5.5.

Peoples and States in

Eastern, Central, Southern and
Western Regions It is not
possible in the space of a brief
teaching module such as this to
provide an exhaustive detail of
societies and states in eastern,
central, southern, and western
parts of the country in the period
covered by this unit. Thus, this
section explores the history of
some of the states (as
illustrations) in the period under
consideration. Although there
was no one criterion used to
select the states, due regard has
been given to balance the
number of states selected from
each region mentioned above.
The selection of states for
discussion also considered
availability of sources and
treatment in earlier sections.
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the
East Somali The Somali people
inhabited vast territory in the
Horn. For long, the Somali
practiced pastoral economy and
moved between places for
centuries possibly in search of
sufficient pasture. Ibn Said
(1214-86), an Arab geographer,
noted that Merca town located in
the southern Somali coast near
Shabele River was a capital that
brought large number of Somalis
together during the thirteenth
century. The songs celebrating
King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30)
military success depicts that the
Somali lived close to the
Christian Kingdom. Somali
contingents also played
important role in the victories of
the Sultanate of Adal against the
Christian kingdom. Historically, a
council known as shir governed
the society. The decision making
process was highly democratic in
which all-adult male were
allowed equal access and
participation. These councils at
sub-clan, clan and inter-clan
level provided a governing
structure that acted as an
enforcement of law and justice.
The council governed wide-
ranging affairs including resource
allocation,
marriage, trade and crime. As a
component of shir, the guurti (a
council of elders) was the highest
political council mandated with
resolving conflict and crisis. Afar
The Afar predominantly lived in
northeastern Ethiopia and in
northern Djibouti, although some
have also inhabited southern part
of Eritrea. The Afar had an
indigenous governance system
known as Makabanto, which has
some elements of democracy.
The Afar people were first
mentioned by Ibn Said. During
the thirteenth century, they
occupied the lowland territory
near Bab el-Mandeb. The land
inhabited by the Afars was home
for many historical cities such as
Maduna and Abasa. Following
the collapse of the power of
Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth
century, the Afar established their
sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo,
Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.
Awsa Sultanate succeeded the
earlier Imamate of Awsa in
the middle Awash. The latter
polity had come into existence in
1577, when Mohammed Jasa
moved his capital from Harar to
Awsa. At some point after 1672,
Awsa declined and temporarily
ended in conjunction with Imam
Umar Din bin Adam's recorded
ascension to the throne. The
Sultanate was subsequently
reestablished by Kedafo around
1734, and was thereafter ruled
by his Mudaito Dynasty. Primary
symbol of the Sultan was silver
baton. Awsa’s economy mainly
depended on BatiGinda’e trade
route. Later it became center of
Islamic learning led by preachers
like Tola Hanfire. Argoba The
Emirate of Harar Early reference
to the people of Argoba is
insufficient. There are two
versions on the origin of the
people of Argoba. The first
version holds that they
descended from the followers of
the Prophet Mohammed who
came to the Horn of Africa and
settled at Ifat. The
second version claims that the
origin of the Argoba is not related
with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
More plausibly, the Argoba are
one of the ancient peoples in the
region that accepted Islam very
early from religious leaders who
came from Arabia. Harar is one
of the earliest Muslim centers in
the region of Ethiopia and the
Horn. In the sixteenth century,
Harar became the capital of
Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar
until 1577 when it was shifted to
Awsa due to the pressure from
the Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn
Ibrahim used Harar as a center
from where he launched his
campaigns into the Christian
kingdom in 1527. Later during
the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid,
Harar became a walled city
where the sultanate of the Harari
developed. In the mid
seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn
Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation
with the Oromo established a
dynasty which was to rule for
nearly two centuries and a half. It
was strengthened by Amirs like
Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The
Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf
and offering other assistance to
the Amir. The emirate grew in
importance to be a steady center
of Islamic culture and power. Its
economic power grew as it
controlled trade routes from the
Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and
Berbera. Its authority was
established over the surrounding
Oromo and Somali through
trade, inter-marriage, and
expansion of Islamic teachings.
Egyptians were attracted by such
a prominence that they sent an
expeditionary force in 1875 and
controlled the emirate for nearly
a decade. Although it was later
restored, and ruled by Amir
Abdulahi, as the last emir of the
Sultanate for two years, Emperor
Menilek’s expansion to the
region shortly followed in 1887.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in
Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa The
Kingdom of
Shewa was formed by a Menz
ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-
1703) and eventually controlled
districts like Asandabo, Debdabo,
Mafud and Yifat. The second
king was Merid Azmatch
Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-
18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45)
made Haramba, his capital and
tried to subjugate the
surrounding Oromo before he
was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
In addition to his unsuccessful
attempts to control the Afar and
Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/
Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared
authority over Bulga, Efrata,
Menz and Tegulet with his capital
at Doqaqit which later shifted to
Ankober. Asfa-Wosen
(r.17751808) conquered
Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe,
Merhabete, Morat and Shewa
Meda. The dynasty became very
strong under Negus Sahle-
Sellasie (r.1813-47), the
grandfather of Emperor Menilek
II. During his reign, many
travelers visited Shewa and he
even signed “treaty
of friendship and commerce” with
the British in 1841. Shewa’s
economy was mainly based on
agriculture supplemented by
trade and craft. Near the capital,
Ankobar, there was an important
trade center in Aleyu Amba
administered by the Shewan
court. Gurage The Gurage are
divided into the Western and
Northern Gurage. The first are
also known as Sebat Bet Gurage
and include: Chaha, Muher,
Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner,
Endegegna and Gyeto). The
latter are variously known as
Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo
Gurage. Additional groups
included Dobbi, Gadabano and
Masqan. The staple crop in
Gurage land is enset. The
Gurage had traditional system of
governance developed over the
centuries. It is known as the
Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat
Bet and the Gordanna Sera
among the Kistane. There was,
however, no centralized
leadership. Power was vested in
clan or
lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate
rights, obligations, and influence.
Kambata By about 1550-70,
four communities of separate
origin coalesced to form the
contemporary state of Kambata
which means, “this is the place”
(where we live-as the Kambata
believe in). The first one,
Kambata in the narrow sense,
had its original homeland around
Mount Hambericho in the
heartland of Kambata territory.
The other three namely the
Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro
trace their homeland from
Sidama highlands. If the above
processes led to the formation of
the nucleus of the state, the
ethno-genesis of Kambata also
benefitted from Omotic and
Semitic peoples who moved into
the region at different times.
Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30)
annexed Kambata proper and
controlled the area between Omo
and Bilate Rivers, which he
incorporated into
the Christian Ethiopian Empire.
In 1532, the region was captured
by Imam Ahmed’s army, which
furthered the interaction of
peoples. At the end of the
sixteenth century, the groups
were recognized as and
conscious of the name Kambata
related to one of the seven
dominant clans (Kambata
Lamala) in the region. The
people were ensete farmers
sharing similar culture and
speaking the same language
called Kambatissa, which
belongs to the Highland East
Cushitic family together with
Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya,
Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
The Kambata had a traditional
administrative institution called
the Hambericho Council. The
council had seven members
each representing the seven
clans in the region. With a king at
the top, the council ruled
Kambata until the late nineteenth
century. Hadiya The origin of
the state of Hadiya goes back to
the thirteenth century. It was
mentioned in the Kebre-Negest
(Glory of the Kings) and it
referred to the area west of the
Islamic states in the federation of
Zeila. The people were
heterogeneous both linguistically
and culturally. Semitic-speaking
agricultural people dominated
north of the state while the
southern part was largely
inhabited by Cushitic-speaking
pastoral communities. There was
a considerable Muslim
population. By about 1332, the
ruler of the Christian kingdom,
Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya
after defeating its ruler, Amano
who supported by a Muslim
“prophet” Bel’am aligned with the
then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to
confront the Christian force.
From the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries, Hadiya’s
political importance was
considerable with sizable
population and vast territory. In
1445, a Hadiya king called
Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor
Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was
consequently
replaced by his uncle Bamo. To
stabilize the situation, Zara-
Yaqob made a political marriage.
Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from
Hadiya, who became an
important historical figure,
married Emperor ZaraYaqob.
Another Hadiya leader, Garad
Aze refused to pay tribute to
Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-
98), but was suppressed in
1568/9. Sidama The relations
between Hadiya and the
Christian Kingdom was
interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and
the Oromo population movement
until Hadiya's incorporation into
the Imperial state in the late
nineteenth century. After these
two major historical events
especially the latter, Hadiya’s
population became more diverse.
However, descendants of the old
Hadiya can be traced from four
different linguistic clusters: the
Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena
and Alaba, and the Hadiya
proper
with its sub-groups-the Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and
Badowacho. As with the
Kambata and Sidama, the
Hadiya language belongs to the
Highland East Cushitic family
and their languages are
intelligible to members of these
ethnic groups. 5.5.3. Peoples
and States in the South
Historically, the Sidama have
been living in the southern parts
of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of
about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great
East Africa Rift Valley that cut
through Lakes Hawasa and
Abaya up to 3000 m a.s.l in the
eastern Sidama highlands of
Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa
districts. Agriculture, although
practiced traditionally, remained
the basis of Sidama’s economy.
Enset and coffee are Sidama’s
important food and cash crops
respectively. The Sidama had an
indigenous system of
governance led by the Mote
(king). The Mote exercised
political and administrative
authority in
consultation with the council of
elders called Songo. Songo
members raised any agenda for
discussion within the council and
submitted their decisions to the
Mote for approval. Although there
was no written constitution, rules
were known by heart through
generations and practiced
accordingly. The cultural and
ritual leader in Sidama society
was the Woma. He was selected
for his ability as a peacemaker,
bodily perfection, oratorical
ability, wisdom and caution. The
Woma could not participate in
war or cattle raiding as he was
considered a man of peace. The
Woma handled cultural matters
such as offering sacrifices to the
spirits. He also performed other
rituals such as circumcision and
marriage. Gedeo Sidama
society was divided into
generation-sets called Luwa. The
system had five grades each
lasting for eight years. These are
Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora,
Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a
five-month military training and
war songs like gerarsha under
the leadership of the gaden with
his deputy called Ja’lawa. The
gaden settled disputes within his
Luwa, besides handling the
defense of Sidama society
together with the Mote. Another
important institution of Sidama
society is Seera. Seera was the
social constitution of the Sidama
people governing social life
based on the Sidama moral
code, halale (the ultimate truth)
to judge the right and wrong.
Although it was not written and
defined with strict enforcement
mechanisms, people abide by
the rules of halale to avoid curse
or ostracization by the society.
Contradictory traditions exist
regarding the origin of the Gedeo
people. The dominant tradition
relates the ancestors of the
Gedeo to Daraso, who was the
older brother of Gujo (father of
Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the
seven major Gedeo clans
descended from the seven sons
of Daraso. The clans were
grouped in two houses, the first
being the shole batte (senior
house) where the first four clans
belonged including more than 25
sub-clans and the second called
sase batte (junior house) where
the last three belonged having 10
sub-clans. Each clan was
exogamous and was assigned
for particular duty such as ritual,
traditional medicine or
leadership. The Gedeo had a
culture called baalle, a traditional
governance system that worked
with age classes and ranking.
The baalle had seven grades
with a 10-year period each
creating a 70year cycle.
Sasserogo was a federation of
three territories; Sobbho, Ributa
and Rikuta sharing one Abba
Gadaa who leaves office every
eight years to be replaced by a
new holder with the next age set
at baalle ceremony. It was at this
ceremony that all positions
ranging from
the top, Abba Gada down to
Hayitcha were assumed. Like the
neighboring Sidama, with whom
they shared a very close
language, their economy was
based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso The name Konso is
invariably used to refer one of
the ancient peoples in Ethiopia
and the Horn who spoke affa
Konso (Konso language) and
their land. The literal meaning of
the term is a “heavily forested
hill/ area.” A century ago the
highlands of Konso, which was
covered by dense forest, had
been the traditional home of
Konso people while the low-lying
environment along Sagan and
Woyito river valley served as
hunting grounds. Konso attracted
the attention of local and
international researchers
interested in human evolution, as
it is one of the earliest human
settlement sites in the world.
Agriculture was and remains to
be the major economic activity of
the Konso. Farmers practiced a
fairly balanced and integrated
system of specialized
agricultural technology. The
location of mainland Konso
within mosquito infested hot and
dry lowlands at the edge of the
Great East African Rift Valley led
farmers to adopt intensive
agriculture. Farmers combined
crop production with cattle
breeding. At the same time, they
adopted soil conservation
techniques notably the
construction of terraces, which
proved helpful to convert rugged
and hilly areas into permanent
cultivation. Farmers were also
adept at selecting plant varieties
that withstood harsh climatic
conditions. Such complex
agricultural practices enabled
farmers to produce sufficient
food on small plot of land for their
sustenance. Besides agriculture,
Konso’s economy depended on
bee keeping and craftworks. All
of these activities attest the
ingenuity of local adaptation
strategies. Until the late
nineteenth century, the Konso
people lived in walled villages
(paletas) which
were further divided into wards
called Kanta. There was no
central authority who acted as
sovereign power over the three
regions. Each village was ruled
by a council of elders called
hayyota who were selected
through direct participation of
male members of the village.
Membership to the council was
not hereditary but rotated every
eighteen years. At the core of
the socio-political organization of
the Konso appear to be the clan
or lineage group and generation
set, Tselta.The Konso were
divided into nine exogamous
clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta,
Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita,
Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta
and Argamyta. The Tselta had
fixed cycle of years starting from
birth, although they varied across
villages- eighteen in Karat, nine
in Takati and five in Turo. The
major function of the generation
set was informing the
responsibilities expected of each
age group. 5.5.4.
Peoples and States in
Southwestern Part Wolayta The
name Wolayta denotes a specific
ethnic group in southwestern
Ethiopia and their powerful
kingdom, which first emerged as
a state in the thirteenth century.
According to local traditions,
before the emergence of Wolayta
as a political unit, the area was
inhabited by different
communities such as the Badia,
Badiagadala and Aruja. The state
flourished in the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries
because of successful wars that
the Wolayta fought against their
neighbors and the material,
human and territorial gains
thereof. At the apex of the social
and political hierarchy was the
Kawo (king), assisted by a
council of advisors. From the
thirteenth to the late nineteenth
centuries, two successive
dynasties ruled Wolayta: the
Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre.
Founded in the thirteenth century
by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla
seems to have ruled until the end
of the fifteenth century. It was
then superseded by the Tigre
dynasty, so called because it was
supposedly founded by Tigreans
from northern Ethiopia. The land
of Wolayta is known for its fertility
and moderate climate, with green
vegetation cover for the most
part of the year. All land was
nominally owned by the king who
granted it to his dependents. In
practice, land relationships were
ordered according to three basic
principles of social organization
i.e. kinship, polity and social
status. Accordingly, rights over
land were vested in the lineage
group, the crown (royal estate)
and the nobility. There were also
communal lands allocated for
grazing and social gatherings to
which all members of the society
except artisans had equal
access. The king rewarded
people with land on grounds of
gallant deeds in battle and other
important
contributions to the state. By
grants of land or by threats of
dispossession the reigning
monarch ensured loyalty to the
state. Except those who worked
on the royal estate, landholders
paid tribute to the king. The
dominant food crop was enset
(Enset Ventricosum). Kafa
According to traditions, this
powerful kingdom emerged in the
fourteenth century. Around mid
seventeenth century, the state
had come to prominence. The
ruling Minjo dynasty and the
medieval kingdom of Ennarya
had close contact. The Oromo
expansion might have forced the
ruling house of Ennarya to flee
south of the Gojeb which as a
result brought Christianity and
the royal title tato to Kafa. As with
a number of Cushitic and some
Semitic peoples of the south,
Kafa’s economy was based on
the cultivation of enset on
peasant farms supported by
trade. Besides working on their
land, peasants rendered free
labor
service and tilled royal estates
with the support of slaves who
were acquired through raiding or
trading, or as payment for debt.
As far as trade is concerned, a
prosperous commerce took place
with Oromo states of the Gibe
region. Major trade items, such
as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory,
gold, honey-wax, and civet were
exported via markets like
Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc. From
the seventeenth to the
eighteenth centuries, the
kingdom expanded to Bonesho,
Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and
Chara. At the apex of the
administration of the kingdom
was the Tato with his major
political center at Bonga. Another
seat of power was Andarcha,
seven miles to southeast. The
Tato was assisted by a council of
seven advisors called Mikrecho.
The Mikrecho served to
moderate the power of the king
but they played important roles in
succession as well. The Kafa
had a tradition of digging deep
trenches called
Kuripo as defensive barrier. The
Gojeb also served as natural
protection against external
invasion and it might have
contributed to their relative
independence until 1897. Yem
History of Ethiopia and the Horn
Module (Hist.1102) The Yem
state was located along the
eastern banks of the Gibe or to
the northeast of the Kafa
kingdom. Yem’s economy
combined agriculture, trade and
crafts. Initially, an indigenous
dynasty called Dida or Halmam-
Gamma ruled Yem from its
palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma
near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor
Ama Mountain. Besides being at
the top of the political ladder, the
Amno (king) of Yem acted as a
chief priest with attributes of
divinity. A state council of 12
members named Astessor with
its chairperson Waso assisted
the Amno in administering the
state. Erasho were the provincial
governors and they were
responsible for digging ditches
called bero
and erecting nearly fifty-meter
wooden or iron pillars at the
center of the kingdom around
Brisi Bita so that the war father,
the Nomiaw, could patrol the
surroundings. Special
messengers, Wosi carried orders
from Amno down to district
chiefs, Gagna and vice versa. In
the fourteenth century, the last
King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was
overthrown by people from the
north who founded a new
dynasty called Mowa (Howa)
with its center at Angari. In the
nineteenth century, the
neighboring state of Jimma Abba
Jifar tried to control the Yem
which itself was absorbed into
the imperial state of Ethiopia
under Emperor Menilek II
towards the end of the century.
Gamo Historically, the Gamo
inhabited areas from Lakes
Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe
Mountain and beyond. Gamo’s
physical landscape can be
divided into two: the geze
(highland) and the bazo
(lowland). The highlands were
densely
populated while people who
escaped coercion by the state at
the political center largely settled
the lowlands which also served
as hunting fields. A set of
interrelated indigenous laws
called the Woga defined land-
use in the Gamo highlands. The
laws had their origin in a belief
that everything was connected
and bound in a delicate balance.
Together they formed a natural
resource management system
that governed everything from
interpersonal relationships to the
conservation and preservation of
pasture, forest, soil, and water.
The cultivation of enset had been
central to the subsistence of
Gamo highlands while maize and
sweet potato were staple food
crops in the lowlands. Other
crops grown in the highlands
included barely, wheat, teff,
peas, beans and cabbage.
Besides farming, most farmers
kept cattle for food, farming and
manure, which they needed
for successful agriculture. Craft
making, pot making, tanning and
metalworking were other modes
of the subsistence system.
These people had developed
their own indigenous knowledge
and technologies in
manufacturing different types of
tools and weapons, traditional
musical and funeral instruments,
weaving colorful textiles etc. The
first mention of the Gamo in
written records dates back to the
fifteenth century in the praise
songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).
The song mentioned the Gamo
as one of the tributary states to
the monarch. The Gamo
maintained relative autonomy
from control by the Christian
Kingdom after war with the
Muslim sultanates weakened the
latter. Between the sixteenth and
the nineteenth centuries, the
Gamo lived in scattered
settlements and organized in
different communities called
dere. The dere were politically
autonomous villages (units) but
shared three essential features.
These were: 1) each dere had
kawo (hereditary ruler) who also
offered sacrifices and symbolized
the unity of the people. 2) every
dere had its own initiates called
halaqa and; (3) every dere had
its own assembly place called
dubusha, where communal
matters were discussed and
disputes solved. Access to
politico-ritual status among the
Gamo people was made possible
through initiation or election and
baira, a system of seniority. The
two systems functioned both in
opposition to each other as well
as complementarily. Through
initiation or election the dulata
(assembly) elected married men
to positions that were known by
different names from one dere to
another. In some dere it was
called halaqa, in others it was
known by the name huduga or
maga. Election to this office was
open to all married men and
accorded representatives with
provisional political authority. The
dulata had an institutional
authority to give decisions on
different social, political and
many other important matters.
The assembly had also the
power to impose sanctions as
penalty on individuals or groups
who committed serious crimes or
violated the community’s social
regulations and cultural values.
The second system, the baira,
was ascribed and largely based
on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The
Gamo people were distributed in
agnatic clans each having a
system of individual genealogical
hierarchy. The baira (senior) of
the clan had a privilege over
lineage members. The baira
made animal sacrifice on behalf
of their juniors at all levels of the
community. The senior sacrificer
of the dere is the kawo. The
concept of kawo refers to the first
rank status, with variable
attributes and he was
legitimatized by birth and
primogeniture. The kawo
represented the unity of dere and
played an important role in
relations with the outside world.
Dawuro Dawuro’s topography
mostly is mountainous and
plateau at the central, and
lowland and plain at Gojeb and
Omo river basins. The land is
divided into three climatic zones.
These are geziya (highland),
dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a
(lowland). Such climatic
conditions enriched Dawuro with
a variety of tree species and
natural vegetation/forest. The
livelihood of Dawuro people is
based on mixed agricultural
activities. The language of
Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa,
a sub-group of the Omotic family.
Historically, Dawuro land had
been inhabited by three major
clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and
Amara which altogether were
regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
The area was also home for
people that came from
neighboring Omotic states such
as Wolayta, Kucha,
Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from
places like Gondar, Gojjam,
Tigray and Shewa. A political
alliance through royal marriages
was one important factor that
facilitated the movement of
people from neighboring
territories into Dawuro. By about
1700, the Kawuka dynasty had
created a big state from a great
number of petty chieftainships on
the territory between the Gojeb
and Omo rivers in the north, east
and south and the Kafa high
mountains in the west. Among
the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty
of Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati
Halala were famous. Kati Halala
was the grandson of the king of
Kafa. During his reign, Dawuro
incorporated Konta. He is known
for his stone fortifications, which
he oversaw to defend his
territories from outsiders. Ari The
Omo River basin had been home
to different groups of people
since early times. These included
the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi,
Erbore, Hamer, Surma,
Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male,
etc. Major economic activities in
the region were sedentary
agriculture, pastoralism and
handcrafts. The language of the
Ari people is called Araf, which is
one branch of the Omotic
language family. The people
were sedentary agriculturalist.
The society was organized into
ten independent clan based
chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief
known as Babi headed each of
these chiefdoms. The clan chief
was entitled with both political
and ritual authorities over the
people of his respective domain.
The clan chief was assisted by
officially appointed prominent
figures in the administration of
the political unit. The assistants
included Godimis (religious
leaders), Zis (village heads) and
Tsoikis (intelligence agents of
Babi). 5.5.5. Peoples and States
in the West Berta and Gumuz
The Berta people inhabit the
present Beni-Shangul Regional
State. The earliest record of
Berta settlement in this
region dates from the sixteenth
century. The Berta people speak
the Berta language as their
mother tongue. It is a tonal
language classified as a branch
of the Nilo-Saharan linguistic
group. In addition to the Berta,
the Beni-Shangul is home for the
Gumuz. They are mentioned by
the Scottish explorer James
Bruce. He notes that they hunted
with bows and arrows, a custom
that survives today. The Gumuz
speak the Gumuz language,
which belongs to the Nilo-
Saharan family. It is subdivided
in several dialects. Islamic
influence had been strong on the
Berta and other Nilotes because
of their trade and social contacts
with the northern Sudan. Anywa
Historically, the Anywa
predominantly inhabited areas
along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo,
Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero
Rivers on the western
borderlands of the present-day
Gambella region. The people
speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-
branch of
the Nilo- Saharan language
family. The Anywa had an
indigenous administrative system
whereby each village lived under
a chief called Kuaari who along
with the nobles, Nyiye, managed
the distribution of farm and
grazing fields, settled disputes
etc with the community. Although
local traditions mention a certain
person by the name Oshoda as
the founding father of the Anywa,
the administration of the territory
was not centralized.
Economically, they are engaged
in smallscale cultivation, fishing
and hunting. While most Anywa
practiced Christianity, they also
believed in traditional religion.
Nuer History of Ethiopia and the
Horn Module (Hist.1102)
Historically, the Nuer lived in
areas that extended across the
savannas and marshes of the
Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper
Nile regions of the Sudan. Since
the nineteenth century, they had
been largely settled in the plains
of Gambella along the Sobat and
Baro Rivers and parts of the
Sudan. The mainstay of Nuer’s
economy was cattle breeding
supplemented by crop
production. The Nuer had
developed a rather complex
spiritual culture around their
cattle, which were used as bride
wealth as well. The Nuer had an
age-set system combining social
and political functions. Nuer boys
had to pass through a rigorous
test and a series of rites
connected with it before they
were initiated into adulthood.
Majang The Majang formed the
southern end of the Nilo-Saharan
settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo
inhabited highlands to the Baro
plains. Linguistic evidence
relates the origin of the Majang
to the Boma plateau in South
Sudan. Gradually, they moved
northwards and settled in
forested areas of western
Ethiopia. By mid twentieth
century, their settlement
extended to areas near Dembi-
Dollo in the north. Economically,
the
Majang practiced shifting
cultivation and animal husbandry.
Other economic activities of the
Majang include beekeeping,
hunting and fishing. The
Kunama The Kunama people
also called the Baza are one of
the ancient inhabitants of
western Eritrea on the Gash and
Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s
northwestern and western Tigray.
The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in
872 A.D. mentions the kingdom
of Baza, which is a self-
designation of the Kunama. The
Kunama had a customary
institution called sanga-anene
mandated with the administration
of the society. Other
responsibilities of the sanga-
anene included granting asylum
to new comers in the sanctuary
of their compounds and
performing rituals as part of
reconciliation process in case of
homicides. The office of the
sanga-anene was held by male
members of the society. The
office was
transmitted hereditarily from the
eldest brother to the next born
through matrilineal line. The
mainstay of Kunama’s economy
is mixed agriculture. Agriculture
is based on the use of hoe,
spades, sickles and the ox
(camel)-drawn plough. Signs of
past practices of terraced
agriculture are still visible in
some areas of the Kunama. The
staple crop among the Kunama
is sorghum (kina), which also has
a ceremonial value. Other crops
grown are millet (bortaor beca),
pulses and maize (afokina). The
Kunama also keep livestock
mainly goats, sheep, oxen, and
camels.