transfer of power
from one electric circuit to another with a change in voltage level.

STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN

❖ Depending upon the number of turns in the secondary winding, the transformer can be
called as a Step up or a Step down transformer.
❖ The main point to be noted here is that, there will not be any difference in the primary and
secondary power of the transformer.
❖ Accordingly, if the voltage is high at secondary, then low current is drawn to make the
power stable. As well, if the voltage in the secondary is low, then high current is drawn
so as the power must be same as the primary side.

STEP UP
❖ When the secondary winding has more number of turns than the primary winding, then
the transformer is said to be a Step-up transformer. Here the induced EMF is greater than
the input signal.
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STEP DOWN
❖ When the secondary winding has lesser number of turns than the primary winding, then
the transformer is said to be a Step-down transformer. Here the induced EMF is lesser
than the input signal.

TURNS RATIO
❖ As the number of turns of primary and secondary windings affect the voltage ratings, it
is important to maintain a ratio between the turns so as to have an idea regarding the
voltages induced.
❖ The ratio of number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary
coil is called as the “turns ratio” or “the ratio of transformation”. The turns ratio is
usually denoted by N.
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❖ The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns
ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. Hence this can be
written as

❖ The turns ratio also states whether the transformer is a step-up or a step-down transformer.
For example, a turns ratio of 1:3 states that the transformer is a step-up and the ratio 3:1
states that it is a step-down transformer.

10. TRANSFORMER APPLICATIONS

❖ Distribution Transformers - The transformers which are used to step down the
transmission voltage to the distribution voltage or the distribution voltage to a standard
service voltage are known as distribution transformers.

❖ Power Transformers - Power transformers are used in generating stations and substations
at both ends of the power transmission lines for step-up or step-down the voltage. These
transformers are operated during the load periods and are disconnected during light load
periods.

❖ Autotransformers - An autotransformer is a one winding transformer in which a portion

of the winding is common to both the high voltage and low voltage sides. The
autotransformer is used in the applications where the transformation ratio (K), either step-
up or stop-down, differs little from unity.

❖ Instrument Transformers are two types

❖ Current Transformer (CT) – A current transformer is the one which is used for the
transformation of current from a higher value to a lower value so that it can be measured
with a low range AC ammeter.
❖ Potential Transformer (PT) – The potential transformer can be defined as an instrument
transformer which is used for the transformation of the voltage from a higher value to a
lower value so that the high alternating voltage can be measured with a low range AC
voltmeter.

The transformers are used in several applications such as

❖ To change the voltage level and current level in the electrical power systems.
❖ As a coupling device.
❖ To isolate one circuit from the other electrically, as the primary and secondary are
electrically isolated.
❖ To measure the currents and voltages in the form of instrument transformers.
❖ As impedance matching device.
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11. THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR

Three Phase AC Generator

❖ A three phase AC generator is a synchronous machine that coverts mechanical power
into three-phase AC power through the process of electromagnetic induction.
❖ A three phase AC generator or alternator operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction i.e. when the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an EMF is
induced in the conductor or coil.
❖ Important − A three phase AC generator has three identical armature windings displaced
from each other by 120° electrical.
Construction of Three Phase AC Generator
❖ A three phase AC generator has 3-phase winding on the stator and a field winding excited
by DC supply on the rotor.

Stator
The stator is the stationary part of the three phase AC generator and is built of sheet-steel
laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A three phase armature winding is placed in the
stator slots of the generator. The armature winding of a three phase AC generator is always
connected in star and the neutral is connected to the earth.
Rotor
The rotor of a three phase AC generator carries a field winding which is supplied by a DC source
(called exciter). The DC source is generally, a small DC shunt or compound generator mounted
on the shaft of the three phase AC generator. There are two types of rotor constructions being used
in a three phase AC generator −
❖ Salient Pole Type Rotor (Used in low and medium speed (120-400 RPM) alternators)
❖ Cylindrical Type Rotor (Used in high speed (1500-3000 RPM) alternators)
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Operation of Three Phase AC Generator

❖ The rotor winding of the three phase AC generator is connected to a DC exciter, so that
alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-
clockwise direction by a prime mover, the armature conductors are cut by the rotating
magnetic field of rotor poles.
❖ Consequently, an EMF is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction. This induced EMF in the armature is alternating one because N and S poles of
rotor alternatively pass the armature conductors. The direction of the induced EMF is given
by Fleming’s right hand rule and the frequency is given by the equation,

Where,
❖ NSNS = synchronous speed of rotating magnetic field = speed of rotor
❖ P = Number of rotor poles

The magnitude of induced EMF depends upon the speed of rotation and the DC excitation current.
The magnitude of induced EMF in each phase of the armature winding would be the same but
displaced by 120° electrical from each other (see the waveform and phasor diagram).
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The EMF equation of a three phase AC generator is given by,
ERMS/Phase=2.22fφZVolts
Since the armature winding of a three phase AC generator is star connected, thus the line voltage
will be,
EL=3–√×Eph

12. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

❖ Those AC motors whose rotor rotates on the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic
field are known as synchronous AC motors. The synchronous motors are the constant speed
(equal to synchronous speed) motors at all loads provided that the load on themotor
does not exceed the limiting value.
❖ If the load on the shaft of a synchronous motor exceeds the limiting value, then the motor
comes to rest and the average torque developed by it is zero.
❖ The synchronous motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator consists of a 3-phase armature
winding and receives power from a balanced 3-phase supply while the rotor has a set of
salient poles excited by direct current to produce alternate N and S poles.
❖ In case of a synchronous motor, the stator is wound for the same number of poles as the
rotor poles.

❖ After a period of half cycle, the polarities of stator poles are reversed but the polarities of
the rotor poles remain the same (see the figure). Now, S S and NR attract each other and so
do the NS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in clockwise direction.
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❖ From the above discussion, it is clear that the stator poles change their polarities rapidly
and they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and then after the period of half cycle
in the other direction. Because of high inertia of rotor, the motor fails to start. Hence, a
synchronous motor cannot start by itself.

❖ Now, if the rotor poles are rotated by some external means at such a speed that they
interchange their positions along with the stator poles and being magnetically locked with
stator poles. Then the rotor will experience a continuous unidirectional torque. Hence, the
synchronous motor now, runs at the speed of revolving magnetic field or synchronous
speed.

Main Features of Synchronous Motor

Following are the characteristic features of a synchronous motor −
❖ A synchronous motor either runs at synchronous speed or not at all, i.e., while running, it
maintains a constant speed from no-load to full load.
❖ The speed of a synchronous motor is independent of load.
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❖ Synchronous motors are not inherently self-starting. Some auxiliary means have to be
provided for starting.
❖ A synchronous motor will stall if, while running, the load on the shaft is increased
beyond the maximum limit that the machine can drive.
❖ A synchronous motor can be made to operate under wide range of power factor both
lagging and leading.
Applications of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors are used in the following applications −
❖ Synchronous motors were primarily used in constant speed applications. But, with the
development of solid-state variable frequency drives like inverters and cyclo converters
has allowed their use in variable speed applications also.
❖ The synchronous motors are particularly used for low speed (below 300 RPM) applications
because at low speed, the power factor can be adjusted to unity and hencethe efficiency
is high.
❖ An over-excited synchronous motor (called synchronous condenser) can be used to
improve the overall power factor of the plant while carrying their rated load.
❖ Since a synchronous motor behaves like a variable inductor or a variable capacitor, it can
be used to improve the voltage regulation of transmission lines.
❖ Power electronic converters generating very low frequency enable us to use the
synchronous motors for ultra-low speed applications such as to drive crushers, rotary kilns
and variable-speed ball mills, etc.
❖ Some industrial applications of synchronous motors are such as high power and high speed
compressors, blowers, mainline traction, induced and forced draft fans, servodrives, etc.
Advantages of Synchronous Motor
The synchronous motors have the following advantages −
❖ It operates at a constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) from no-load to full-load.

❖ Power factor of a synchronous motor can be easily controlled by changing the excitation
of the motor.
❖ For low speed (< 300 RPM) applications, synchronous motors are more economical than
induction motors.
❖ The synchronous motors have high starting torque as compared to induction motors.

❖ A single synchronous motor can be used for driving the load as well as correcting the power
factor of the plant.
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Disadvantages of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors have some disadvantages as well, which are given below −
❖ Synchronous motors are not self-starting

❖ Synchronous motors require DC excitation at the rotor.

❖ The construction of a synchronous motor is more complicated than induction motors.

❖ Synchronous motors are costlier than induction motors.

13. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

❖ A three phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator carries a 3-phase winding
called as stator winding while the rotor carries a short circuited winding calledas rotor
winding.
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts −

❖ Stator
❖ Rotor
➢ The rotor and stator are separated by a small air gap ranges from 0.5 mm to 4 mm
depending on the power rating of the motor.
Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor
❖ The stator is the stationary part of the motor. It consists of a steel frame which encloses a
hollow cylindrical core. The core of the three phase induction motor is made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce the eddy current and hysteresis losses.
❖ A number of equally spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminated core
as shown in the figure. The insulated conductors are placed in these stator slots and are
connected in a suitable manner to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected stator
winding.
Rotor of Three Phase Induction Motor
❖ The rotor of an induction motor is a hollow cylindrical laminated core, having slots on its
outer periphery. The rotor windings are placed in these rotor slots.
Depending upon the winding arrangement, the rotor of a 3-phase induction motor is of two
types

❖ Squirrel Cage Type Rotor

❖ Wound Type or Slip-Ring Type Rotor
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❖ The stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply and the rotor winding derives its voltage and
power from the stator winding through electromagnetic induction. Therefore, the working
principle of a 3-phase induction motor is fundamentally based on
electromagnetic induction.
❖ Consider a portion of a three phase induction motor (see the figure). Therefore, the working
of a three phase induction motor can be explained as follows

❖ When the stator winding is connected to a balanced three phase supply, a rotatingmagnetic
field (RMF) is setup which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed (Ns). Where,

❖ The RMF passes through air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which are stationary at start.
Due to relative motion between RMF and the stationary rotor, an EMF is induced in the
rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, a current starts flowing in the
rotor conductors.
❖ Now, the current carrying rotor conductors are in a magnetic field created by the stator. As
a result of this, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of mechanical
forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tries to move the rotor in the
same direction as the RMF.
❖ Hence, the induction motor starts to rotate. From, the above discussion, it can be seen that
the three phase induction motor is self-starting motor.
❖ The three induction motor accelerates till the speed reached to a speed just below the
synchronous speed.
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Advantages of Three Phase Induction Motor
Following are the chief advantages of a 3-phase induction motor −

• It has simple and rugged construction.

• It requires less maintenance.
• It has high efficiency and good power factor.
• It is less expensive.
• It has self-starting torque.
Disadvantages of Three Phase Induction Motor
The disadvantages of a 3-phase induction motor are given as follows −

• The 3-phase induction motors are constant speed motors; hence their speed control is
very difficult.
• 3-phase induction motors have poor starting torque and high inrush currents (about 4 to 8
times of the rated current).
• They always operate under lagging power factor and during light loads, they operate at
very worst power factor (about 0.3 to 0.5 lagging).