Aquaculture 497 (2018) 520–525

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Aquaculture
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aquaculture

Carbohydrate-to-lipid ratio in extruded diets for Nile tilapia farmed in net T

cages
⁎
Juliano José de Oliveira Coutinhoa, , Ligia Maria Neirab, Lidiane Cristina Gonçalves de Sandreb,
Jesaias Ismael da Costaa, Maria Inez Espagnoli Geraldo Martinsb, Maria Célia Portellaa,
Dalton José Carneiroa
a
Centro de Aquicultura da UNESP, Via de Acesso Professor Paulo Donato Castellane, S/N, 14884-900 Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias Campus Jaboticabal, Via de Acesso Professor Paulo Donato
Castellane, S/N, 14884-900 Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The study evaluated productive and economic performance, physiological parameters and nutritional efficiency
Economic cost in net cage-reared Nile tilapia fed extruded diets containing four carbohydrate (CHO) and lipid (LIP) ratios. The
Fat 1280 fish in the trial were sex-reversed male Nile tilapia from the Gift strain (157.54 ± 3.50 g). Fish were
Oreochromis niloticus randomly distributed into 16 net cages (1.0 m3), with 80 tilapias per cage. The four practical diets were for-
Starch
mulated with the same ingredients at different proportions of starch and soybean oil contained similar digestible
protein (251.40 g Kg−1), digestible energy (17.39 Mj Kg−1) and CHO:LIP ratios of: 3.89, 4.87, 6.14 and 7.83
(CHO35/LIP9, CHO39/LIP8, CHO43/LIP7 and CHO47/LIP6, respectively). The diets were provided four times a
day, for 120 days. Fish fed a CHO43/LIP7 diet exhibited the best productive performance, with 252.01% percent
weight gain (WG), 1.07 ± 0.028% daily specific growth rate (SGR) and 462.08 ± 5.06 g feed intake (FI). Fish
fed the CHO43/LIP7 diet also showed the highest gross energy retention efficiency (57.17 ± 4.16%) and LIP use
for weight gain (13.71 ± 1.47%). CHO39/LIP8 and CHO43/LIP7 diets produced the best economic performance,
with partial net income of US$ 75.27 and US$ 73.40, respectively.

1. Introduction energy sources, even though carbohydrates are not classified as essen-
tial growth products for fish (Kamalam et al., 2017; Hemre and Deng,
With worldwide aquaculture expansion, gradual changes have been 2015) and fish utilize carbohydrates less efficiently, likely reflecting the
made in fish farming systems. A strong intensification has increased natural diets in their respective habitats and hence enzymatic activity
based on improving technologies production. Nile tilapia is one of the (Wilson 1994). Lipids perform essential and dynamic role in growth and
most produced species in the world, with about four million tonnes health, neural and visual development, reproduction and quality of the
produced in 2015 (FAO, 2017). The production of fish in 2016 in Brazil fillet (Lim and Webster, 2001). The excess of lipids or carbohydrates in
was 507.12 thousand tonnes, and tilapia production was 239.09 thou- the diet impair lipid homeostasis and lead to excessive accumulation of
sand tonnes, representing 47.0% of the total fish production in the lipids in the liver of farmed fish, followed by slow growth, low survival
country (IBGE, 2016). rate and low resistance to pathogens (Li et al., 2016).
The Nile tilapia is distinguishable from other fish species by its fast The relative utilization of dietary carbohydrate varies between dif-
growth under intensive farming and higher survive rate (Veras, 2013). ferent fish species and is still not completely understood (Leenhouwers
Because of its excellent acclimatization capacity, the Nile tilapia can be et al. 2007). It has been shown that tilapia juveniles can utilize 46%
produced under different farming systems, exhibiting good productive corn starch in foods containing 29% protein and an energy/protein
performance under different environmental conditions. Farmers seek to ratio of 37.9 kJ g −1 without growth retardation, although the feed
produce low-fat fish with high fillet yields, the qualities required to containing 22% starch was ideal (Wang et al., 2005). The optimal level
meet consumer demands (Hisano and Portz, 2007). of 10% lipid in diet was adequate for growth of hybrid tilapia reared in
Carbohydrates are included in fish feed because they are less costly fresh water according to previous studies (El-Sayed and Garling, 1998;

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.J.d.O. Coutinho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.08.014
Received 25 February 2018; Received in revised form 30 July 2018; Accepted 9 August 2018
Available online 13 August 2018
0044-8486/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.J.d.O. Coutinho et al. Aquaculture 497 (2018) 520–525

of Aquatic Organism Nutrition of the São Paulo State University

(Unesp), Aquaculture Center of Unesp, and at the Laboratory of Animal
Nutrition of the School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences,
Jaboticabal, São Paulo.
Four experimental diets were formulated with different proportions
of the same ingredients in order to contain similar values of digestible
protein (250 g Kg−1) and approximately 14.64 Mj kg−1 of digestible
energy. The diets were produced with four CHO:LIP ratios: 3.89, 4.87,
6.14 and 7.83 (CHO35/LIP9, CHO39/LIP8, CHO43/LIP7 and CHO47/LIP6,
respectively) shown in Table 1. The experimental design was com-
pletely randomized with four dietary treatments, and four replicates
each.
The digestible nutrient and energy levels of diet were estimated
from the chemical analyses and digestibility coefficients of the in-
Fig. 1. Relationship between specific growth rate and water temperature of gredients, protein and energy digestible as described by Pezzato et al.
GIFT tilapia fed four experimental diets for 120 days. Data refer to fish reared in (2002) for Nile tilapia juveniles.
net cages housed within a 2000 m2 outdoor reservoir. Diet ingredients were finely ground and sieved in 0.9 mm mesh and
6-8 mm feed pellets were processed at the Feed Manufacturing Facility
Chou and Shiau, 1996). Although lipids and carbohydrates are avail- of the Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine School of UNESP,
able for fish, lipid metabolism is reported to be highly modulated by Jaboticabal, São Paulo.
dietary carbohydrates (He et al., 2015; Moro et al., 2015; Zhou et al.,
2015; Tran-Duy et al., 2008). 2.2. Sampling and analysis
There is no information about the exact carbohydrate-to-lipid (CHO:
Lip) ratio of Nile tilapia reared in net cages until now. The present study The fish from each cage were weighted at the beginning and end of
evaluated practical diets for Nile tilapia with different CHO:LIP ratios in the experiment. Fish productive performance of each cage was eval-
order to determine those that best meet the energy demands of fish uated by the survival rate, mean weight gain (WG), feed conversion
farmed in net cages. Diet efficiency was based on productive and eco- ratio (FCR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and specific growth rate
nomic performance, nutrient use efficiency and physiological para- (SGR), according to the following equations:
meters of the fish.
(final weight − initial weight) ⎤
WG, % = ⎡ × 100
⎢
⎣ initial weight ⎥
⎦
2. Material and methods
mean feed intake
FCR =
2.1. Experimental diets and design mean weight gain

mean weight gain

The study was performed for 120 days, in a reservoir measuring PER =
mean crude protein intake
approximately 2000 m2 with a depth of 2 m from fall to early winter. In
winter the temperature was acceptable but approaching the lower tol- ln final mean weight − ln initial mean weight
erable range for Nile (Fig. 1). Fish were held in 16 net cages with a SGR = × 100
time (days)
usable volume of 1 m3 (1.0 × 1.0 × 1.2 m) provided with feeder, ar-
ranged in two parallel lines positioned longitudinally to the pond, with Body composition was determined using 20 fish from an initial
eight cages per line. A paddle wheel aerator introduced between the sample and eight fish from each cage at the end of the experiment,
cages was activated from 7:30 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. Temperature and dis- totaling 32 fish per treatment. Fish underwent 24-h fasting before
solved oxygen were measured daily, in the morning and the afternoon, weighed and slaughtered according to the protocol approved by the
at a depth of 50 cm, while water pH, and electrical conductivity were Animal Ethics Committee (CEUA) and the National Council for the
measured weekly, in the morning (8 a.m.) and the afternoon (6 p.m.). Control of Animal Experimentation (CONCEA), (process no. 11394/15).
Water samples were collected every 15 days for ammonia, nitrate, and The fish were ground in a meat grinder and the samples freeze-dried
nitrite determination (Koroleff, 1976; Golterman et al., 1978; before being used to determine dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), fat
Mackereth et al., 1978). The average values observed for the chemical by the acid hydrolysis method and ash. Gross energy (GE) was de-
parameters of the water, morning and afternoon, were: dissolved termined in a Parr bomb calorimeter pump, according to A.O.A.C.
oxygen 5.27 ± 1.36 mg L−1 and 4.05 ± 0.23 mg L−1, pH 7.45 ± (2000) methods.
0.38 and 7.03 ± 0.32 and conductivity 63.06 ± 1.48 μSm/cm and Body composition and performance data were used to calculate the
64.42 ± 1.55 μSm/cm, respectively. The highest mean of dissolved protein productive value (PPV) and energy retention (ER), in addition
oxygen in the morning in the pond were due to the presence of paddle to crude protein weight gain (CPWG) and ether extract for weight gain
wheel aerator, which were turned on from 7:30 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. The (EEWG), as follows:
ammonia concentration of the pond was of 9.51 ± 5.58 mg L−1. The [(CPf x Wf) − (CPi x Wi)]
levels of nitrate and nitrite were 56.12 ± 17.86 mg L−1 and PPV(%) =
crude protein intake
× 100
1.57 ± 0.54 mg L−1, respectively.
The test was carried out using 1280 sex-reversed male Nile tilapia [(GEf x Wf) − (GEi x Wi)]
ER(%) = × 100
juveniles from the Gift strain, with initial weight of 157.5 ± 3.5 g. Fish gross energy intake
were kept at a density of 80 fish/m−3.
Fish were fed to satiety four times a day, at 8:30 a.m., 11:30 a.m., [(CPf × Wf) − (CPi × Wi)]
(CPWG) WG (%) = × 100
2:30 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. Daily feed intake was calculated as the differ- (final weight − initial weight)
ence between feed offered and feed uneaten, the diet portions provided
to each cage having been previously weighed. [(EEf × Wf) − (EEi × Wi)]
(EEWG) WG (%) = × 100
Ingredient nutrients and energy were determined at the Laboratory (final weight − initial weight)

521
J.J.d.O. Coutinho et al. Aquaculture 497 (2018) 520–525

Table 1
Formulas and composition of test diets.
Ingredients (g Kg−1) Diet

CHO35/LIP9 CHO39/LIP8 CHO43/LIP7 CHO47/LIP6

a
Poultry viscera meal 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00
Tilapia by-product mealb 35.50 35.50 35.50 35.50
Soybean mea c 278.00 257.00 213.00 58.50
Cornd 100.00 100.00 90.70 21.30
Wheat meale 100.00 94.00 92.00 20.00
Soybean oilf 29.00 32.60 34.00 28.90
Broken riceg 40.50 90.00 83.00 70.00
Rice mealh 200.50 100.00 12.50 0.00
Cottonseed meali 75.00 65.00 10.00 0.00
Starchj 1.00 62.50 189.00 397.50
Corn glutenk 1.00 30.00 105.00 226.00
Vitamin Cl 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Dicalcium phosphatem 36.00 31.00 33.00 34.00
Limestonen 16.00 15.50 15.40 18.00
Antifungal (Phylax®)o 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
Antioxidant (BHT)p 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Vitamin-mineral supplementq 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Lysiner 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.34
Methionines 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
Analyzed composition
Crude protein 281.10 280.00 279.80 280.10
Digestible proteint 251.40 251.50 256.40 259.80
Ether extract 90.50 80.00 69.90 60.10
Crude fiber 60.50 48.00 30.70 16.00
Ash 74.80 64.00 51.30 39.00
Nitrogen-free extract 350.90 390.10 430.00 470.00
Gross energy (Mj Kg−1) 17.39 17.42 17.51 17.74
Digestible energy (Mj Kg−1)t 14.71 14.67 14.62 14.94
CHO:LIP ratiou 3.89 4.87 6.14 7.83
Diets cost (U$$/100 Kg) 72.35 71.48 73.75 79.24

CHO: carbohydrate; LIP: lipid.

a
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras - SP, Protein = 635.1; Ether extract = 137.9; Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 20.24.
b
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras - SP, Protein = 541.4; Ether extract = 105.7; Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 17.06.
c
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 452.7; Ether extract = 18.4; Nitrogen-free extract = 292.6 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 17.45.
d
FCAV/UNESP, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 77.9; Ether extract = 48.1; Nitrogen-free extract = 726.3 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 16.76.
e
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 157.0; Ether extract = 40.4; Nitrogen-free extract = 571.0 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 17.14.
f
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Ether extract = 1000.0; Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 39.06.
g
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 82.2; Ether extract = 14.6; Nitrogen-free extract = 761.9 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 15.93.
h
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 116.8; Ether extract = 157.2; Nitrogen-free extract = 421.2 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 18.72.
i
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 448.8; Ether extract = 8.3; Nitrogen-free extract = 282.4 Crude energy(Mj.Kg−1) = 17.78.
j
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 63.7; Ether extract = 4.6; Nitrogen-free extract = 830.2 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 16.41.
k
Agromix, Jaboticabal – SP, Protein = 638.4; Ether extract = 47.3; Nitrogen-free extract = 178.8 Crude energy(Mj Kg−1) = 21.93.
l
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
m
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
n
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
o
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
p
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
q
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras - SP; Each 1% contains: folic acid (1 mg); pantothenic acid (20 mg); antioxidant (125 mg); choline (150 mg); copper (10 mg); iron
(100 mg); iodine (5 mg); manganese (70 mg); selenium (0.15 mg); vitamin A (3,000 IU kg−1); vitamin B (16 mg); vitamin B12 (20 mg); vitamin B2 (8 mg); vitamin B6
(3 mg); vitamin C (350 mg); vitamin D3 (3000 IU kg−1); vitamin E (200 IU kg−1); vitamin K (6 mg); zinc (150 mg); niacin (100 mg); biotin (0.10 mg).
r
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
s
Nutreco Brasil Pitangueiras – SP.
t
Calculated based on Pezzato et al., (2002).
u
The carbohydrate and lipid ratios were calculated as follows: CHO:LIP ration = Nitrogen-free extract/Ether extract.

where: including the viscerosomatic fat index (VSFI), hepatosomatic index

CPF, GEF, EEF: final crude protein, gross energy and ether extract in (HSI) and liver glycogen. After evisceration, the fat and liver were re-
the carcass. moved from the viscera, weighed, and used in the following equations:
CPI, GEI, EEI: initial crude protein, gross energy and ether extract in
liver weight
the carcass. HSI (%) = × 100
fish weight
ICP, ICE: total protein and energy intake.
Wi, WF: initial and final body weight. visceral fat weight
Four others fish per cage were individually weighed and dissected to VSFI (%) = × 100
fish weight
obtain liver and intraperitoneal fat samples for body condition indices

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J.J.d.O. Coutinho et al. Aquaculture 497 (2018) 520–525

Table 2
Mean values of productive performance parameters nutrient and energy efficiency (mean ± sd) in Nile tilapia fed extruded diets with different carbohydrate-to-lipid
ratios (expressed as dry matter percentage) per 120 days.
3.89 (CHO35/LIP9) 4.87 (CHO39/LIP8) 6.14 (CHO43/LIP7) 7.83 (CHO47/LIP6) CV (%) ANOVAa Linear trenda Quadratic trenda

WG(%) 230.15 ± 9.78 b 248.47 ± 4.18 a 252.01 ± 11.87 a 247.60 ± 0.88 a 3.26 0.0001 0.0018 0.0001
FI(g) 452.21 ± 6.36 b 464.82 ± 6.37 b 462.08 ± 5.06 b 422.53 ± 5.64 a 1.31 1.41 × 10−6 3.55 × 10−6 6.38 × 10−6
FCR 1.27 ± 0.01 c 1.18 ± 0.01 b 1.17 ± 0.05 b 1.10 ± 0.03 a 2.61 6.29 × 10−5 9.12 × 10−6 0.3690
PER 2.82 ± 0.03 b 3.01 ± 0.04 a 3.05 ± 0.11 a 3.24 ± 0.07 a 2.59 5.98 × 10−5 7.5 × 10−6 0.5481
PPV(%) 43.15 ± 2.86 44.30 ± 5.24 43.33 ± 3.18 48.26 ± 3.98 8.76 0.2700 0.106 0.383
ER (%) 47.65 ± 5.50 b 55.13 ± 1.57 ab 57.17 ± 4.16 a 56.33 ± 1.76 a 6.74 0.0114 0.0084 0.0236
CPWG (%) 17.17 ± 1.32 16.79 ± 1.79 15.75 ± 1.54 15.82 ± 0.99 8.79 0.4400 0.1550 0.5650
EEWG (%) 11.40 ± 0.84 b 11.96 ± 0.79 ab 13.71 ± 1.47 a 13.83 ± 1.04 a 8.39 0.0148 0.0030 0.3060
GLYH(%) 6.05 ± 1.11 6.54 ± 0.53 5.73 ± 0.37 5.63 ± 0.55 11.48 0.1670 0.2413 0.7045
HSI (%) 1.71 ± 0.15 b 1.85 ± 0.17 b 2.43 ± 0.25 a 2.61 ± 0.27 a 9.95 0.0001 1.86 × 10−5 0.3770
VSFI (%) 3.89 ± 0.43 b 3.77 ± 0.43 b 4.93 ± 0.52 a 5.12 ± 0.09 a 9.10 0.0006 0.0001 0.7476

WG: weight gain; FI: mean feed intake; FCR: feed conversion ratio; PER: protein efficiency ratio; PPV: Protein productie value; ER: Energy retention; CPWG: crude
protein weight gain; EEWG: ether extract weight gain; GLYH: hepatic glycogen HSI: hepatosomatic index; VSFI: viscerosomatic fat index. Means followed by a same
letter in a line do not differ statistically (Tukey's test, P > 0.05). CV: coefficient of variation.
a
(Pr > F) Significance probability associated with the F-statistic.

The livers collected were wrapped in aluminum foil and stored at 3. Results
−80 °C. Liver glycogen levels were determined according to the
method proposed by Perry et al., 1988. All the productive parameters of the Nile tilapia assessed showed
significant differences as a function of the CHO:LIP ratios evaluated
(Table 2) and the survival was 100% for all dietary treatments.
2.3. Statistical analysis Mean percent WG was the lowest in the treatment with a CHO: LIP
ratio of 3.89, reaching 230,15% (Table 2). The other CHO:LIP ratios did
Normality of data errors and homoscedasticity of variances were not have significant difference, having superior percent weight gain.
tested (Cramer Von-Mises and Brown Forsythe test, respectively) before The increased CHO: LIP ratios in diets improved the mean SGR of
data were subjected to analysis of variance. Data were also analyzed by the fish until 6.14 and a low in the highest ratio. The others ratio did
the quadratic polynomial regression model, and when differences were not differ statistically. The best FCR mean (1.10) was produced by the
non-significant, data means were compared by the Tukey test at 0.05 diet with the highest CHO content (CHO:LIP ratio of 7.83), possibly
error probability. Statistical analyses were conducted using the 3.2.0 R because fish from this treatment exhibited lowest feed intake, with si-
Project for Statistical Computing (Copyright (©) 2015 The R milar growth of CHO39/LIP7 and CHO43/LIP7 (Table 2). The high CHO
Foundation for Statistical Computing) (R Core Team, 2015). level (47% nitrogen-free extract) may have been excessive for Nile ti-
lapia feed intake in net-cages.
In the present study, the lower CHO: LIP ratio in diet (3.89) pro-
2.4. Economic evaluation
moted the lowest PER mean. Increasing CHO: LIP ratios, fish showed
PER mean with higher utilization of dietary protein. (Table 2).
Assessment of economic performance was based on the partial cost
The ER and EEWG mean values were higher (P < 0.05) in fish fed
analysis described by Tung (1990) and Shang (1990). This procedure
diets with a higher CHO:LIP ratio (6.14 and 7.83) (Table 2).
consists of analyzing the partial costs and incomes of a proposed
The hepatosomatic (HSI) and viscerosomatic fat (VSFI) indexes were
business as a function of operational adjustments, considering that
different for the various treatments (P < 0.05), with higher mean va-
possible alterations over the production period analyzed do not require
lues for CHO:LIP ratios of 6.14 and 7.83 (Table 3). HSI is sensitive in
the application of a global budget to adjust a production protocol.
detecting energy availability in fish. In the present study, an increase in
The cost variables related to the feed (mean feed intake x feed price
HSI was likely caused by glycogen or LIP deposition, given the excess of
per kilogram), labor (hours of feeding x hourly labor cost) and fish
diet digestible energy. Hepatic glycogen did not differ among the
purchases (fish price x stocking density) were calculated first. To assess
treatments (Table 2), but the CHO:LIP ratios of 6.14 and 7.83 increased
the economic impact of the diets, a market price survey was carried out
HSI mainly due to the rise in liver fat.
to obtain ingredient prices from three feed manufacturing companies in
The cost of 100 kg of feed calculated for the test diets described in
the state of São Paulo. Calculations of business input considered 15 min
Table 1, was US$ 72.35 for CHO35/LIP9, US$ 71.48 for CHO39/LIP8, US
per feeding time and one hour total per day, the amount of feed re-
$ 73.75 for CHO43/LIP7 and US$ 79.24.42 for CHO47/LIP6. In addition,
quired for a production cycle, in days, and the unit labor cost of US$
a fixed value of US$ 0.2144 per feed kilogram was included in feed
2.05 an hour, based on the minimum monthly wage in São Paulo state
costs to cover expenses with processing and packing. The treatment
(US$ 345.37), plus 43% social contributions for 220 working hours a
with the lowest CHO:LIP ratio (3.89) had the lowest partially effective
month. The incomes were calculated by multiplying the final biomass
operational cost (US$ 194.71) but exhibited the lowest weight gain in
yield of each treatment (4 x 1m3) by the sales price per live fish kilo-
fish and the lowest net income, while the CHO39/LIP8 and CHO43/LIP7
gram, which was set at US$ 1.53, the mean price for direct sale to fish
treatments (CHO:LIP ratios of 4.87 and 6.14, respectively) yielded the
processing plants. All amounts were quoted in R$ and converted into
highest partial net income (75.27 and 73.40, respectively) (Table 3).
American dollars at the January 2018 conversion rate of R$ 1.00 = US$
The chemical parameters of water quality remained within the levels
0.3063.
considered adequate for fish development (Sipaúba-Tavares, 2013). The
Based on feed, labor and fish purchase costs, in addition to income
ammonia concentration remained below the critical level of 1.0 mg L−1
from sales to fish processing plants, the partial net income calculated
(Boyd, 1982). The nitrate levels were within the range recommended by
corresponds to the gross income subtracted from feed, labor and fish
Boyd (1990), below 5000 μg L−1 and the acceptable maximum value of
purchase costs. The partial net income was calculated as follows:
the nitrite concentration in a culture is 1.0 mg L−1. (Pádua, 1993, re-
Partial Net Income = Gross Income − Partial Cost (feed, labor and fish ) ported by Salvador et al., 2003). The study was performed from fall to

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Table 3
Costs (US$) of feed, labor and fish for Nile tilapia farming in a 4m3 tank for 120 days and income indicators according to dietary treatment (US$/4m3*) and price for
direct sales to fish processing plants, in January 2018.
Costs CHO35/LIP9 CHO39/LIP8 CHO43/LIP7 CHO47/LIP6

Amount Unit cost Total cost Amount Unit cost Total cost Amount Unit cost Total cost Amount Unit cost Total cost

Expenses
Feed (Kg) 144.71 0.72 104.70 148.04 0.71 105.81 147.32 0.74 108.65 135.21 0.79 107.14
Labor (hours of feeding) 15.60 2.24 35.02 15.60 2.24 35;02 15.60 2.24 35.02 15.60 2.24 35.02
54.99
Fish purchase 320.00 0.17 54.99 320.00 0.17 54.99 320.00 0.17 54.99 320.00 0.17 54.99
Income
Mean fish price (US$/kg) 1.53 1.53 1.53 1.53
Yield (kg/4m3,a) 165.69 176.96 177.60 174.40
Partial effective operational cost (US$.4m3) 194.71 195.82 198.67 197.15
Gross income (US$/4m3) 253.82 271.09 272.07 267.17
Partial net income (US$/4m3) 59.12 75.27 73.40 70.02

Partial Net Income = Gross Income–Partial Cost (feed, labor and fish ).

a
A junction between replicates was performed to better represent the partial economy analysis. The value of 4 m3 represents four net cage of 1 m3 each.

early winter, with temperature dropping to the limit of the fish accep- the ratio of 7.83. In Piaractus mesopotamicus, Abimorad and Carneiro
table but approaching the lower tolerable range for Nile tilapia and may (2007) found the best FCR (2.5) using diets with 50% CHO and 8% LIP.
affect fish feed intake and specific growth rate decline (Fig. 1). Vásquez-Torres and Arias-Castellanos (2013) found the best FCR (1.08)
with 360 g kg−1 of CHO in the diet of Piaractus brachypomus
4. Discussion (7.8 ± 0.49 g) juveniles. In general, herbivorous or omnivorous fish
have a greater ability to use dietary carbohydrates than carnivorous fish
The diets were acceptable by tilapia independent of the variability (Hidalgo et al., 1999), possibly because of higher amylase activity and
in CHO/LIP ratios. This indicated that both carbohydrates and lipids receptor affinity for insulin (Banos et al., 1998). Warm water fish are
were used within the levels for optimally growth. generally more efficient in the use of dietary carbohydrates than cold
Carbohydrates and lipids are important sources of non-protein en- water fish (Wilson, 1994). Tilapias are a warm-water, omnivorous fish
ergy for fish nutrition and are widely used in aquaculture species that can use levels of digestible carbohydrates as high as 40% in
(Boonanuntanasarn et al., 2018, Kamalam et al., 2017, Xie et al., 2017, their diets (Wang et al., 2005).
García-Meilán et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014, Gao et al., 2009, This study, with practical diets, the best PER was found in fish fed
Erfanullah and Jafri, 1999). The carbohydrate and lipids have the diets with 390 g Kg−1 carbohydrate. In a study on the performance of
function/are used to spare protein for growth or muscle deposition. hybrid tambacu (Colossoma macropomum X Piaractus mesopotamicus),
We observed an increase in percent WG when the CHO:LIP ratio Carneiro et al. (1994) obtained the best PER with 45% CHO combined
increased. On the other hand, the SGR increased until 6.14 CHO/LIP with the lowest energy level (16.32 MJ kg−1), showing high efficiency
ratio. In previous studies on Nile tilapia, acceptable CHO:LIP ratios in the use of this nutrient as an energy source. Meurer et al. (2002)
have been reported to range from 2.06 to 4.95 (Ali and Al-Asgah, reported that the PER was reduced as the lipid level in the diet in-
2001), smaller value compared to our results. Erfanullah and Jafri creased, which demonstrates that the effect of lipid in sparing protein
(1999) observed higher WG and higher SGR for Catla catla and Labeo from the diet to energy production (Lovell, 1989). Corroborating with
rohita in a CHO:LIP ratio of 8.93, but for Cirrhinus mrigal, the best our founding a maximum mean of PER with diets containing 360 g kg−1
performance was observed for fish fed diets with CHO:LIP ratio 3.38. In of carbohydrates was found in the study by Vásquez-Torres and Arias-
Catla catla, however, an increase in diet LIP above 4% decreased growth Castellanos (2013), indicating that the higher levels of this nutrient
(Seenappa and Devaraj, 1995). In a study on Piaractus brachypomus, contributed significantly to increase the efficiency of the use of proteins
Vásquez-Torres et al. (2002) studied nine isoprotein diets (32%), diets for Piaractus brachypomus. Tilapia fed low lipid high CHO/LIP
combining 20, 28 and 36% CHO and 4, 8 and 12% LIP, and found a ratio diets metabolized less protein to meet their energy needs than fish
significant growth decline when LIP levels increased from 8 to 12%. fed the diets with low CHO/LIP ratio in diets, resulting in higher dietary
Anderson et al. (1984) also observed that growth rates of Nile tilapia protein retention in tissues.
were improved with increasing carbohydrate levels in the diets from 0 Even with increased CHO:LIP ratios there were no significant dif-
to 40%. These results indicate that the carbohydrate utilization varies ferences between the means of protein productive value and crude
among fish species and the 47% of carbohydrate was close to the limit protein weigth gain (CPWG). What were expected in this study, because
that tilapia could use. It was possible to increase the levels of 4.87 CHO: the diets were isoprotein. However, an increase in CHO:LIP ratio from
LIP ratio to 7.83 CHO:LIP ratio without compromising growth. 6.14 to 7.83 improved fish ER and VSFI. Even attributing the fact that
Corroborating with in this study Abimorad and Carneiro (2007) they have the same metabolic function, both are energy sources, the
suggested the use of 46% nitrogen-free extrac in diets with 4% LIP, diets with high CHO/LIP ratios stored more visceral fat. The liver is
which can be increased to 50% CHO and 8% LIP without compromising considered a preeminent organ of lipogenesis in fish (Segner and Böhm,
growth in pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) diets. For herbivorous and 1994), such that a portion of the absorbed carbohydrates, which is not
omnivorous freshwater fish species Li et al., 2014, also suggested that used for energy, is converted and stored in the liver as lipid.
the fish would utilize better dietary carbohydrate if there was a re- To maximize fish growth there must be a balance between carbo-
duction in dietary lipid content. hydrates and lipids and therefore, carbohydrates should be provided as
The feed conversion ratio (FCR) observed in this study varied ac- cheaper sources of energy and lipid to supply fatty acids requirements
cording to the CHO: LIP ratios, with the best feed conversion ratio being (Ng and Romano, 2013).

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J.J.d.O. Coutinho et al. Aquaculture 497 (2018) 520–525

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Acknowledgments Li, A., Yuan, X., Liang, X.-F., Liu, L., Li, J., Li, B., Fang, J., Li, J., He, S., Xue, M., Wang, J.,
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