Course Code: Bio 101

Course Title: General Biology 1 (100 Level) Continuation

Lecture Note prepared by AGHOLOR ODIMEGWU (Mr)

Lecturer, Department of Biological Sciences
(Microbiology Unit),
Faculty of Sciences,
University of Delta
Agbor

Topics:
1) Heredity
a) Meaning of Heredity
b) Examples of characters that can be inherited from parents
c) Mendel experiment on monohybrid inheritance.
D) Mendel first law of inheritance.
e) Genetic crossings involving monohybrid inheritance.
f) Dihybrid inheritance (meaning).
g) Mendel’s second experiment.
h) Illustration of the mechanism of dihybrid inheritance using
diagram (checker board).
i) Mendel second law of inheritance.
j) Terms used in genetics.

2) EVOLUTION
a) Meaning of evolution.
b) Theories of organic evolution (meaning)
c) Main ideas of the theories of organic evolution.
d) Lamarck theories of evolution (Lamarckism).
e) Darwin theories of evolution (Darwinism).
f) Modern evolutionary theories.
i) The roles of mutation
ii) The roles of isolation
in the formation of new species

ASSIGNMENT
1) State 5 evidences in support of evolution
2) A black coloured rabbit (BB) was crossed with a white coloured
rabbit (bb). All the offsprings in the F1 are black coloured. Show
with the aid of genetic diagram, the proportion of the offsprings
that will be black or white coloured in the second filial generation
(f2).

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HEREDITY
The tendency of parents to pass or transmit certain traits or
characters to their children(off springs). This is also the tendency of off
springs(children) to resemble their parents.
Characteristics that are transmitted(passed) from parents to off
springs(children) are called hereditary traits or hereditary characters.
Examples of traits(characters) that can be passed from parents to off
springs are: Height(tall or short), skin colour(fair or dark), eye colour,
(blue eyes or brown), shape of parts of the body such as shape of
nose(pointed or flat), shape of head(oblong head or round head), shape
of ear(long ear or short ear) etc. other examples includes: intelligency,
blood group, behaviour, hair colour, myopia and many others.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT ON

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE.
Gregor Mendel was an Austria Monk. In 1865, he carried out
experiment on heredity.
In his garden, there were garden pea plants with so many
contrasting characters. For example, some were tall while some were
short. Some produce red flowers while some produce white flowers.
Some produce yellow pods(fruits and seeds), while some produce green
pods. Some have axial positioned flowers while some have terminal
positioned flowers. Some produce smooth seeds while some produce
wrinkle(rough) seeds and so on.
Mendel’s aim of the experiment was to find out the pattern of
inheritance of the different characters in the pea plants and to know
whether character has influence on inheritance.
In one of such experiments, Mendel cross pollinated the flower of
a tall plant and a short plant, and allowed them to produce seeds. He
collected the seeds and planted them. All the seeds germinated and
grew into tall plants. He called the offsprings got at this stage the first
filial generation (F1).
He then self pollinated the plants in the first filial generation and
allowed them to produce seeds. He then harvested the seeds and
planted them and when they grow, he observed that in every four plants
produced, three (3) were tall while one (1) was short. He called these
offsprings got by self pollinating “F1” the second filial generation (F 2).
He illustrated his findings with crossing as follows:

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Let ‘T’ be the gene for tallness. Let ‘t’ be the gene for shortness.
Parent – TT t t
I I I I
gamete TT t t

Tt
Offsprings –
Tt Tt Tt
Tall Tall Tall Tall
This is the first filial generation (F1).

In the first filial generation (f1) all the plants were tall (100% tall).
Then self cross F1 to get F2. That is, cross the offsprings in the
first filial generation (f1) to obtain second filial generation (f2).

T t T t

TTt Tt Tt tt (F2)
Tall Tall
Tall Tall
1 short
3 tall

Phenotypic ratio of tall plants to short plants is 3: 1

The genotypes are: TT, Tt, Tt and tt.

Genotypic ratios in F2 is 1TT:2Tt:1tt=1:2:1
We can also perform this crossings using punet square
t t
Tt Tt All the plants are tall.
T Tall Tall
First filial
generation (F1)
Tt Tt
T Tall Tall

To get second filial generation, cross the offsprings in the F1

T t
Second filial generation
TT Tt
T Tall Tall
3 tall, 1 short

Tt tt
t Tall Short

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Phenotypic ratio= 3 tall:1short= 3:1
Genotypic ratio = 1TT : 2Tt: 1tt
= 1:2:1
Mendel observed that when he crossed two garden pea plants which
different in one pair of contrasting characters, in the first filial generation
(f1) all the resulting plants resemble one parent but did not show
character of the other parent.
In the same way, when Mendel cross between plant with smooth
seeds with that of wrinkle seeds plant, all the ‘F1’ offspring had smooth
seeds. Again all ‘F1’ plants had yellow seeds when yellow seeds plants
was crossed with green seeds plants.
However, in the second filial generation (F2), the proportion of tall
plants to that of short plants were in a ratio 3:1. The same ratio applied
when the proportion of yellow seeds plants were compared with that of
green seed plants.
The ratio was always the same no matter the character Mendel
tested or used. That is whether height, colour, seed shape, colour of
flowers or position of flowers.
Phenotypic ratio is usually 3:1.
Mendel therefore called the character which is always manifesting
a “Dominant character while the character which did not manifest in the
first filial generation (F1) (heterozygous condition) except in the ‘F2’
(homozygous condition) a recessive character.
It was from such results that Mendel worked out his first law of
inheritance. His most important point of conclusion was that the unit of
inheritance remains a separate factor when they are passed from one
generation to the other. They are not changed although their effect may
be hidden, the factors themselves are passed on without change.
Mendel First Law of Inheritance
Mendel first law is known as the law of segregation of gene and
states that the characteristics of an organism are controlled by genes
which occur in pair and of such a pair of genes, only one can be carried
in a single gamete and are transmitted from one generation to another
without change.
OR
Mendel first law is the law of Segregation of germinal units and states
that of a pair of contrasting characters, only one can be represented in a
gamete by it’s germinal unit.

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Summary of Mendel’s Experiments on Monohybrid inheritance
Character Dominant Recessive Phenotypic Genotypic
Character Character ratio ratio
1 Stem length Tall Short 3:1 1:2:1
2 Flower Colour Red White 3:1 1:2:1
3 Seed texture Smooth Wrinkle or rough 3:1 1:2:1
4 Colour of pod Yellow Green 3:1 1:2:1
5 Flower Position Axial Terminal 3:1 1:2:1
Reasons why Mendel Used Garden Pea Plants for his
experiment
1) Garden pea plants have so many distinct characteristics which
exist in pair like some plants were tall while some were short.
2) Cross fertilized garden peas are viable and fertile
3) Garden pea plants have a short life cycle and so many generation
can be produced within short time.
4) The pea plant was easy to cultivate
5) The pea plants have so many varieties which could be purchased.

Problems involving genetic crossing in monohybrid inheritance

Example 1
A plant that always produce red flower was crossed with another
plant that always produce white flower. Assuming red is dominant to
white, determine.
i) The proportion of red to white flowered plants in the first filial
generation (f1).
ii) The phenotypic ratios of red to white flowered plants in the F2.
iii) The genotypic ratio.

Solution
Let ‘R’ be the gene for red flower.
Let ‘r’ be the gene for white flower.

Parent – RR r r
I I I I
gamete RR r r

Rr
First filial
Rr Rr Rr
Red Red Red Red
generation
(F1)

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i) In the F1, all the plants are red flowered. No white flowered plant.
ii) Self cross offspring of F1 to get F2.
R r R r

RRt Rr Rr rr
Red White
Red Red
Phenotypic ratio of red to white flowered plants
= 3 Red : 1 white
= 3:1

iii) Genotypic ratios = 1RR : 2Rr : 1rr

= 1: 2: 1
We can solve the problem above by using Punnet Square

r r
Rr Rr
R Red Red F1

All red
Rr Rr And no white
R Red Red

R r
RR Rr
F2
R Red Red
3 red,
RR rr 1 white
r Red White Phenotypic ratio
= 3:1

Genotypic ratio = 1RR : 2Rr: 1rr

= 1: 2: 1

Example 2
A plant that produce yellow seeds was crossed with a plant that
produces green seeds. If all the first filial generation (F1) offsprings
produce yellow seeds, determine the proportion of the offsprings that
will produce yellow or green seeds in the

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(i) F1
(ii) F2
(iii) What is the phenotypic and genotypic ratio?

Solution
Let ‘Y’ be the gene for yellow seeds plant.
Let ‘y’ be the gene for green seed plant.
Since the first filial generation offspring (F1) have yellow seeds, it means
that yellow is dominant to green then,

Parent – YY y y
I I I I
gametes Y Y y y

(F1)
Offsprings Yy All Yellow
Yy Yy Yy
(F1)

To get second filial generation, cross the offsprings of the F1.

Y y Y y

Yy yy F2
YY Yy
yellow green
Yellow yellow

i) In F1, all are yellow seeds plants

ii) In F2, 3 are yellow seeds plants while 1 is a green seed plant.
iii) Phenotypic ratio of yellow to green seed plants = 3:1
Genotypic ratio = 1YY: 2Yy: 1yy
= 1: 2: 1
y y
Yy Yy
Y Yellow Yellow F1

All the offsprings are yellow seeds

plants
Yy Yy
Y Yellow Yellow

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Cross the F1 to get F2

Y y
YY Yy
F2
Y Yellow Yellow
3 yellow,
Yy yy 1 green
y Yellow green

Phenotypic ratio = 3:1

Genotypic ratio = 1YY : 2Yy : 1 yy
= 1:2:1

Example 3
A black coloured rat (BB) was crossbred with a white
coloured rat (bb). With the aid of crossing, determine:
i) The proportion of the “F2” (second filial generation) that
will be like the black parent.
ii) Phenotypic ratios of black to white colour rats.
iii) Write down the genotypic ratios.

Parent – BB bb
I I I I
gametes BB b b

(F1)
All are black coloured rats
Offsprings Bb
Bb Bb Bb

B b B b

Bb bb F2
Offsprings BB Bb
Black White
Black Black

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i) The proportion or ratio in F2 that will look like their black
parents is 3 out of 4.
ii) Phenotypic ratio of black to white = 3:1
iii) Genotypic ratios = 1BB : 2Bb : 1bb
= 1:2:1
Class Work
Solve the example above using Punnet Square.

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
This is the inheritance that put into consideration two characters at
a time. i.e. inheritance of two characters. e.g. A tall fair man married a
short dark woman. Two characters here are height and skin colour.

Mendel Second Experiment

In this experiment, Mendel crossed pea plants simultaneously with
two characters in order to find out whether character has any influence
on inheritance.
In one such experiment, Mendel crossed two plants one of which
have smooth yellow seeds and the other wrinkle green seeds. All the
first filial generation (F1) hybrid were allowed to self fertilise.
Four second filial generation (F2) phenotype were observed in a
definite pattern. From the total of 556 seeds, 315 were smooth and
yellow, 32 seeds were wrinkle and green, 108 were smooth and green
while 101 were wrinkle and yellow.
Of the sixteen offsprings got in F2, 9 were smooth yellow, 3 were
wrinkle yellow, 3 were smooth green and 1 was wrinkle green. This fit
into the phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Illustration of the mechanisms of dihybrid inheritance with diagram
(checker board)
Let S = gene for wrinkle seeds
Let s = gene for wrinkle seeds
Let Y = gene for yellow seeds
Let y = gene for green seeds

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 SSYY ssyy
Smooth and Yellow wrinkle and green

Parent – SSYY ssyy

I I I I
gamate – S Y s y

F1 – SY
Smooth Sy sY sy
Yellow Smooth Smooth Wrinkle
green yellow green
To get second filial generation (F2), cross the offsprings of F1 using the
checker board.
SY Sy sY sy
SSYY SSYy SsYY SsYy
SY Smooth and yellow
Smooth and yellow
Smooth and yellow
Smooth and yellow

SSYy SSyy SsYy Ssyy

Sy Smooth and yellow Smooth and yellow
Smooth and green Smooth and green

sY SsYY SsYy ssYY ssYy

Smooth and yellow
Smooth and green Wrinkle
Wrinkle and yellow and yellow

SsYy Ssyy ssYy ssyy

sy Smooth and yellow
Smooth and green Wrinkle
Wrinkle and yellow and green

The phenotypes of the offsprings in the F2 are:

9 smooth and yellow
3 smooth and yellow
3 wrinkle and yellow
1 wrinkle and green.
Phenotypic ration = 9:3:3:1

Genotypes of the offsprings in the F2 are:

1SSYY
2SSYy
2SsYY
4SsYy

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 1SSyy
2Ssyy
1ssYY
2ssYy
1ssyy
Genotypic ratio = 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
Mendel’s Second Law
Mendel Second Law is called the Law of Independent assortment
of gene and states that the segregation of a pair of gene at one gene
locus is independent on the segregation of gene at another gene locus
and any recombination of alleles can occur in the zygote.

OR
The factors for two pairs of contrasting character are inherited
independent of each other. This is to say that each member of alleles or
contrasting characters may combine randomly with either member of
another pair.

SOME TERMS USED IN GENETICS (GENETIC TERMINOLOGIES)

1) Gene: This is the unit of inheritance. There are different kinds

of genes depending on what it controls.
a) Dominant Gene – which controls dominant character and
suppress the recessive gene. It is usually represented with
capital letter in genetic crossing e.g. TT, AA etc.
b) Recessive Gene – which is the gene that controls recessive
character. It is usually represented with small letter in
genetic crossing. Recessive gene are suppressed by the
dominant gene and cannot manifest in the heterozygous
condition except in the homozygous condition, e.g. tt, aa,
bb, etc.
c) Homozygous Gene – this is when a pair of gene
determining a character are the same. However, we have
two types of homozygous genes:
i. homozygous recessive gene, where the genes determining
character are the same and are recessive.
They are usually represented with small letters e.g. tt, gg,
aa, bb, rr, etc.
ii. homozygous dominant genes, where the two genes for a
character are the same and are dominant. They are usually
represented with capital letters e.g. TT, GG, AA, BB, RR,
e.t.c.
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 d) Heterozygous Genes – This is when the genes
determining are not the same. i.e. one dominant gene is
paired with one recessive gene. e.g. Tt, Aa, Yy, Rr, Hh, e.t.c.
In the heterozygous condition,, the dominant gene manifest
while the recessive gene is suppressed.
2) Genotype: This is the genetic make up or genetic constitution of
an organism. It is represented with letters AA, aa, ss, BB, Bb, Aa,
As e.t.c

3) Phenotype: This is the physical and physiological appearance of

individual. They are those character seen in individuals facially.
e.g. Tall, short, dark, fair e.t.c

4) Hybrid: This is a product or offspring got by crossing two parents

differing in one or more traits.

5) Alleles: Alleles are alternative genes for the same character. e.g.
In peaplant, the gene for tallness and the gene for shortness are
alleles (Tt).

6) Monohybrid Cross: This is a cross between parents in which

only one character is considered. e.g. An inheritance in which only
height (tall or short) is considered is a monohybrid cross.

7) Diploid: The diploid number of chromosome is the number of

chromosome the body cell of an organism. This is double the
haploid number of chromosome and is represented by 2n.

8) Haploid: The haploid number of chromosome is the number of

chromosome in the gamete of an organism. It is represented with
‘n’.
9) Gene locus: This is the site or location of gene on the
chromosome.
10) Back cross: To find out the genotype of each dominant character
of pea plant in the second filial generation (f 2), the usual practice
is to carry out a backcross. This is done by crossing ‘f 2’ phenotype
with a true breeding recessive parent.
11) Dihybrid Cross: This is a cross in which more than one character
is considered. It is usually two characters.

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 EVOLUTION
Evolution is the series of gradual changes living organisms have
undergone in the environment since the beginning of life resulting to
present day forms, structure and functions among organisms.

THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The theories of organic evolution involves three major ideas:
(1) All living organisms change from one generation to another
producing descendants with new modifications
(2) That this process has been operating since the beginning of life
resulting in different group and varieties of living organisms we
have today, those that once lived and has died away.
(3) That these different living organisms are related to each other in
one way or the other.
In general, the theories of evolution tries to account for how
evolution take place. i.e the mechanism of evolution.
Famous individuals have contributed greatly to this study and has
propounded notable theories among whom are:
(1) Jean Baptise Lamarc (1744-1829).
(2) Charles Dawarwin (1809-1882).

ROLES OF LAMARC IN EVOLUTION

Lamarc propounded the theory of evolution known as theory of
use and disuse or Lamarkism
According to Lamarckism, or theory of use and disuse,
(i) The environment makes an organism to have some needs.
(ii) In order to satisfy the needs, the organism may use an organ.
(iii) An organ that is frequently used develops
(iv) An organ that is not used degenerates.
(v) Characters acquired by an organism while satisfying the needs
created by the environment are inherited by offsprings.
In illustration of the theory of “the use” Lamarc explained how
giraffe has come to acquire long neck.
According to Lamarc, giraffe was an animal, and had need for food
as living organism and desired to satisfy that need by eating. In the
environment where the giraffe lived, there were other herbivorous
animals which ate up the available grass. The giraffe tried to browse the
top of trees. In order to do this successfully, the giraffe stretched it’s
neck again and again and again. As the giraffe sought to eat leaves on
the taller trees, it’s neck is stretched more and more. As a result, the
giraffe developed long neck and when it now give rise to offspring, the
offspring acquired the long neck.

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 The failure of this theory of “the use” is that if an individual is a
boxer and acquire big muscle, the big muscle are never inherited by the
children. Instead, inherited character are controlled by genes.
In explaining the theory of “disuse”, Lamarc stressed that the
domesticated fowl use to fly like other birds but at a time, the fowl
found it’s food abundantly on the ground surface and had no need to fly
to a distance to search for food.
For a long time, the fowl did not use it’s wings.
At a time, the fowl was frightened by a big snake and tried to fly
like before. It flew a short distance and fell. The fowl tried but it’s power
of flight has become degenerated. This is because it failed to use the
wing for a long time(disuse). When fowl gave rise to offsprings, they
acquire that character (unable to fly like others birds). This is why
domesticated fowl no longer fly like other birds today.

Note below
The theory of use and disuse implies that the environment act directly to
change on organism by bringing about specific changes which then
become inherited.

ROLES OF CHARLES DARWIN IN EVOLUTION

The theory of Darwin in evolution is known as “Origin of species by
natural selection” or Darwinisim. Darwin theory (Darwinism) states that:
I) Organisms bear more off springs than can survive and the size of
population tend to increase.
II) There is a struggle for survival among members of a population.
III) All members of a specie varies and the variation are inherited.
IV) There is the survival of the fittest and the elimination of the unfit.
V) There is a difference in contribution which different types of
individuals can make to succeeding generations.

Charles Darwin recognizes that variation appear and exist in a

population. In this theory, the environment acts on variation which are
already existing. Those organisms whose variations make them better
adapted to the environment would be selected by nature.
The effects of such natural selection is that selected individuals
would have more off springs in the next generation relative to the unfit
ones.
As the individuals with the selected variations increase in
proportion to the others, the characteristics of the selected variation
would become the standard for the specie.
The change can go on to the stage of producing new species.

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 MODERN THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
The modern theory of evolution makes use of present day
knowledge of genes and chromosomes to explain the source of genetic
variation upon which natural selection works. It also states that
although natural selection is the major force that produce adaptive
evolutionary change, other force, also play a role in evolution. These
forces are:
(i) Mutation
(ii) Isolation

1. ROLES OF MUTATION IN THE FORMATION OF NEW

SPECIES (MUTATION THEORY)
Mutation is the change in the order of gene in the chromosome
leading to sudden appearance of distinct traits. Mutation can only be
inherited when it occurs In the gene leading to production and
perpetuation of new species.

It occurs both in plants and animals. Mutation produced forms that

are usually different from the original species thereby giving rise to new
specified which also is an indication of evolution. Mutation may be
caused by X-rays, ultraviolet rays and diseases.

ROLES OF ISOLATION IN THE FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES

(ISOLATION THEORY)
When members of the same species are separated or isolated into
groups of population in such a way that they cannot meet to interbreed
over a long time, they are likely to develop differences in their genetic
make up. Such separations may be caused by barriers such as sea,
rivers, mountains etc. if it is possible for the population of the original
species to meet again, they may not be able to interbreed. In this case,
new forms or species that are entirely different from the original parents
may arise from isolated population. Even when the population were to
interbreed, their offsprings will not be fertile.

Wish you the best of luck

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