Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge is the ingredient that propels development and success. It is the key to successful
living and development of a nation. It is indispensible in any field of human endeavour as it
determines its success or otherwise whether in formal education or in other informal ways. There
are two basic types of knowledge. One either knows something or knows where to find it. For the
one that knows, there is no need to seek for what has already been known. Although knowledge is
not static and as such, there is always a need to keep pace with development in what is known. But
for the one who does not know, there is a need to seek for knowledge.

Generally, there are two ways of seeking for knowledge. The first way is seeking for knowledge in
a formal way. This simply means seeking for formal education. Formal education is the knowledge
one acquires in classroom setting or in an environment close to the classroom situation. Informal
education is said to be received through daily activities, practice and experience. However, the
library is indispensible in both ways of seeking for knowledge. The library can be of assistance to
those in schools or colleges by providing information already written by others. The library can
also be of assistance to those who are not necessarily in school to answer some of their questions.
In this situation, the library serves as an organ or the process of studying or acquiring knowledge.

DEFINITION OF THE LIBRARY

Libraries play vital role in the world’s system of education and information storage and retrieval.
They make available through books, journals, films, recordings and other media, knowledge that
has been accumulated through the ages. Large number of people in all works of life (scholars,
scientists, teachers, business executives, and government officials’ e.t.c.) use library resources in
their activities. Many people also turn to library to satisfy a desire for knowledge or to obtain
materials for leisure. In addition, a large number of people enjoy film shows, lectures, book
discussion, e.t.c that is provided by libraries. Further, library plays a vital role in preserving
society’s cultural heritage. In other words, the library is the citadel of learning or nerve centre of
any academic institution. It is an important aspect in educational development of man at any level
of his academic pursuit.

From the foregoing, a library (derived from the Latin word liber meaning books) is a collection of
written, printed, or other graphic and visual materials including films, photographs, phonographs,
1
tapes, records video cassette, disc, microforms and computer programmes (software) organized
and maintained for reading, study and interpreted to meet broad and varying need of people for
information, knowledge, recreation and aesthetic enjoyment.

It is important for the users to know that libraries have passed through a series of historical
developmental processes. During these processes, various kinds of definitions have been given to
the library with respect of its original aims. The main aim was the preservation of records (not
original books) which were made up of the written history, culture, knowledge of humanity at
various times. The libraries were depositories and warehouses of knowledge. Wealthy rulers and
renowned scholars in the societies owned them. In modern times, the aims of libraries have
changed, becoming more faceted and multifarious libraries are now agents of education, social,
economic and political revolution and are accessible to all that require their services. This means
that the library is now a place entrusted with the acquisition, organization, preservation, storage,
retrieval and dissemination of information.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIBRARIES

The history of libraries as agencies of communication reveals a variety of roles that have shaped
and reshaped them. They serve as archives, preserving church and state records. Later they become
museums of bookish treasures; they also served as laboratories for scholars only. Before the
medieval period, books and treasure were chained to desk and tables. Library users then were
compelled to sit in library to read whatever text they required. Books then were not borrowed.
Later, libraries became devoted to serving. Information requirements and reading materials were
maintained and consulted. But today, the library is a place where information and study needs are
satisfied. The users are not necessarily confined to the materials that are available in the library.
This means libraries now seek for materials outside their confine to satisfy their users. This also
means that staff are now specifically trained to cater for need of users whether the library materials
required are in the library or not. And unlike in the past, modern methods are now being used in
libraries to store, access, and disseminate information. Also, book form is no longer the only
means of recording, storing and disseminating information. Today, library materials include fiches,
discs educational tapes, films, CD-ROMs e.t.c

The development of libraries could be traced to the early civilization of Greece, Egypt, Rome and
other. The civilizations of these countries formed the bedrock of modern libraries.

2
By 3200 B.C the Egyptians, hieroglyphic writings were used. Then symbols and monuments with
inscriptions, which contained messages, were used. Scrolls have also been discovered in the tombs
of some Egyptians rulers, which provided concrete evidence of writing at that time. In Tigris and
Euphrates valleys, the Sumerians also developed their own types of writing, the cuneiforms,
produced a substantial number of literature which where on clay tablets. The Babylonians,
especially, Hammurabi, a very great ruler also made an immense contribution to writing and
development of libraries. Further, the Phoenician who occupied parts of Israel, Syria and Lebanon
also contributed to the development of libraries.

By the 15th century BC, the Greek developed a form of writing, which was patterned after that of
the Phoenicians. They used papyrus and parchments to produce several literatures. Private
libraries, which existed in Greece, were later taken over by Romans as spoils of wars “Capture”
Library collections and educated Greeks were taken as slaves to establish and organized private
libraries in Rome. During the 39 BC a library was established by Aventine Hill. Octavian and
Palatine were also established. Around 106 BC, Cicero established a library in his village and
made remarkable contributions to the development of libraries. From 400 AD, many libraries were
destroyed by wars and Natural disasters, especially volcanoes and earthquakes. Many years after,
archaeologists discovered some works and manuscripts, which were buried in debris. At this time,
the monks tried to preserve the Bible, poetry, drama, politics and works of great men. Monasteries
also had libraries, which were used by the public.

Another group of people who made appreciable contribution to writing and development of
libraries were the Chinese. Everything on which librarianship is based seems to have originated
from China. Ink was said to have long invented in China before it was made in ancient Egypt. The
art of printing from movable types was also known to be in practice in China centuries before it
was reinvented, in the west. In addition, the Chinese have had libraries for not less than 3,250
years. Their first “book” consisted of about 17,000 specimens of shells, bearing strange
inscriptions and dating form about 1300BC. These were found in a pit in 1936 along with a single
human skeleton believed to be the librarian of the Tortoise shell library.

The emergence of Universities also contributed remarkably to the development of libraries. These
early Universities were in Bologna, Pauda, Prague, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge. They
contributed to the generation of knowledge through production and preservation of reading
materials by their scholars.

3
The inventions of printing machine by John Gutenberg around 1450 featly contributed to the
development of libraries too. Gutenberg’s invention made it possible to produce copies of books in
large quantities, making the laborious ways of book production in the past obsolete.

In 1800, the library of congress was established in Washington, DC the library serves as a
reference collection to the members of congress. The building of the library was completed in
1897 with a capacity for over 3 million volumes of books.

Other interesting developments of libraries were Bilbliotheque Nation ale, the National library of
France, which was established around 1367, the British Museum, which is the National Library of
England, was established in 1759. In addition, the development of libraries in Nigeria began in
Lagos in the late 1920s when the Lagos book club was formed. Eventually in 1932, the Lagos
library was inaugurated. In 1943 British council library was opened, and the National Library of
Nigeria was opened to the public in 1964.

OBJECTIVES OF THE LIBRARY

The main objective of any library is to ensure that its user’s needs are meet within the shortest
possible time. This mean that, the usefulness of any library collection depend upon the ease and
speed with which books and other library materials can be located and use when required. To this
end, books are shelved according to some pre-determined classification and relation. The library
also arranges its collection in such a way that they can be located as easily as possible. Usually, the
library has a special place where information on its collection can be found. This is the catalogue.
Libraries now use computers to produces and store the catalogue of their resources.

In addition, libraries provide sitting facilities for readers who want to take note. Library staff are
also readily available to help users make efficient use of the library; attend to users’ problems and
reshelf consulted books in their proper positions. There are other staff who work behind the scene
that the readers may not see. These staff is mostly in the technical services where they arrange for
library materials to be acquired and processed, classified and catalogued for use. Other staff
attends to administrative and financial commitment of the library.

From all these services rendered, it can therefore be appreciated that libraries imagine user’s needs
and try as much as possible to satisfy these needs.

4
PURPOSE OF THE LIBRARY

There are many types or categories of library users some users read to pursue a designed course.
Others need the library to broaden or enlarge their knowledge and horizon, while other need
information for trade and commerce. And yet others need the library for recreational purposes.
From these various needs of the users, one can then say that the purpose of a library is to meet
these varied needs of its users. For example, meeting the educational needs of students of Ashi
Polytechnic Anyiin Logo Local Government, Benue State. The lecturers have taught some courses,
which have been arrange in series of lectures, and each lecture takes about an hour and above. The
purpose of Ashi Polytechnic library will be to accelerate the possibility of the students studying
individually on their own most of the time in order to enrich what has been taught. In this regard,
one of the main purposes of Ashii Polytechnic library is to meet the educational needs of its
students and lecturers.

On the other hand, the library meets the recreational needs of its users by providing materials to
occupy their leisure times or to while always the times. Another purpose of the library is to serve
the needs of the business men who may require information on trade or commerce to promote their
business. Yet other purpose the library is to meet the research needs of its users such as in any
academic library. In general, therefore, the purpose of library is to meet the varying, specific,
imagined or define needs of their users, that is to satisfy the information needs of its users.

5
 Chapter Two

TYPES OF LIBRARIES

INTRODUCTION

Generally, libraries provide information services to their users. How this is achieved
depends mainly on the purpose of such a library. In other words, the type of services a
library offers to its clientele depends on the objectives for the establishment of such a
library. This is the main reason why libraries are classified according to the types of
services they render and the types of clientele they serve. In general term, libraries are
categorized as Academic, Public, National, School, Special and Private Libraries. Let us,
examine briefly each of these libraries in terms of their objective, services and clientele.

(1) Academic Libraries

The Libraries in this category include libraries in institutions of higher learning such as the
Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education, and Colleges of Technology etc. These
Libraries are mainly established for research, teaching and study purposes. They are meant
to serves communities of their respective institutions. This is the main reason why these
libraries try as much as possible to develop their holdings or collections in all areas or
courses offered by their various institutions for instance, in the Universities, emphasis is
placed on research teaching and studies. So, there is a lot of concentration on the
acquisitions of materials that contain information like journals and other sources of current
materials.

Services offered by academic libraries include lending, reference inter-library loans, short
term loans collections and provision of materials on special areas. These specialized
collection help researches in areas other than those in the general collection.

Academic libraries are restricted to a greater extent to only students, staff and the members
of the academic community. This means evidences of being a student or a staff is required
before registration and permission to use the library is granted. In most academic libraries,
users must be registered with the library before taking any material out on loan.

6
ORGANIZATION OF THE ACADEMIC LIBRARY

An ideal academic library can be divided into the following departments for administration
purpose. The division of a library into units varies from one library to another and may depend on
a number of variables such as the size of the library and its users; the general pattern is as follows:

(a) Administration Department

This department is usually the university Librarian’s office or the polytechnic Librarian’s, the
college Librarian’s office as the case may be is where all the administrative matters in the library
in conjunction with other departments are handled in cooperation with other top management staff
when necessary.
The administration department prepares and administers budget, staff discipline, administering
policies and regulation. The University, Polytechnic Librarian’s or college Librarian as the case
may be is the principal officer of the institution and a member of the Academic Board or the
senate. He is responsible to the vice chancellor, Rector or Provost. He oversees to day-to-day
running of the library with the assistance of other heads of units in the library.
(b) Technical Department
Both the collection development and cataloging and classification unit work here “behind the
scene” workers in this section are said to be behind the scene because they have rare contacts with
users. This department handles services in the library that are technical in nature. The department
is made up of acquisition/collection development section which is responsible for the procurement
and processing of books. Also in this department is the cataloging section which takes care of
cataloging and classification of books.
Bindery activities also take place in the technical department. This is where damage or
mutilated books are bound or repaired.
(c) Serial/Periodical Department
This refers to journals, magazines. Newspapers, annuals, monograph, research reports and
proceedings. A serial is a publication issued in successive parts and intended to be
continued indefinitely. It is a periodical publication appearing at regular or irregular
intervals, some on daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly basis. It is more current than
a book.

7
(d) Readers service Department
This department ensures that all books and other information source that have been fully
processed are displayed for consultation by library clientele. This department provides
services directly to the readers.
It is the department that fully interacts with readers’ in terms of providing information to
any other department in the library. It also handles photocopying at moderate charges. The
department is also made up of the reserve book Section. circulation section reference
section, and the audio-visual sections
(i) Reserve Book Section

Reservation of library materials is very common in academic and school libraries.

There are some documents that may be reserved for use only in the library because
clientele heavily use them or they are high risk books that could be stolen or
mutilated if they are kept on the shelves. Such books are placed on reserve in order
to ensure that the readers who need those books have equal access to them. Books
placed on reserve at the discretion of the librarian are books on high demand but
with limited number of copies.

(ii) Circulation Unit:

Some activities that take place in circulation unit include;
 Registration: This is the process through which readers become recognized
and acceptable members of the library. It is done by filling forms and
issuance of borrowers tickets with which members can obtain books for
specific period and identity cards.
 Charging of Books: Keeping records of books on loan.
 Discharging Books: Receiving from readers, books that were loaned to them
but which are returned.
 Overdue Book: A borrowed Library book, which has been retained by users
longer than the time allowed.
 Overdue Notice: This is the process of issuing a notice to a reader asking
him to return books he borrowed but kept longer than the period allowed.

8
  Date-Due-Slip: This is a slip in a book, which indicates when a book is due
for return.
 Recall Notice: It is a notice sent to a reader requesting for the return of a
book loaned to him but which is needed in the library.
 Preparation of clearance for staff and student.
 The unit also maintains the bookshelves and properly shelves and shelve-
read books. This allows for the proper arrangement of books in their logical
position on shelve in the library.
(iii) Reference Section
A reference unit consists of a core collection of quick materials as well as other
general information sources equally deemed to be important for user’s consultation.
Reference tools on the other hand consist of a collection of bound information used
for definite piece of information arranged in some definite order usually
alphabetically, chronologically e.t.c their arrangement facilitates its easy retrieval
thereby saving the time of readers.
The quick reference materials which form the nucleus of these types of library
include dictionaries, indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, maps and atlases, gazetteer,
Encyclopedia almanacs e.t.c.
(iv) Audio-Visual Unit:
This is where the acquisition of non-print materials storage, arrangement, viewing,
video coverage and photographic services are carried out.
(e) Research and Documentation Department:
This Department houses collection like all books that are reference in nature,
duplicate copies of journals, government publications, (local and international bodies)
thesis, dissertation, project work, conference/Seminar papers and publication of other
institutions. It offers conducive reading environment for lecturers and researchers.
(f) Information and communication Technology Department:
The development and application of information technology has further facilitated
our access to information on a global scale and has made the Universal Availability of
Publications (UAP) a reality. One only needs to be logged onto the internet to search and
obtain the needed information from any part of the world with a relatively short time. This
section handles all cases relating to computerization, electronic massages and a variety of
other electronic and Internet services in the library.
9
(2) SCHOOL LIBRARIES

As the name implies, these are libraries in schools they include nursery, primary, secondary
schools, teacher training colleges and technical schools. These are like academic libraries,
but without any emphasis on research. This means, school libraries are established mainly
for studies and learning. Also their book collections are mostly on the subjects taught in
their respective schools. Unlike the academic libraries their clientele are mainly the
students and teachers of those particular schools.

The services rendered by school libraries include reference services and lending. An
important aspect of school libraries is that, time is usually allocated on the timetable for
pupils and student to go to the library where the librarian and their teachers guide them in
the use of the library. This practice helps pupils and students to get exposed to library
services and also help to inculcate reading habits in them.

(2) SPECIAL LIBRARIES

These referred to libraries established mainly to serve the staff of particular organizations
that specialize in certain research and other endeavours. Libraries in this category are
mostly established in the field of science, technology, social science e.t.c. For this reason,
these libraries include those established in specialized research institutes, industries,
factories, e.t.c. They therefore, provide mainly current materials, especially journals in their
respective specialized fields to meet the information needs of their organization. In order
words, special libraries provide information meant to assist towards the realization of the
organizational objectives of their respective organization.
The use of special libraries is restricted. The users mostly come in to pick specific
information; hence their emphasis is on Selective Dissimilation of Information (S D I) or
current awareness services.

10
(3) PRIVATE LIBRARIES
These refer to libraries that are established, by individuals for their private use. Some of
these libraries are in particular area of interest of their owners, while others are on several
or general discipline.
Libraries in this category are not common because of their patrons. They are more
restricted than any other types of library. Therefore, the regulations guiding their use
depend solely on their owners.
(4) NATIONAL LIBRARIES

This is a statutory government establishment, responsible for collection and preserving the
printed output of a country. National Libraries are maintained by Federal Government
bodies, academic institutions and the entire citizens of the nations. National Library builds
its collection from books and other materials submitted by publishers in the process of
registering their copyright. This is also called the Legal Deposit Right (LDR) of the library.
As the apex library, National Libraries direct, controls and coordinates various activities of
other libraries in the country. The principal function of a National Library is to serve as the
depository of all copyright publications within a country. This facilitates the publication by
the library by the National bibliography of a country on an annual basis. It is also expected
that National Libraries should collect all foreign literature pertinent to the country.
Publishers, authors, all government agencies and other corporate bodies in a country are by
law mandated to deposit copies of all their publications with the National Library. The
legal deposit law usually specifies the number of copies to be deposited with the National
Library. For example, in Nigeria, twenty-five copies of all federal government publications,
ten copies of state publications and three copies of all commercial publications must be
deposited with National Library of Nigeria. As a precaution, to ensure that the national
heritage is not lost in case of fire and other disasters, a back-up copy of all publications
deposited at the National Library of Nigeria is always deposited with the University of
Ibadan library. The National Library of Nigeria published annually National Bibliography
of Nigeria (NBN).

OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL LIBRARIES

(a) Provide referral services

(b) They control and coordinate the activities of other libraries

11
 (c) They compile national bibliography
(d) Serve as the national information centre and national bibliographic centre
(e) Serve as the recipient of all copyright publications within a country hence they are
in change of copyright law also asign International Standard Book Number (I S B
N) and International Standard Series Number (I S S N).
(f) To advise the federal government of its own country matters relating to library and
librarianship.
(5) PUBLIC LIBRARIES
These are libraries that are established with the main aim of serving the general public─
adults, children, handicapped, literate and non-literate, e.t.c for this reason, the public
libraries; collections cover all areas of knowledge. In other words, their collections try as
much as possible to satisfy information needs of every profession and infact all activities in
the society where the library is established. It is because of their wide and comprehensive
collections that they are often referred to as the “people” Universities.
Public libraries are involved in direct and behind-the-scene services. The behind-the-scene
activities are those library operations that do not directly concern the users. Such services
include cataloging and classification, acquisition or collection development e.t.c on the
other hand; the services that directly concern the patrons include lending and reference
services.
Like other types of libraries, in the public libraries, users must be registered before they are
allowed to enjoy borrowing facilities. It should also be noted that each public library has its
own regulations governing the borrowing and returning materials. However, like an
academic library, reference materials are not to be borrowed, users are free to come in and
use the materials during the specified hour of opening.
With regard to clientele every public library defines its general public. It is for this reason
that each state, especially in Nigeria, has its own public library with branches opened in
every local government headquarters (Divisional libraries) and their sub-urban areas to
cover the whole state

12
 CHAPTER THREE

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Sources of information are the various means by which information is recorded for use by an
individual or an organization. It is a means by which a person is informed about something or
knowledge is availed to someone, a group of people or an organization.

In other to harness and preserve information, it is packaged and stored in different formats. The
format or medium on which information is package represents its source. Information source
therefore, can be defined as physical objects or platforms on which information is recorded for
easy preservation, management, dissemination and utilization.

Basically there are three main sources of information:

a. Primary sources

b. Secondary sources

c. Tertiary sources

PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary sources are the first published records of original ideas, research and development. They
could be the description, the interpretation of an old idea or that of a new one. The primary sources
of information largely consist of unfiltered original ideas. They constitute the latest available
information on a topic, idea or theme. They are information made available almost at the point of
the generation of idea. They are the most up-to-date, most recent development about an idea or
theme.

Uses of primary sources

i. They help to keep up to date with new developments. They are the sources of new additions and
subtractions on development in a field.

13
ii. They create awareness of developments and research efforts as well as reduce duplication in
research.

iii. They are the sources for the identification of original idea.

iv. They provide materials on which further efforts and further development can be built.

Forms of Primary sources

i Periodicals: These are works that appear regularly, are published continuously and are number
sequentially. The definition includes journals, bulletins, transactions, and proceedings. Normally
excluded are newspapers and annuals. Periodicals constitute the main means of communication
used in the dissemination and exchange of ideas and scientific information. They are usually up-to-
date. They are usually devoted to reporting original ideas.

ii Research monographs: These are reports of original research that are published separately for
reasons of their either being too long or too specialized to be published in an issue of a standard
journal. Such monographs provide background information on existing theory or practice as well
as the original work or idea that is meant to convey. Their circulation is often controlled.

iii Research reports: These are reports of research and development projects. Often they are in the
form of progress reports. They often contain valuable information of primary nature. However,
like research monographs, they are not made available through the normal book trade channel.

iv Patents: A patent is a publication issued by government Department, which control the details of
the designs and processes of the production of product. It is the specification that concerns the
design and process of manufacture, of a product which is protected by a government grant and
which is secured for the exclusive profit of the designer or inventors for a limited number of years.
The product must be new usually with no published description of the idea prior to this. It is a
grant of exclusive privilege, or sale of an invention. It is of great importance in science particularly
to engineers and chemists.

v Standards: A standard is a document that contains information on the definition, methods,

properties, and measurements in the production of a commodity.

It is a report produced by a committee of a representatives of professional and trade organizations

under the guide of a government agency. Its main arm is to ensure the provision and maintenance
of high quality, and to ensure reliability to consumers.
14
vi Trade Literature: Trade literature contains information on the description of goods and services
of a manufacturer. The basic objective is to sell or to project image. They are issued in a variety of
forms as technical bulletins, price lists, data sheets etc. The primary problem with trade literature is
the bias, having been produced by somebody with something to sell. It is also not available
through the normal channels.

vii Dissertations: Often referred to as thesis, these are the written original research under a guide
usually for the purpose of earning a (doctoral) degree. Some of the important aspects of the work
are to get published in journals or other traditional form of literature. Some important original
work may never get published.

viii Unpublished sources: These include the following: letters, diaries, memoranda, company files,
tombstone inscriptions, oral history, internal research reports and correspondences. A lot of
original ideas are derived from these sources even though they are never formally published. They
allow insight into the thoughts, achievements and style of individuals or corporate bodies.

SECONDARY SOURCES

Secondary sources of information are those sources that contain information relating to primary or
original information.

They are sources, which contain information compiled from primary sources. These are sources
that contain information on original ideas in a modified, selected or recognized manner. They are
better organized than primary sources since normally they are arranged according to definite plan.

Secondary sources are very useful. They act as bibliographic keys to primary information. They
are more widely circulated. They are however, not up-to-date as primary sources of information.

Secondary sources of information include:

i. Periodicals: Not all periodicals report original work. Many periodicals contain
summaries of findings or reports of research undertaken by other people. Since such
report no longer constitute original ideas, they become secondary sources of
information.
ii. Bibliographies: are organized list of primary or secondary sources relating to given
subject or person. A bibliography can be comprehensive or selective, annotated or

15
 unannotated. Annotated is the one that is accompanied by a brief introduction while the
unannotated is never accompanied by an introduction.
iii. Indexes: Indexes are alphabetical listing of names, topics, places, formulae, titles or any
significant item referring to material presenting the main part of work. An index is
more of a key to the content of work.
iv. Indexing periodicals: An indexing periodical is a regularly published compilation of
titles of already published primary source (and some secondary source) materials.
Indexing periodicals satisfy the combined criteria of index as a bibliographical key to
published literature, or as a listing of available titles and that of a periodical as a
publication that appears regularly, numbered sequentially and is published
continuously.
Examples:

a. Library Literature
b. Bibliography of Agriculture
c. Index Medicus
d. Education Index
v. Abstracting periodicals: These are regularly published compilations listing titles of
available literature accompanied by concise summaries of significant features of each
title. These satisfy combined criteria of an abstract and those of periodical.
An abstracting periodical provides a bias for a researcher to have an idea of the contents of an
article even without seeing it. Abstracts can be used in place of the original work where it
cannot be obtained.

Examples:

a. Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA).

b. Biological Abstracts
c. Chemical Abstract
vi. Reviews: These are the written surveys of literature available on a subject. It aims at
highlighting the trend and development of a given subject and provides background information
for new areas.

Examples:

a. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology

16
 b. Annual Review of Biochemistry
vii. Treatises: A treatise is a comprehensive compilation of information on a subject. It is the
summary of basic information on a subject that can be used to carry out research. It generally
contains enough facts to enable a person possess basic knowledge on a given subject.

viii. Encyclopedias: An Encyclopedia is a compilation of information on all branches of

knowledge or a specific subject. It provides information either on all aspects of knowledge
(general encyclopedia) or basic general information of all aspect of a special subject (subject
encyclopedias).

Examples:

a. Encyclopedia Britannica.
b. Encyclopedia Americana. New York, Grolier 1976 30.
c. International Encyclopedia of social sciences. New York, Colliers and Macmillan, 17
volumes.
ix. Dictionaries: Books on words of a language or words on some special subjects or authors. It is
used to find out information about works usually arranged according to some definite order
(usually alphabetically).

Examples:

a. The new Webster’s’ dictionary of the English Language international edition – New York:
Lexicon International, 1994
b. The Oxford English Dictionary of current English
x. Textbook: A textbook is a publication produced to aid instruction in formal school setting. Its
content is normally narrowed to a specific subject and it is prepared to serve a particular level of
scholarship. There are textbooks for each of nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary stages of
education.

xi. Handbook: A compilation of miscellaneous information on a subject given details like

procedure, data principles etc usually less comprehensive.

xii. Manuals: They are books of guides or books of instructions. They give guidelines on specific
topics or aspects e.g. a cataloguing manual.

17
TERTIARY SOURCES:

Tertiary sources of information contain information collected from primary and secondary sources.
Tertiary sources serve the useful purposes of guiding a user to available materials of primary and
secondary sources. Tertiary sources have grown in response to increase in the volume of primary
and secondary sources of information. They are guides or keys to primary and secondary sources.
They organize and draw attention to primary and secondary source materials. The basic
responsibility of tertiary sources is to assist searcher of information in the location and use of
primary and secondary sources. Some examples of tertiary sources of information are explained
below:

i. Bibliography of Bibliographies: A ‘bibliography of bibliographies’ is a publication that

lists other bibliographies. It can therefore be truly called a mega- bibliography. This
type of bibliography directs readers to useful bibliographies through subject, name,
place, institution, etc. The bibliographies listed in this publication may be in the form of
a separate-published book or part of the book. It can also list part of a periodical
publication or others type of documents. Bibliographies of bibliographies are very
selective in nature. This is because, not all the several bibliographies published within a
period, subject or geographical area can be accommodated. This explanation shows that
bibliography of bibliographies is, unarguable, a tertiary source considering that it
contains (i.e. list of separate published bibliographies) and distilled from secondary. It
is therefore, a key or guide to such information listed in it. An example of this source of
information is cumulative bibliography of bibliographies published since 1937 by
Wilson press based in New York, United State of America.
ii. Directories: A directory can be defined as a publication containing names and addresses
of person, organizations, manufactures, school, churches, etc. a typical example of this
is telephone directory. There are specialized directories that list certain periodicals. It
should be noted that although sometimes, the word “directory” may not appear on the
title, this does not take away its correct meaning or purpose. The range of information
provided by directories is enormous as it cut across different subjects/topics, period and
geographical areas. Directories belong to the tertiary sources of information because;
the contents are extracted from various secondary sources. Directories are special

18
 materials that serve the requirement of its users as they enable them to readily get
needed original or primary information. Example of directory is a world of learning
which is published annually since 1947 by London-based Europa Press. It lists the
names, addresses and subject coverage of educational institutions.
iii. Guide to the Literature: A guide-to-literature is another tertiary source of information. It
is a publication designed to assist users locate and utilize the literature of specific
discipline. This type of material therefore, introduces the reader or researcher to
publications in a particular subject or discipline. Its coverage depends, largely, on the
secondary sources. An example of this type of information source is Guide to Historical
Literature by American History Association. It was published in 1961 by the Macmillan
Press, New York, USA. Other information carriers that belong to tertiary sources are:
 Almanac
 Chronologies
 Fact books
 Guide books
 Manual
It is also pertinent to point out that certain tertiary sources can conveniently be grouped among
secondary sources. This however, depends on the context and purpose of use. Example of tertiary
sources that share the features of secondary sources are: dictionaries, encyclopedias,
bibliographies, yearbooks, handbooks, textbooks, indexing/abstracting journals.

19
 CHAPTER FOUR

REFERENCE TOOLS

These are information materials meant to be consulted for some definite information rather than
for consecutive reading. They contain information and facts usually brought together by experts
and specialists from a vast variety of resources and are arranged for convenient and rapid use.
Reference tools are books and other library materials may not be borrowed for use out of the
library.

Reference materials are only to be consulted within the library. Users could photocopy relevant
page(s) needed in course of doing research. This is done within the limitations of the copyright
law. They provide ready and factual answers to questions or queries as to who, where, when? e t c.

The solutions or answer to queries are very authoritative and dependable. To maintain currency,
reference materials are usually updated by annuals and supplements.

Types of Reference Tools

Basically, reference materials can be categorized into two areas:

a) Those that direct researchers to the exact sources of information but do not contain the
information needed by them. They serve as guides or sign posts to the sources of information.
These include:

I. Indexes – Author and Subject

ii. Abstracts – Indicative and Informative

iii. Bibliographies – Subject and National

b) Those that provide researchers with the actual information needed for their study and research.
These include: Dictionaries, encyclopedias, yearbooks, handbooks, almanacs, calendars,
directories, biographies, autobiographies, gazettes, government publications and many others.

20
Description of Reference Tools

Indexes

These are alphabetic arrangements of ideas, concepts, and names of persons, topics, and
institutions etc., usually provided at the end of books. They indicate the exact location of the ideas,
etc in the books or documents. They are guides to all documents relevant to a particular subject or
discipline. The various aspects of the subject are given and all documents on a particular aspect of
that subject are listed together regardless of the form of the items. These could be books, journal
articles, conference proceedings, reports etc.

An index can be arranged alphabetically with full bibliographic information, such as the author,
title, publication details, pagination, etc.

Uses

 Indexes help to locate concepts, names etc., used in the book by an author.

 They also help to identify systematically, articles that are written in a particular subject
area or journal.

 Indexes direct users/researchers to exact page(s) an idea can be got.

 They also help the acquisition librarian know what is available on a given subject and
country for purchase.

 Indexes, help researchers know what has been published in a given subject area, period
and by a given author.

 In a nutshell indexes serve as bridges to the sources of information.

Abstracts

An abstract is a brief summary of the essence of the subject matter treated in a book or document
and published and unpublished woks by an author(s). The abstract enables the researcher knows
the nature of the literature available on a given subject. He can than decide on whether or not to
read the textbook or document. They are similar to indexes, as they generally perform the same

21
functions except that in addition to listing bibliographic details of each item, they also give a
summary of each item listed. Examples of abstract are:

Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: Library Association, 1969-

Information Science and Technology Abstracts. Medford, NJ: Information Today INC, 1966-

Uses

 Abstract gives researchers’ information about the subject, and save the time of the
researchers.

 It provides basis for researcher to have a foreknowledge of previous researches on a

subject matter. By this function, abstract, helps to avoid pass errors as could be contained
in the previous works.

 Abstract, by its characteristics manner, helps to indicate the result of an investigation or

study. By this, it performs evaluative function as it helps to take a decision on a particular
document.

 Abstract helps to keep researchers up-to-date with information in the area of interest.

 It helps in the verification of reviews.

 Abstract helps to facilitate the selection of books/documents by the acquisition librarian

before purchase are made.

 Abstract help to overcome language barriers, e.g. French and English language.

 It particularly helps to bring together information materials in the same subject area;
otherwise scattered in journals and other research documents.

 Productively abstract assists in solving the problem of current awareness service for
specialized researchers.

Bibliographies

A bibliography is a systematic list of documents or books in a particular region, country or subject

by an author printer or organization for the convenient use of those involved in researches.
Bibliography is often found at the beginning, end of a chapter, or at the end of a book. It also
22
constitutes the literature of a subject that researchers can consult for information. At times
bibliography could be full text, like the subject or National Bibliography of Nigeria.

The main purpose is to enable a reader or researchers knows what is available in a particular
period, country and subject area. In a sense, a bibliography is synonymous with indexes, abstracts
and guides.

A bibliography can be mere listing of books and documents. It can also be annotative (evaluative).
By this, a bibliography can have abstracts or summaries. This enables the researcher know whether
there is the need to see the original document or not. Bibliography can be taken as the original
documents if the summaries meet the information needs of the researchers.

Examples of bibliographies include:

National Bibliography of Nigeria (NBN), Abuja, compiled by the National Library of Nigeria,
since 1973 – date.

British National Bibliography.

Aguolu, C. C, Nigeran Civil War, 1967-1970: An annotated Bibliography, Boston: G. K. Hall.

1973.

Ita, N. O. Bibliography of Nigeria: A Survey of Anthropological and Linguistic writings from the
Earliest time to 1970. London: Frank Eass, 1971.

Dictionaries

A dictionary is a simple alphabetical list of words of language, subjects or terms. This consists of
their meanings, spellings, pronunciation usage and history (etymology). Basically, a dictionary
assists meaning, spellings and usage of words. It also provides comprehensive meaning in other
languages i.e. French/English, Hausa/English, etc.

Dictionaries have become very many because of the growth and development in area of language,
science and technology as well as humanities. To adequately provide for the information demand
of both the readers and researchers, libraries and other research agencies have to carefully select,
acquire and organize the various dictionaries for meaningful research.

There are general dictionaries and specialized dictionaries. The general dictionaries cover all
aspects of words in all fields of knowledge, while specialized dictionaries deal with certain aspect
23
of words such as slangs, synonyms, antonyms, abbreviations and acronyms. Examples of general
dictionaries include:

Webster’s New Third International Dictionary. Springfield, MA: G & C Merrian-Webster, 2002.

Random House Dictionary of English Language. New-York: Random House, 1996.

Examples of specialized dictionaries include:

Collins Roget’s International Thesaurus. Glasgow: Harper Collins, 1996.

Dictionary of American Slangs. 3rd Edition. New York: Harper Collins, 1985, 617p.

Another category of dictionaries is referred to as subject dictionaries. These are dictionaries that
are devoted to specialized subject field or professions, e.g.

Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology. Edinburgh: Chambers, 1999.

Uses

 Dictionaries trace the history (etymology) of words. They also give the spellings,
meanings and pronunciation as well as the usage of words.

 Dictionaries give the definitions and abbreviations of words.

 They have usage notes, which give guidance on correct style and grammar which provide
answers to contentious issues.

 Dictionaries also consist of hundreds of synonymous essays, which help to distinguish

wards of similar meanings.

 Some dictionaries contain the translations of Christian names. This has helped Christians
in selecting names for their wards and children.

 Most dictionaries have indexes, hence very easy to use by the researchers.

 Generally, dictionaries are alphabetically arranged, to facilitate usage by researchers.

Encyclopedias

24
An encyclopedia is a complete knowledge or education. It is a volume work which contains
information in all subjects and in every human endeavor. The contents of every encyclopedia are
authoritative as they are researched and written by specialists and experts in specialized area of
knowledge.

The encyclopedia treats the etymology (history) and definition of terms, concepts and subjects in
all human developments. The compilation of encyclopedia is very simple. To ease the use of
encyclopedia by both the layman and experts, it is alphabetically arranged with index to facilitate
the location of information needed by the users.

To maintain currency and authoritativeness, encyclopedias are updated through supplements:

yearbooks and annuals. An encyclopedia could be general, e.g. Encyclopedia Britannica, or a
subject encyclopedia, e.g. Encyclopedia of the social science. In the former, the encyclopedia
covers all kinds of topic, while in the latter; it is restricted to a specific subject.

Common examples of General Encyclopedias include:

(a) Encyclopedia Americana (30 volumes);

(b) Encyclopedia Britannica (30 volumes);

(c) Chambers Encyclopedias.

Examples of Specialized or subject Encyclopedias include:

i. McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, (15 volumes),

including an index.

ii. International encyclopedia of Social Science. (15 volumes), including an index.

iii. Encyclopedia of food Technology. (8 volumes) including an index.

iv. The Encyclopedia of Education. (10 volumes).

v. Hasting James Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, (25 volumes), including

index.

Uses

 Encyclopedias provide authoritative information in all subject areas.

25
  They also provide researchers with solutions to general, ready specified
and research question.

 Encyclopedias are cost-intensive in their acquisitions hence individuals

and organizations try within their limited resources to acquire, organize
and preserve them for and reference work.

Yearbooks

A yearbook is an annual compilation of information, data and statistics in the country. A yearbook
tries to recall the year’s activities by country, subject or specialized areas.

Examples of yearbook are:

Nigeria Yearbook and

Encyclopedia Yearbook.

Uses

 The yearbook is used to update the encyclopedia. It also tries to bring current information
limited in a year.

 A yearbook is very handy; hence easily carried and used by individuals interested in
topical issues about their countries, subjects and international communities.

Handbook

The term handbook derived from a Latin Word Handbook i.e. that which can be used comfortable
in the hand. Handbook is a miscellaneous group of facts centered on a particular subject.

Examples of Handbooks include:

i. Teachers’ Handbook

ii. Accountants’ Handbook

iii. Public Administrations’ Handbook

iv. Engineers’ Handbook

26
Uses

 Handbook as a reference source of information provides information for researchers in

their areas of interest.

 It also provides quick and ready answer to reference questions. Information provided by

 handbook is often statistical with very concise explanations.

Directories

A directory consists of names and addresses of persons, businesses, professions, institutions and
organizations, trades and countries.

It is systematically arranged, giving precise descriptions and locations of individuals, institutions

and organizations. The telephones, e-mails and fax numbers of organizations are available in a
directory where such organizations have been indicated.

Examples are:

i. The telephone Directory

ii. The NIPOST Directory

iii. The World Learning – a directory of universities, colleges, learned societies, libraries, research
institutes of many countries and so on.

Uses

 Directories give the positions of individuals in organizations, business concern as well as

their functions to researchers.

 It is a valuable location tool for travelers in getting their information about individuals,
organizations and countries.

Almanacs

27
An almanac shows at a glance history, data, events and pictures of prominent individuals in a
given organization. This could be at local, state, national and international levels. Almanac like a
calendar, gives data and dates of the year.

Good examples of almanacs include:

i. Almanac of the Federal Executive

ii. Almanac of the Past and Present Heroes in Nigeria

iii. Whitaker Almanac

Uses

 Almanac gives brief information about prominent individuals who have contributed
tremendously to the growth and development of societies.

 Some almanacs, give useful historical information about people, events and places. It also
gives meteorological and astronomical data and information to researchers.

Calendar

A calendar is a representation of data, events and dates of any given year. It clearly indicates the
various months and weeks, days and dates of the year. It enables people to keep track of events in a
given period, usually a year. A calendar also contains pictures of individuals, events and adverts of
business ventures. Others contain symbolic pictures- the Zuma Rock, Abuja.

Uses

 Calendar apart from giving the dates of the year and the picture of events, they also show
the achievements of some notable individuals and organizations.

 They are very useful for keeping dates of the events.

Biographies

A biography is a detailed account of individual life researched and written by other person(s). It
gives information on individuals in the areas of names, date and place of birth, address,
educational background, interest, achievements, membership of organization, titles and so on.
Usually, the portrait of the individual whose biography is written is shown for easy identification.
28
Examples are:

i. Newswatch who is who in Nigeria, 2nd edition. Lagos: Newswatch Books Ltd, 2001.

ii. International who is who. London: Europa Publications, 1935-

iii. Dictionary of America Biography. New York: Charles Scrbner’s & Sons, 1928-

vi. Africa Who’s who. London: Africa BookS Ltd, 1996.

Uses

 Biography is a good and authoritative information sources on individuals and who have
contributed immensely to the communities.

Autobiography

Autobiography is an account of an individual written by himself. The account consists of the

names, date and place of birth, address, education and career profile, hobbies and membership of
associations, titles and contributions to humanities.

Examples include:

 My life -Late Obafemi Awolowo

 My Odyssey -Late Nnamdi Azikiwe

 Ake -Wole Soyinka

 My life -Bill Clinton

Uses

 Autobiography is a dependable source of information on an individual.

 It is also source of inspiration to individuals in their human endeavours.

Gazetteers

A gazetteer is used to provide information on the exact location of places. It also gives brief
history of places thus, located. A gazetteer is just like a map extensively used for the location of

29
places and descriptions of such places and their longitudinal and altitudinal positions. Aptly it can
be described as a directory of places, towns, rivers, mountains and so on.

Uses

 A gazetteer is an information tool extensively used by geographers and town planners in

locating the names of places.

 It is also used in providing factual answers on population, rainfall and other geographical
questions. Geographers have found gazetteers very useful in their dealings.

Atlas

An atlas is a collection of maps and plates, which provides geographical information about places.
Some atlas gives vegetation, climatic, mineral resources, agricultural and industrial descriptions of
countries.

Concordance

Concordance is a reference material containing harmonious citations of parallel passages in a book

especially in the Bible. It is a book containing alphabetical arrangements of the principles words in
a book (Bible), with citations of the passage in which they occur.

Evaluation of Reference Materials

To establish the suitability of any Reference Material for a meaningful study or research work, the
information material should be evaluated using the following criteria:

Purpose

The suitability of any reference material depends reasonably on its intended purpose. That is, what
the material is meant for. This is often stated in a clear language in the preliminary page(s) of the
work. The purpose of any reference material should not be ambiguous as it is intended to give a
clear mental picture of what the document is and to achieve.

Price

30
A reference material should be evaluated based on it price. To be affordable a reference material
must be readily available for acquisition in the market. Because of it usefulness in research work, a
reference material should be relatively cheap so that information centers and libraries can afford to
acquire it for information dissemination to readers and those involved in intensive research work.

Authority

In evaluating a reference source, the authoritativeness of the work is very crucial. By this, the
material should be evaluated vis-à-vis the background of the authority or the contributors to the
work. Apart from being reputable to experts and professionals in their fields where they have
authored or contributed, they must be nationally and internationally recognized.

The authoritativeness of an information material can be evaluated based on the publishers of the
work. The reputation of a publisher gives a lot of credibility to reference materials.

At the national level, works published by University of Ibadan Press, Spectrum Books Limited are
quite authoritative. But at the international scene, published works by McGraw Hill Books,
Wilson, H. W., and Longman are quite reputable and authoritative.

Scope

A reference material can also be evaluated if its scope or coverage is very comprehensive and well
defined. The scope of a reference material should not be too complex and confusing. It should be
able locate new information that is available in its areas of coverage to maintain currency. This is
very crucial in the evaluation of reference sources.

Arrangement

Arrangement of information and other relevant facts contained in a document assist in the
evaluation. A well arranged reference material should enable the researcher gain access to the
information they may need for study and research. A simple alphabetical arrangement of facts
coupled with an index assist in easy location and retrieval of information in a reference material.

Treatment

Simply put, treatment has to do with the care with which a document is written. It also refers to
comprehensiveness and reliability of facts contained in the work. Facts, figures and illustrations

31
contained in reference materials should be articulately referenced and bibliographical details given.
This will enable researchers make a productive use of the material.

Presentation and Mode of Communication

The content of the reference material should be presented and communicated in a very simple
language so that; it can be easily comprehended by its potential users. The presentation and the
mode of communicating the contents of a reference work should also take cognizance of the
maturational levels of it envisaged audience. In essence, information should not be ambiguous and
misleading to the target audience. All illustrations, charts, tables and figures should help to
enhance the communication and the understanding of ideas in reference materials.

Currency

A good reference material should be very current. It should be possible to incorporate new
developments the specified area of coverage. Like the encyclopedia, there should be provision for
a periodic renewal, using supplements annuals and yearbook. This is very important in the fields of
social sciences, science and technology where currency is very important.

Like the arts, where the older, the better the information, the reference material should be
standardized and written by renowned professionals and experts.

Reference materials should be readily available for selection, acquisition and utilization by
libraries and information centers.

32
 Chapter Five

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION.

Definition and Meaning of Bibliography.

The term bibliography is derived from two Greek words “biblio” means book and
“graphia” means writing or to write: Thus literally, bibliography means “book writing” as a
discipline is traditionally the academic study of books.
In the library and information science parlance bibliography is a list of information sources
e.g. Books, newspapers, magazines, journals, audio-visual e.t.c., in its narrow sense, a
bibliography is defined as a list of books arranged according to some permanent principles.
It is also defined as a systematic listing of human communication yet another definition of
bibliography is the study of book and science of transmission of literary documents.
Bibliography can be described as the art of describing literal content of a material i.e. its
physical make up and its arrangement. It can also be described as a systematic guide to a
record of leaning, research, culture and contribute in making these records promptly and
fully accessible as it provides bibliographic records of each item listed in the bibliography.
The bibliographic records include: author’s name, title of the work, place of publication,
the publisher and date of publication, e.t.c. The purpose of the bibliographic record is to
provide information necessary to describe an item accurately for the purpose of
distinguishing it from other items and to provide its location.

33
 From the foregoing, bibliography can simply be defined as a list of books and other
publication on a subject, author or nation, described and arranged in some systematic order.
Bibliographies may be a book (reference book) and are also found as lists of publications in
individual books, articles and entries in encyclopedias etc. Bibliographies are so useful
because they are means to locate materials on a certain subject, author or geographical
location.
Branches of Bibliographies:
Carter and Barker (2004) described bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline.
According to the authors bibliography is made up of two main branches viz:
1. Enumerative bibliographic.
2. Descriptive bibliographic

Enumerative Bibliography

Enumerative bibliographic is the organized listing of books. Bower (1971) refers to

enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or
libraries” in a specific discipline, by an author, publisher, or date of publication. It can also
be called compilative, reference or systematic bibliography.

Examples of enumerative bibliography include:

1. Universal bibliography: This is a bibliography that records other bibliographies; it

can also be called bibliography of bibliographies. It includes everything published
or issued all over the world regardless of subject and place of publication.
2. National bibliography: This is a bibliography that lists everything published (and
possibly distributed in a given country). This type of bibliography record all the
publication of a country, typically published by its National Library some countries
however, include works published about the country and/or works by authors
resident and /or born in and/ or ethnic nationals of the country. Examples, the
National Bibliography of Nigeria (NBN) which classifies and catalogues all books
which are published in Nigeria and by Nigerians and are deposited with the
National Library of Nigeria, the British National Bibliography (BNB). This puts
together all the books deposited at the British museum etc.

34
 3. Trade bibliography: This type of bibliography compiled primarily to aid the book
trade by supplying information as to what books are published or for sale, when,
where and by whom they were published, and their price.
4. Subject bibliography: This is a bibliography that list materials relating to a specific
area.
5. Author bibliography: This is a bibliography that lists all publications by an author
(s). It also includes personal letters memorandum which person might keep and
even diaries.

Descriptive Bibliography

Descriptive bibliography has to deal with the systematic description of books as physical
objects. Bower refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of book as a
materials or physical artifact. He stated that analytical and critical bibliographies are all
forms of descriptive bibliography. Bower sees analytical bibliography as the cornerstone of
descriptive bibliography; it investigates the printing and ally physical features of a book
that yields evidence establishing books’ history and transmission. Analytical bibliography
examines the materials feature of a textual artifact such as type, ink, paper, imposition,
format, impression, and state of a book to essentially recreate the conditions of all its
production. According to Bower (1949) it is a preliminary phase of descriptive
bibliography and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that
descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.

Functions of Bibliography.

Bibliography performs the following functions.

1. It helps to verify the existence of documents by telling us the kind of book or publication is
in existence in a particular field of knowledge, geographical location and of a certain
author.
2. It helps in the location and retrieval of books and other publications. This is possible as it
gives bibliographic information i.e. Author’s name, the title, the publisher, place of
publication etc.
3. Bibliography serve as a tool for book selection or it aid in collection development policies.
4. Bibliography helps us to know the details of all published materials by identifying them
physically.
35
5. Bibliography helps to prevent duplication of research work. It enables the researcher to
know what has already been researched or written on his subject of interest.

Bibliographic Control.

Bibliographic control can simply be defined as the ability to identify what is published in
the universe of documentary and information resources, select, acquire, process, store and
disseminate such resources to the user communities irrespective of their geographical
location, profession, institution etc. Bibliographic control is the mastery over published and
unpublished document in the universe of documentary and information resources.
Bibliographic control is a weapon against information or literature explosion.

Bibliographic control in Nigeria is concerned with the control of all that is published in
Nigeria. This is done by national bibliography based on legal deposit regulations and
catalogued according to international standards. Assess to national collections is through
union list and library automation in Nigeria as related to bibliographic control. Therefore,
bibliographic control is “complete access” to the published and unpublished information.
It is a major determinant of information accessibility and utilization and a key factor to
information search. (Angiating, Atagher & Adung, 2005).

Objectives of Bibliographic Control.

The objectives of bibliographic control in Nigeria as stated by Angiating, Atagher &Adung

(2005) are:

1. To provide comprehensive sources of information and the location of the national book
products.
2. To enable users to have access to published materials in one’s immediate environment and
in the world at large.
3. To keep researchers abreast of development in their field as such helps to avoid duplication
of research as the users are able to know at a glance all that have been published on a
particular subject field.
4. To bring to the attention of research administrators, technicians and professionals relevant
information about literature in their professions. These people depend on bibliographic
control to provide keys to available information.

36
5. To monitor the pace of literature output by keeping under watch to know the amount of
literature published in the world over.

Bibliographic Control Tools.

Bibliographic control is achieved through bibliographies (i.e. Systematic and National).

Systematic bibliographic identifies and describes the location of documents while national
bibliography is the complete representation of a country’s literary productions.
Bibliographic control can also be achieved through legal deposits law. This is a law enacted
by the government requiring publishers to submit a certain number of copies of their
publication to designated agency. The purpose is to help in the production and computation
of systematic bibliographies. If publishers abide by this law, it means all the items
published in a country will be known.

Other bibliographic control tools include: databases, cataloguing, Abstracting and indexing.

Problems of Bibliographic Control.

By bibliographic control we are essentially talking about the ways through which librarians
and other information specialists, can be able to track down what is been published, so that
users’ information needs can be satisfied. It is a basic fact that there is information flow or
explosion at the same time users are experiencing information famine the need to step out
strategies to get rid of information to satisfy user’s information needs is the pride of the
librarian. A lot of efforts have been made to track down the flow of information over the
years, these efforts have been hampered by a number of problems.

Some of the problems include:

1. The information resources so published are scattered everywhere in various languages in

different formats and in different parts of the world. It becomes difficult for Librarians to
garner the scattered information resources into a manageable and as well understand
various languages.
2. Censorship and restriction to access of information resources: Censorship has stop users
from the use of certain information resources, although copyright and intellectual freedom
have interview but not so much is been achieved in this regard. Censorship could be by the
people or government; it could also be by the people own believes (religion). Apart from

37
 censorship, some libraries and their resources are under lock and key. That is, the usage of
such library and its resources is restricted. A good example is a special library in most
special libraries restriction is heavily on strangers or non-specialists. Moreover, some
documents are classified as special documents; example is governments own documents
such as records of a court etc. all these can hinder the free flow of information resources as
such making the bibliographic control of such resources impossible.
3. Another problem is the bad nature of the resources been published especially in the third
world countries like Nigeria. Most of the resources published are not properly processed
(edited) and are badly published. For instance, most of the information resources you find
in the library have no clear title, the title itself may be misleading, some of the resources,
(books) may not have bibliographies, index and International Standard Book Number
(ISBN) that qualifies them as books. In such a situation where the information resources
lack most of these indices a proper compilation of bibliographic using these resources
becomes cumbersome.
4. Financial barrier on the part of the bibliographer also posed a problem. Since the
bibliographer cannot do the job alone he needs to pay translators or interpreters, editors,
typing and type sitting amongst others processes involved in the bibliographic control
process. It should be noted that, all the services mentioned about are performed by different
individuals who needs to be remunerated. Without adequate funds the bibliographer cannot
do a good job and the free flow of information will not be possible.

Bibliographic Citation/References

Bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, or other published item.
Citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original
source). More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in
the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry on the bibliographic references
section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of works of others to
the topic of discussion at the spot where the cititation appears. Generally, the combination
of both the in body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly
thought of as citation (where as bibliographic entries by themselves are not).
Purpose of Citation.

38
 Citation has several important purposes according to Wikipedia they include:

1. To uphold intellectual honesty (or avoiding plagiarism).

2. To attribute prior or unoriginal work and ideals to the correct sources.
3. To allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material supports
the author’s argument in the claimed way.
4. To help the reader gauge the strength and validity of the material the author has used.
Citation Systems.
Broadly speaking there are two types of citation systems, they are.
1. Vancouver system: This uses sequential number in the text, either bracketed or superscript
or both. The numbers refer to either the footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes
(notes on a page at the end of the paper) that provide source detail.
2. Parenthetical referencing: This is also known as Harvard referencing, it has full or partial,
in-text citations enclosed in parentheses and embedded in the paragraph. It requires a list of
the citation enclosed in complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted
alphabetically by author. This section is often called references or bibliography or works
cited or works consulted.
Citation Styles.

There are so many citation styles prominent among them are:

1. The Chicago manual of style (CMOS) it is most widely used in history and economics as
well as some social sciences.
2. Modern Language Association (MLA) Style is most often used in the arts and the
humanities, particularly in English studies and other literary studies.
3. The Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) Style: is most widely used in the
arts and humanities in the United Kingdom.
4. Bluebook: is a citation style used in American academic legal writing, and the bluebook is
used by many courts.
5. The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style: is often used in chemistry and some of the
physical sciences.
6. The American Institute of Physics (AIP) Style: is often used in physics.
7. The American Mathematical Society (AMS) Style.

39
8. The American Sociological Association (ASA) Style: is one of the main styles used in
sociological publications.
9. American Anthropological Association (AAA) Style is used in Anthropological
publications.
10. American Psychological Association (APA) Style: is used in social sciences.

This chapter concentrates on APA citation style because is the most widely used citation
style in Nigeria

APA General Rules.

APA style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This book,
revised according to the 6th edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers examples
for the general format of APA research papers-in-text citations endnotes/foot-notes, and
reference page.

APA Reference List

1. The reference should appear at the end of the paper or work. It provides the information
necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source cited in the body of the paper or
work. Each source cited in the paper must appear in reference list, likewise, each entry in
the reference list, must be cited in the text. The only exceptions to this rule are personal
communications and classical works; they are cited in the text only and not included in the
reference list. Examples of classical works are religious text such as Bible, Koran etc and
examples of personal communications are interviews and e-mails.
2. The references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay label this
page “References” centered at the top of the page (do not bold, underline, or use quotation
marks for the title)
3. All the references should be single spaced.
4. All lines after the first line of each entry in the reference list should be indented one half
inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation. Example:
Adomi, E.E. (2008). Library and information services and policies. Binin city: Osasu
printing press.

40
5. All entries should be alphabetized by the surname of the first author of each work or, if author
is not available by title.
6. Alphabetize letter by letter “Nothing precedes something” Example: Terfa, B.J. comes before
Terna, A.K.
7. After the author’s surname use only initials Example: Akor, T.T., not Akor, Titus Terna.
8. For several works by some author cite them in your reference list by year of publication
chronologically from the earliest to the most recent. Example: Dike, V.W. (19 98) ------
Dike, V.W (2001) ------ Dike, V.W (2004).
9. Citation abbreviations of the APA 6th edition is as follow:
Edition: - Ed.
Revised edition: - Rev. Ed.
Second edition: - 2nd Ed
Edition or Editor: - Ed or Eds.
Translator(s): - Tran (s).
No date: - n.d.
Page(s): - p. or pp.
Paragraph: - Para.
Volume(s): - Vol (s).
Number: - No.
Part: - pt.
Technical Report: - Tech. Rep.
Chapter: - Chap.

10. Italicize titles of longer works such as books, journals or websites.

11. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal
articles or essays, magazine, web pages, essays or chapter in edited books.

12. In titles of books, articles, and web pages, capitalize only the first letter or the first word of
the title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash, and proper nouns, except for
articles (a, an, the). Prepositions (against, between, in, of, to,) and conjunctions (and, but,
for, nor, or, so, yet).

13. In journal titles, capitalize all major words.

41
14. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.

Authors Rules.

- Works with No Authors

If there is no author given, cite the name of the work or article.
Example:
Global worming (2006). San Diego: Green haven press.
- Citing one Author
When citing authors use the surname followed by the first initial and middle initial (if
given). Example:
Akem, J.A. (2008) Research and statistics for higher Education, (2nd Ed.) Makurdi:
Destiny ventures.
- Citing two Authors
When citing more than one author, separate the author with commas. The first author
should have his /her surname and initials and ampersand (&) should be used before the last
author. Do not use the word “and”.
Example:
Busha, C.H. & Harter, S.P. (1980). Research methods in
librarianship: Techniques and interpretations. New-York: Academic press.
Citing more than six Authors
If there are more than six authors, cite the first six and write “e tal” Example:
Aker, T.A, Kuma, K.I Tor, B.A, Atime, P.A, Ujo, B.B, Orkaa, M. e tal. (2004).
Introduction to computer studies. Makurdi: Aboki publisher.
Author as an organization (corporate body)
Write the organization or Association as the author. Example:
Nigeria Library Association (2014) The importance of school libraries. Ibadan: Evi-
coleman publications.
Edited works
Write the name of the editor as the author. Example
Madu (Ed) (2004). Technology for information management and
service: modern libraries and information centers in developing countries. Ibadan:
Evi-coleman publications.
Web Rules
42
 APA recommends to only citing the home page Universal Resource Locator (URL) and
the exact URL if the page is not properly indexed or easy to find from the home page for
blog posts, user contributed content, and discussion forums, APA recommends including
the exact URL.
Date Retrieved:
APA recommends including it, only if the source material may change over time. Also
keep in mind that you can use “Available from” instead of “Retrieved from” when the URL
leads to information on how to obtain the material rather than to the material itself.
DOl
If an article has a digital object identifier (DOI) number, you need only the DOI number,
and no URL or retrieval date.
Citing an Article from an online Resource
Example:
Fried land, L. (2008, September 22). Top 10 natural and wildlife adventure travel trip
Retrieved from http:// adventure travel. about com.

Citing an entire website with no Identifiable Electronic publication date

Example:
EasyBib. Com (n.d) Retrieved June 22, 2009, from http:// www eaybib. Com.
Citing an Article from an online News source
Example:
Dike V.N. (2012), June 8) The role of school libraries CNN Retrieved from http: //
www. Cnn. Com.
Citing an Article from an online Newspaper

Tondo, R.I. (2013, may 9). Fulain killings in Benue. The sun newspaper.
Retrieved from http: // www. Sunonline. Com.
Note:
When citing online sources in APA, generally follow the same structure of its in print
equivalent, and then follow this information with the date of access and the URL.
Citing an online journal
Example:

43
 Oakley, R. (2004). How the mind hurt and heals the body.
American psychologist 12(1), 25-47. Doi: 10 1037 10003-
066x.
Citing an online book.
Example:
Eckel, B. (n.d.). Thinking in Java (3rd Ed.) Retrieved from http://www bruceckel.
Com.
Citing a video found on line
Example:
West, k. (2009). Amazing [online video]. Roc. Fella Records. Retrieved from
http: // www. Youtube.com/ watch? V =at 40QVNIXSW.
Citing a painting viewed online
Example:
Picasso, P. (1921). There musicians [painting found in museum of modern Art,
New York]. Retrieved from http: //www.art quotes.net.

Citing in the body of the work.

- capitalize all major words in title of books and articles within the work (Rule 4.15, p.101)
Example:
In his book introduction to library and information science (2014), Tondo, defines library
as “the place where library materials principally print and non-print are professionally
organized for consultation.”
When quoting from print sources or online article, give the author year, and page number in
parenthesis (Rule 6.03, pp. 17o-171) Example”
Okoro (2001) defined software as “the computer programmes, procedures, and specialized
utilities require for the computer to carry out some specific operations” (p.150).
- If the quotation is over 40 words, you must start the quotation on a new line, indent the
quotation about ½ an inch, and omit the quotation marks (Rule 6.03, p. 171).
-When paraphrasing from a source, or when referring to an idea contained in another work,
you are encouraged to provide a page number (Rule 6.04 p.171). Many electronic sources

44
 do not provide page number. In this case use paragraph numbers preceded by the
abbreviation Para’ (6.05, pp171-172)
(Tondo, 2014, para.6).
If a source contains neither page nor paragraph numbers, cite the heading (shorten the
heading if it is long) (Rule 6.05 pp.171-72).

Chapter Six

CATALOGUING AND CLASSIFICATION

The business of the information profession of which librarianship is a part is to guarantee access to
information resources. In carrying out this business, a lot of activities come into play. Some of
these activities enhance access to information. To achieve this end some procedures and
techniques have been developed in Librarianship through which recorded knowledge (information
resources) could be easily available and accessible by potential library users. Information resources
can only be accessible in the library when it is properly organized and the organization of
information resources is one of the major pressing problems in librarianship today.

45
Cataloguing and classification organizes library and information materials for easy retrieval and
accessibility by preparing the record of all materials in the library. The record describes and
indexes the contents of the library and provides the key to the library collection.

CATALOGUE

Generally, catalogue is the systematic list of items of the same types. There are various forms of
catalogue namely: library catalogue, union catalogue, National Union Catalogue and publisher’s
catalogue. This textbook will concentrate only on library catalogue.

LIBRARY CATALOGUE

The Library catalogue is the list of books and other library materials of a collection, a library or a
group of libraries arranged according to some definite plan. The list records, describes and indexes
the resource of the collection, library or group of libraries. According to Angiating, Atagher and
Adung (2005) a library catalogue is an indispensable tool which facilitates the use of the library
materials.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIBRARY CATALOGUE

According to Dike (2010) the main functions of library catalogue are to enable a user to determine:

(a) What books the library has by a certain author.

(b) What books the library has on a particular subject.
(c) Whether the library has a book of a particular title.
(d) What edition of work a library has and other bibliography details of a book in stock?

QUALITIES OF LIBRARY CATALOGUES

The following are qualities of the library catalogue of any format.

(a) A catalogue should be flexible. Entries in a catalogue should be added and withdrawn as
books are added to and withdrawn from the library.
(b) A catalogue should be constructed so that all the entries can be quickly and easily found. It
should lend itself to labelling.
(c) A catalogue should be economically prepared and maintained. This involves weighting the
cost of production and maintenance.

46
(d) A catalogue should be compact it should not only take up less space but it should be easily
removed for consultation.
(e) A catalogue should be portable. It should be easily carried about.
(f) A catalogue should be durable. It should withstand heavy use and stand the taste of time.

PHYSICAL FORMS OF LIBRARY CATALOGUE

There are four main physical forms of library catalogue they are as follow;
1. BOOK CATALOGUE
Book catalogue can also be referred to as printed catalogue. This form of catalogue, entries
are printed in page form and bound into a volume or volumes. This is the oldest form of
catalogue and still in use, e.g. the library of congress National Union Catalogues, The
British Museum Catalogue. Entries in this catalogue are arranged like a dictionary in which
all the entries are arrange in alphabetical sequence.

Advantages over others

(a) Entries are together and seen at a glance and can be quickly and easily located because of
the simple alphabetical style of arrangement.
(b) Does not take up much space as the card catalogue. It is therefore, compact.
(c) It is easy to store and handle
(d) It can be removed by users for detailed consultation provided no one is using the volume
(e) Compilation of bibliographies is straight forward as pages of the book catalogue can be
photocopied.

Disadvantages

(a) It is not flexible. New entries cannot be accommodated immediately until a revision of the
catalogue is done.
(b) Once a volume is being consulted no other person can use it.
(c) It is very expensive to prepare
(d) Can easily wear and tear with frequent use
(e) Can be misplaced on the sheaf with other books and this can prevent its use.
2. CARD CATALOGUE

47
 This form of catalogue is still the most common catalogue in use. In card catalogue, entries
are prepared on a standard 5”x3” catalogue card and held in a catalogue cabinet. In the
standard size cabinet in the market, each drawer holds about 1000 cards. Internal guiding is
achieved by inserting guide cards which with tabs protrude above the catalogue entries.
External guiding is by labelling the outside of each drawer consecutively so that the
catalogue user can quickly find the required entries. Initial expenditure is required for the
purchase of the cabinet, but thereafter, stationary costs are low. Card catalogues are
equipped with rods, which locks the cards in place and prevent an unauthorized removal of
the entries (Angiating, Atagher and Adung, 2005).
Advantages over others
(a) Flexibility: Additions and withdrawals of entries can be made as desired.
(b) Catalogue cards are relatively inexpensive and the card catalogue is easy to prepare
(c) Many people can use it at the same time as long as they do not need the same
drawer
(d) The card stand wear and tear better than the pages of the book and sheaf catalogues.
(e) Can be easily consulted if properly guided.

Disadvantages

(a) Card catalogue is not compact. It employs the use of cabinet and takes up more
space.
(b) The trays cannot ordinarily be removed like other forms for intensive study.
(c) When a user is consulting a drawer, he/she blocks other drawers and he/she may
constantly disturbed by other users.

3. SHEAF CATALOGUE

The sheaf catalogue contains entries that are prepared on long standardized slips of paper
measuring 6”x4”. The slips are light and are inserted in loose leaf binders. Each binder has
a locking/releasing mechanism to allow the insertion of new entries when required, yet
ensures that the slips remain securely in place when the catalogue is consulted. Sheaf
catalogue is still in use in libraries.

Advantages over others

48
 a. Flexibility: Entries can be added and withdrawn but not as easily as cards.
b. It is inexpensive to prepare.
c. It can be consulted away from the shelving place.
d. It is compact and easy to store and handle.
e. It is easy to find entries in them.

Disadvantages

(a) Sheaves are light and do not stand wear and tear of use.
(b) When a volume is being consulted other users can make use of it.
(c) It can easily misplace amongst other library books.
(d) Can injure the fingers when binders are pulled apart for addition and withdrawal of
entries as well as time consuming.

4. COMPUTER CATALOGUE

Computer can act as a store of catalogue information from which magnetic tapes disk
drives can be produced and these in turn can be processed into microfilm or microfiches. A
computer catalogue can also give direct access to the stored catalogue information. If
access is limited to certain specific times; the term “off-line” is used. “An online” system
allows direct and immediate access through terminal (computer) to secure catalogue
information, e.g. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC).

Advantages over other

(a) Flexibility: Additions and withdrawals of entries can be made as desired.

(b) Many people can use it at the same time.
(c) Can be easily consulted if properly guided.
(d) A lot of entries can be recorded on just a small portion
(e) Recorded information can be recalled as precisely as possible and faster.

Disadvantages

(a) It is very expensive. The cost of installation and maintenance is very high.
(b) It is not suitable in areas where there is no electricity supply.
(c) Users without computer operation skills cannot access it.

Other forms of catalogue

49
 a. Stripdex Catalogue: In this form of catalogue entries are made on a narrow 1/6
strip of 8 long and held in a steal single or double sided panel Several strips are
usually used for an entry. Once used in ABU Library, it is not popular as a physical
form of catalogue but usually employed as visual index to materials.

Advantages

a) Flexibility: Additions and withdrawals can be made easily.

b) A whole range of entries can be seen at once
c) Photocopies of catalogue entries can be produced easily.
d) Can be consulted by many people together

Disadvantages

(a) Very expensive to prepare. Equipment and materials.

(b) Strips are painfully arranged and slow to file.
(c) Entries have to typed and cannot be produced by duplicated.
b. Horizontal card Fork: In this form of catalogue there is entry card 8”×6” lie flat,
each protecting about ¼” beyond the preceding card in shallow trays of about ½ ” in
deposit 18” in length or on flat paper boards or binders. To consult the card the
appropriate tray must be pulled out or page of a binder opened and the overlapping
entry cards raised to expose the required entry card. Is used for periodical recording.

Advantages

(a) Display of titles can be seen in range

Disadvantages

(a) Equipment and materials are expensive.

(b) Filing of entry cards is slow and laborious
(c) Consultation by more than one person is hardly possible.

KINDS OF CATALOGUE

There are two main kinds of catalogues:

(a) Dictionary catalogue

(b) Classified catalogue
50
DICTIONARY CATALOGUE

Dictionary catalogue is the one in which all the entries (main and added) are interfiled by entry
word into one alphabetical sequence like the entries in a dictionary. This kind of catalogue is
popular and widely used in American libraries.

Large libraries with a lot of entries using a dictionary catalogue modify it to a divided dictionary
catalogue in order to ease the complexity of consultation created by a one file dictionary. What
then is Divided Dictionary?

Divided Dictionary Catalogue: is a two catalogue namely: The Author/Title entry file and the
subject entry file, each of which is arranged in alphabetical sequence. In this way, two parallel
sequence of arrangement is created making the catalogue easier to consult (Dike, 2010)

Advantages of dictionary catalogue

(a) The arrangement is alphabetical and simple to use.

(b) Only one file needs to be consulted as against three of the classified catalogue.
(c) Subject entry headings are common used words and are easily accessed by most
users.
(d) The use of reference links scattered related subjects.

Disadvantages.

(a) Related subject entry heading are scattered because of the difference in name e.g.
wood, timber, plank.
(b) A one file dictionary catalogue in a large library is unwieldy to manage and may
create difficulty in filing and tracing of entries.
(c) The collection of related subject linked by reference creates more work for the
searcher.

CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE

According to Angiating, Atagher and Adung (2005) a classified catalogue is one in which the
entries are arranged in s systematic order of subjects, The order usually being that of the scheme of
classification used for the arrangement of books on the shelves in that library. As it is improbable
that the library patrons’ posses’ knowledge of the layout of the scheme of classification adopted, it
becomes necessary to provide for quick reference and direction, alphabetical indexes of authors,
51
subject and titles showing the symbols or classification number under which a desired author/title
and subject could be found.

Classified catalogue according to Dike (2010) is in three parts Viz:

(i) The classified File: This the major part of the catalogue, in which entries of the
library’s holding are arranged in the order of the classification numbers. The use of
the classified file is incomplete without the two below:
(ii) Author/Title File: This is an approach to the collection of a library by author/title.
Here arrangement of entries is alphabetical by author/title.
(iii) Alphabetical Index to the Subject Catalogue: This is an alphabetical arrangement of
names of subjects and their related subjects, showing against each entry and the
classification numbers. By this file, users can identify the classification numbers of
the subject they want materials on and then use the classified file to trace the entries
of all books in the subject area of their interest.
For example, Education – L
Science - Q
Mathematics - QA
Physics - QC
Chemistry - QD

Advantages of Classified Catalogue

(a) It brings entries of a subject and its related subjects together, as against separating
them like dictionary catalogue.
(b) Collection of entries on a subject is systematic, since the classified file arrangement
is hierarchical, beginning from the general to the specific subject.

Disadvantages

(a) It is not easy to use since the classified file is arrange by classification symbols
which may not be understood by most users.
(b) It involves the consultation of three files instead of the simple one-file dictionary
catalogue

CATALOGUING

52
Cataloguing is the process of describing an item of a collection and assigning it a subject. It could
also mean the physical description of library and information materials. Cataloguing refers to the
description of an information material where by the bibliographic elements are indicated (title,
author, publication date and year, publisher’s name place of publication e.t.c). Cataloguing is the
pains taking that also highly technical and professional in nature. It involves the application of the
rules stipulated in the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Second Edition Revised (AACR2R).
This material contains rules governing the cataloguing of all types of information materials. It is
detailed that every possible problem has been treated defined and illustrated.

It must be bear in mind that, there are other supporting tools to the AACR2R. These tools includes
classification schemes, subject heading lists, subject dictionaries, bibliographies and ordinary
dictionaries e.t.c it must be stated very clearly that, the library catalogue is a finding tool, it is a
directory of the holding of a particular library or bibliographic agency. In fact, it is the power
house of any library.

Worldwide, it is acknowledged that information is power; nevertheless, it is strongly believed that

information on its own does not control power, but the possibility of the control of the flow of
information has forced the opportunity to use information as power.

The place of cataloguing and the cataloguer in the library and information center cannot be
undermined. Aje (1980) stressed the importance of the catalogue and its activities to the library, he
stated that “there is no doubt that cataloguing constitutes a code of librarianship, it is a
fundamental discipline. Cataloguing as a control channel provides orderliness in the library
therefore, the role of cataloguers is very crucial in library service development.

TYPES OF CATALOGUING

Cataloguing is divided into two viz:

(i) Descriptive cataloguing.

(ii) Subject cataloguing

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUING

Descriptive cataloguing is the phase of cataloguing which is concerned with the identification and
description of an item of library material by recording the identifying bibliographic and physical
details of the material in the collection in the form of a catalogue entry. According to Edoka (2000)

53
descriptive cataloguing also includes the choice and form of access headings (access point) to the
materials catalogued and the making of reference to ling releated headings. The making of an entry
is guided by cataloguing rules, e.g. Anglo-American Cataloguing Rule, Second Edition Revised
(AACR2R).

The application of the rules in the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rule, Second Edition Revised has
the advantage of ensuring that a particular library produces bibliographic records which in terms of
details and the arrangement is similar to any such record in another library no matter where in the
world.

SUBJECT CATALOGUING

Subject cataloguing this phase of cataloguing is concerned with the assignment of classification
numbers and subject headings to the materials of a collection. Both subject numbers and headings
are assigned from classification schemes and subject heading lists respectively.

CATALOGUING RELATED TERMS

Before we go into the main cataloguing, it is worthwhile to get acquainted with some basic
terminologies of cataloguing.

- Catalogue Entry: The record of a material in a catalogue.

- Main Entry: The principal entry made for a book, the main entry contains the fullest
description which consists of bibliographic and physical details of a book and also the
tracings.
- Added Entry: A secondary entry made for a book other than main entry.
- Tracing: The record of the main entry card of all the additional entries in the catalogue
for the work.
- Collation: This is the physical description of books, stating the number of volumes,
pages, illustrations height e.t.c.
- Imprint: The statement which covers the place of publication, publisher and date of
publication.
- Call number: The notation used to identify and locate a particular work. It consists of
the classification number and the author name.
- Author: The person or corporate body responsible for the intellectual and artistic
content of a work.
54
 - Title page: This is usually the verso of the second leaf which gives the title in full, sub-
title (if any) author’s name in full together with qualification e.t.c edition, publisher’s
name and address and date of publication.
- Title: The name of a work. This is the name by which a work is known
- Sub-title: The secondary or explanatory title following the main title. It frequently
explains the purpose of the book or shows its limits. It often follows s comma, semi-
colon, or ‘an’ ‘a’ e.g. Library and Information Science for Africa: An Introductory Text
- Edition Area: A statement in a entry indication significant text changes in a work.
- Series Note: A note stating the series title to which a book belongs. Not all books
belong to series.
- ISBN/ISSN: identification marks of a book or serial.
- Statement of Responsibility: This comprises the title and the author (s). The title of the
book and the author’s name is separated by slash (/).

PROVISION OF ACCESS POINTS (ENTRY HEADING TO LIBRARY MATERIALS

Access point is the root through which a material can be retrieved in the library. There are three
main access points or entry headings viz;
(i) Author
(ii) Title
(iii) Subject.

With very few exceptions library and information materials have three access points which are
stated above. In all cases only one of the possible headings can be used as the main entry of a
document. The AACR2R enables the librarian to determine which among the possible headings
will be the main entry and which will be the added entry.

Generally speaking, an author is defined as a person chiefly responsible for the creation of the
intellectual or artistic content of the document. Thus, an author is expected to be the main entry
point of a document (book), but there are situations in which more than one author may be
55
responsible for the creation of intellectual and artistic content of a book in the same capacities. In
all cases, only one of the possible authors responsible for a work can be made the main access
point. In some situations, when no author is ascribed to a work or when a book has more than three
authors and none of the authors can claim to be mainly responsible for the intellectual and artistic
content of the work then, the title becomes the main access point (entry). Whatever be the case, it
must be borne in mind that the chief source of information (i.e. verso page) for book is usually
from where the access point is chosen for that item.

AACR2R has provided rules to govern the cataloguers on how to consistently apply the rules for
different situation example of some of the situations are shown below:

WORKS OF SINGLE OR PERSONAL AUTHOR SHIP

This means a book written by one author. In such situation the name of the author automatically
becomes the main entry and added entry is required for the title.

Example:

Hd
68
Ogi OGIJI, Patricks
Mathematical Problems In Macro-
Economic/Patricks Ogiji-Makurdi: Aboki publisher,
2004
Viii, 1040; iii, 26CM, tables, index
Bibliography: 0. 104

56
 ISBN: 978-37355-00
24785
i. Title
Note:

(i) The author main entry heading begins at the left margin but not too close to the
margin, the surname is capitalized and separated from his other names by a comma.
(ii) The title and statement of responsibility begins the first paragraph below it and is
indented four letters inside to the right.

WORKS OF JOINT AUTHORSHIP/SHARED RESPONSIBILITY.

This is a situation when names of person who are responsible for the intellectual and artistic
content of a document are in the same capacity that is they performed and shared the same job. In
this situation the following should be considered.

(i) When the principal author is clearly indicated, enter the work under the name of the
principal author and make an “added entry” for other authors if they are not more
than three.
(ii) When responsibility is shared by two or more authors enter the work under the first
named author. Added entry is needed for the title and the joint author (s). If they are
not more than three.
(iii) Where the principal author is not indicated and the authors are not more than three,
use the first named author as the main entry and make added entry for the other two
joint authors.

Example:

Z
422.1
WIT
WITTEN, Ian H.
How to Build a Digital library/
Ian H. Witten [and] David Bainbridge-San Francisco:
Morgan publishers, 2003
Xviii, 508P, ill, tables
57
 Bibliography
ISBN: 1-55860-790-0
4671
i. Title 1. Bainbridge, David

WORKS OF MORE THAN THREE AUTHORS

When more than three persons are responsible for the intellectual and artistic content of a book
whatever condition might be, whether the principal author is indicated, enter the title of the work
as main entry and make an added entry on the first named person as appeared on the chief
information page.

Example:

Q
189
INT
INTRODUCTION to computer studies for
Schools and college/Agba John,
Simon Abur, Terna Tor and Terngu Hon.
-Makurdi: Aboki Publishers, 2006
Vii, 110P, iii, tables
Bibliography: 108-110
ISBN: 978-30671-5
2261
58
 i. Agba, John

AN EDITED/COMPILED WORK
The title of the work can also become a main entry when the work is an edited work or is compiled
by someone. When this happens the editor’s or compiler’s name is made an added entry. Only the
first significant word is capitalize but not articles like “an” “a” and “the” except their first letter,
e.g. The History of Tiv People.
Example
L
755
THE
THEMES on Teacher Education And
Instruction in Nigeria/Edited
by B.A Ogwo---Onitsha: cape
publishers, 1999
xi, 257P, iii, Table
Bibliography: P. 247-254
ISBAN: 978-2991-95-3
4661
1. Ogwo B.A ed.

WORKS OF CORPORATION AUTHORSHIP

Corporate body is an organized or group of persons that is identified by a particular name and that
or may acts as an entity e.g. associations, institutions, government, firms e.t.c works written by
such corporate organizations should be entered under the name of the corporate organizations and
provide added entry for the editor or author as in the example below;
S
422
COM
COMMONWEALTH AGRICULTURAL
BUREAU
Perspective in world agriculture/
(compiled by) CAB- England:
Gresham press, 1980

59
 Xvii, 532P., iii.
Includes bibliographies
4662 ISBN: 0-05198 -458-4
1. Agriculture i. Title

Other situations include:

- Works of unknown Author: When a book or document has unknown or uncertain

authorship the title of the book should be used as the main entry.
- Works of modification.
This is where a person writes a book originally and another person modifies it in any
the four following ways:
(i) Adaptation: Make the adapter the main entry
(ii) Illustration: Make the author the main entry
(iii) Revision: The author should be the main entry
(iv) Translation: The original author should be the main entry.
- Works of interview: The person whose words are emphasized should be the main entry.

HOW TITLE ADDED ENTRY IS PREPARED

Z
622
ADO
Library and information service policies
Adomi, Eshaarenana E.
Library and information service policies/
Esharenana E. Adomi.—Binin City: Ethiope
Publishing corporation, 2008.
Viii, 128P, iii, index
ISBN: 978-123-019-3
6211 1. Title. 1. Subject

SUBJECT ADDED ENTRY

60
 622
ADO
Library and information Science
Adomi, Eshaarenana E.
Library and information service policies/
Esharenana E. Adomi. —Binin City: Ethiope
Publishing corporation, 2008.
Viii, 128P, iii, index
ISBN: 978-123-019-3
6211 1. Title. 1. Subject

The summary of the steps to be followed when preparing catalogue entries is given, below:

Author

Title/statement of Responsibility-Edition e.g. 2nd or 3rd as the case may be-place of publication:
publisher, date of publication. Collation area: this is about the physical description of the book. It
indicates the total number of pages, illustrations/ (if any), height of the book or size, table, notes,
series and volume of index Bibliography.

ISBN (International Standard Book Number) this number appears in four groups of Arabic
numerals eg.978-123-019-3, the first stands for the country of origin of the book, the second stands
for the publisher, third for the item and the fourth for check digit.

Tracing: this shows all the additional entries of the work.

CLASSIFICATION

Classification is an aspect of cataloguing which is refers to as subject cataloguing. Classification is

a process of grouping. It involves putting like entries and separating unlike entries. It can also be
defined as a systematic and logical ordering or placement of materials on the basis of their degree
of likeness.

Ordinarily, classification deal with the arrangement of ideals or objects in a systematic order. In
Librarianship when talking about Classification we are concerned with documents (i.e library
materials e.g. books, periodicals, e.t.c) and the aim is to arrange them in the most helpful and
permanent order.

Classification in library and information science parlance is the process of grouping together of
materials according to their subject Similarities or according to their subject differences.
Classifying library materials is to get the book to the reader or the reader to the book in the
quickest possible time. In doing this classification schemes are used such as:

1. Bibliographic Classification Scheme by Bliss publishers in 1935

61
2. Subject Classification Schemes (SC) by Brown publishers in 1904
3. Colon Classification Schemes (CC) by Raganathan in 1873
4. Expressive Classification Schemes (EC) by cutter in 1891
5. Dewey Decimal Classification Schemes (DDC) 1876
6. The Library of Congress Classification Schemes (LC) 1901
7. Bernard Classification Schemes (BC) mostly used in medical libraries

Among the above mentioned classification schemes, Dewey Decimal Classification Schemes
(DDC) and the Library of Congress Classification Schemes (LC) are the most popular and widely
use. The LC is common and mostly used in academic libraries (Colleges, polytechnics and
universities) while the DDC is common and mostly used in school libraries (primary and post
primary schools) and public libraries e.t.c.

The Dewey Decimal Classification scheme (DDC).

This classification scheme was put by Melville Dewey in 1876. Dewey in his classification
schemes divided the whole human being knowledge into 10 main classes. Each class is further
sub-division into 10 sub-divisions and each sub-division into another 10 divisions. It is continued
till the most specific class for a higher specialized subject can be achieved. This is why DDC is
been referred to as a hierarchical schemes of classification which proceeds from the general to the
specific. The basic arrangement is by discipline and specific subject can occur in any number of
disciplines. This is because each aspect of a specific subject would go into a different discipline
which is made possible by the relative index. DDC uses only numbers hence it is called a pure
notation.

The 10 classes of DDC include.

000 - General works

100 - Philosophy

200 - Religion

300 - Social sciences

400 - Languages

500 - Pure science

600 - Technology or (Applied science)

700 - The Arts, Music, Recreations

62
 800 - Literature

900 - History, Geography, Travel and biography.

Each of the above classes can be sub divided until the notation or class number for a highly
specific sub-division is derived.

Characteristics of the DDC.

1. It divides subject by discipline, e.g. one subject like air may be found under social
science, pure or technology (Applied science)

2. It has a three digit base, i.e. any class number must have at least a three future
notation

3. It uses Arabic numerals and Decimal point in its notation hence it is called pure
notation

4. It has a subject index which is usually in a separate volume called the relative
(relative index)

5. It has memory aids and synthetic devices which enable the notation to build up
subject easily

6. It is flexible and versatile in application, that is, the notation can be used equally for
a broad classification and for a detailed one.

7. It is easily adopted to suit the classification of large and small library.

The Library of Congress Classification Scheme (LC)

This classification scheme was put forward by Herbert putman in1901, who was the Librarian of
the library of congress, to help serve the USA congress. The library of congress classification
scheme was not based on any philosophical system for classifying knowledge. It was designed to
classify the books of the library of congress collections The makers of the scheme were guided by
practical consideration rather than some theoretical principle of classification. No attempt was
originally made to create a perfect general classification scheme which could be used by other
libraries. The scheme was devised by subject specialists after the physical arrangement of existing
collection on the shelves, hence It is said to be based on literary warrant (Agitating, Attaché and
Adding, 2005).

The LC divided human knowledge into 21 classes; each of the classes is coded by one or two
letters followed by numbers. These letters and numbers are referred to as “class mark “The class
mark” is printed at the base of spine of every book. It is also shown at the top left-hand corner of
the catalogue card and against the subject in the subject index.
63
LC is the most the commonly used classification scheme in academic libraries in Nigeria and it is
more suitable for large libraries or libraries with large collection. LC is a mixed notation because it
consists of both letters (capital alphabets) and Arabic numerals for main and sub-classes at
secondary and tertiary level. Decimal numbers are used to specify a particular document.

Below is an outline of the library of congress classification scheme:

A. General works
B. Philosophy, psychology and Religion
C. Auxiliary sciences of History
D. General and world History
E. History of America
F. History of the united states and British, Dutch, French and Latin America
G. Geography, Anthropology and sports
H. Social sciences

J. Political science

K. Law

L. Education

M. Music

N. Fine Art

P. Language and literature

Q. Science

R. Medicine

S. Agriculture

T. Technology

U. Military science

V. Naval science

Z. Bibliography and Librarianship.

The LC does not use the letters I, O, X,W,Y. as a symbol for the main classes but they are used in
combination with the main classes.

The LC has some few mnemonic devices namely:

G - Geography

64
 M - Music

T - Technology

Mnemonic devices enable an individual to remember something easily or it aids the memory or
remembrance.

Importance of the Classification Schemes.

Classification scheme is an established standard reference recommended for use at all Libraries to
serve as a guide to their classification and cataloguing activities Therefore, their importance cannot
be over emphasized for the following reasons.

Uniformity: Cataloguing and classification are done based on the rules stipulated in the standard
established books such as classification schemes, AACR, subject headings lists e.t.c. This is done
for the purpose of uniformity. Libraries all over the world without minding where it is located but
when they adopt the same classification scheme uniformity will be maintained. This means a book
catalogued and classified in Nigeria using the same classification schemes will be the same with
the one catalogued and classified in Europe, U.S.A. or elsewhere in the world without minding the
person involved in the processes provided the rules are applied and used accurately.

Standardization: The use of classification schemes conforms libraries to the standard of

cataloguing and classification. The rules stated in the classification schemes serves as a principle
of conduct to maintain the standard of cataloguing and classification of libraries materials by
cataloguers and classifiers. Imagine what may happen if every library in the world should adopt its
own method of cataloguing and classifying library materials without conforming to the
classification schemes. The principle of standardization will not be achieved neither would they be
any uniformity.

Access to library materials: The purpose for the acquisition of library materials in any library is to
provide the materials for the use of library users. If the materials in a collection of any library
cannot be accessed by the users, the purpose of such collection is useless. The classification
schemes are recommended for use in libraries for cataloguing and classification in order to have a
definite access for library collections. Thus, they provide subject heading lists and classification
numbers which enable the library user to have easy access to the library collections.

Retrieval of library materials: Every material store in the library collection must be at one time or
the other requested for either by the library users or the library staff themselves. In most cases
retrieving materials in the library collection becomes a problem either because the materials are
not properly organized or arranged based on the principles or the provision made in the
classification schemes. Library materials if properly processed inline with the provisions made in
the classification schemes easy retrieval of the materials in library collection will be achieved
hence the access points and classification numbers ease the retrieval of library materials.
65
 Chapter Seven

READERS AND LIBRARY

INTRODUCTION:

Order, they say is heaven’s first law, if we wish to be there, we should learn to be law abiding right
here. It is also true that no serious activity can take place in order less environment in order to
curtail the excesses of individuals, some rules and regulations have been introduced in the library
failure to obey their rules could lead to unpleasant consequences. Readers’ cooperation in this
regard is therefore essential. Readers need to seek assistance from the library staff when ever in
trouble.

Therefore, in order to maintain order and care for the library resources, the following rules and
regulations need to be observed by readers.

66
 Library Registration

Every member of the institution is eligible to register as a member of the library and may use the
library for lending and reference purposes. Library registration also helps in administrative
purposes especially in planning, budgeting and evaluation. There are procedures for registration of
staff, students and external users.

There procedures may vary from library to libraries. For instance, in academic library both the
academic and non-academic staff is entitled to use and borrow books after registration.

Registration of Students:

Returning students that have not registered in the library before and fresh students are required to
bring letter of admission, receipt of payment of all necessary fees and certain number of their
recent passport size photographs. After this, the students are given borrowers registration cards and
identity cards for completion for processing after attestation of borrower’s registration card by the
students, heads of departments (HODs). The borrower’s registration cards are filled and identity
card duly signed by the circulation librarian and the returned to owner (students) as entry permit
into the library.

It is expected that students should renew their library registration at the beginning of each
academic session.

Library Orientation:

This is conducting of new readers of a library from one section to another with activities in each
section performed as they watch. This is aimed at acquainting users with the activities of the
library on a whole. Library orientation begins at the matriculation of fresh students. It is more or
less an introduction of fresh students to the library. This is a form of personal greetings to freshers
by the Librarian. In other words, library orientation is an attempt by library to familiarize users
with every aspect about the library.

Use of Seats:

It is a practice in libraries throughout the world that readers carry along with their files or books
not reading or when leaving the library. Reservation of seats for whatever reason is therefore not
allowed.

67
Book Mutilation and Theft:

This is process whereby pages are torn out of library materials or underlined or making comment
in the margins of the reading materials. It could also involve theft of materials out of the library by
some dubious students or other clientele for selfish use. This is a serious anti social activity which
impairs the usefulness of library resources not only for present readers but also the future ones as
well. It is also an insult to storehouse of civilization. It not only drains badly needed financial
resources but also prostrates and frequently infuriates the library clientele.

No library’s clientele should mark the pages of library materials by placing a hard object such as
biros, pencils or dog ear such offender will face server disciplinary action.

Loss of Library Materials:

Readers are responsible for the safe keeping of all library materials issued to them and one
required to pay for replacement in the event of loss or damage.

General Regulations:

1. Books and other library materials consulted should be left on the reading tables after use.

This ensures that books are returned to their correct places on the shelves by trained staff so
that such materials can be found again easily by the readers.

2. Silence should be maintained in the library at all time.

3. Eating, drinking and smoking are not allowed in the library.
4. Animals or pests should not be brought in to the library.
5. No library clientele should engage in a fight with library staff or among themselves. Report
all grievances and other cases of misunderstanding to the Librarian.
6. Borrowed materials must be returned to the library as at when due.
7. Overdue fines can be charged on overdue books/materials.

68
8. The use of any form of naked flames, including candles is prohibited in the library.
9. Readers are required to be well behaved in the library.
10. Bags, umbrellas e.t.c. should be kept in a place provided for them.
11. When leaving the library all materials /Books must be subjected to a search by the library
personnel at the exit.
General Services Rendered by Libraries:
Libraries are involved in the study of readers needs. Library services would be considered
satisfactory not only when users expectation are congruent or synchronized with the role
perception of the libraries, but not also when library clientele expectations are actively being
fulfilled, therefore, libraries, cannot be expected to fulfill their role and carry out their
responsibilities effectively if their institutional authorities fail to provide them with adequate funds
personnel and physical facilities just as if the Librarian cannot collaborate with the staff in building
up the library collections and in orienting new users. Therefore, general services rendered by
libraries include loan, reference, photographing current awareness, bindery, indexing and
abstracting, reading space, photographs, video coverage, lamination of ID cards and documents,
telephone and internet services, as well as inter-library loan/ cooperation.

Lending Services:
Library clientele are expected to register with the library to enable them borrow books. The date
due to return borrowed materials may vary from library to library. Loans may be renewed provided
other readers have not requested for the borrowed materials may not be loaned out. All borrowing
takes place at the circulation of library.
Reference Services:
Reference services helps users to be better informed and enlightened. Reference services can be
directional, ready reference or research based. All these go along way to preparing students for
their examinations and make examination malpractice unattractive.

Reference involves the libraries who are the middleman between the reader and possible sources
directing users to bibliographic tools that are guides to the literature on the subject or providing the
required information. This saves the time of the library clientele from endless search.

69
Photocopying services:

Not all library materials are loanable photocopying services at subsidized rate will enable students
make copies of relevant materials that they have need and be well prepared for examination. This
will curb thefts, pilfering and mutilation of library materials. However, copyright regulations are
observed in the use of these facilities.

Current Awareness Services (CAS)

This is derived from the need to keep up to date with progress with in a file. It is an essential
function of management to make the member of its organization aware promptly of such new
information which will likely contribute to performing their individual tasks with the highest
possible degrees of competences.

Selective Dissemination of information (SDI) is a part of current awareness services (CAS) that is,
known research interests of staff are tabulated and any information in publication is speedily
brought to the attention of the clientele since knowledge is not static, there is need to keep pace
with current developments in fields of knowledge especially in science and technology.

Bindery Services:

Bindery of book, issues of periodicals, repair of damage texts and other materials are undertaken at
the bindery section at a reasonable cost to clientele.

Past Question:

The library makes available to users past question papers. This serves as a guide to most students
in preparing for examinations. This also goes a long way to curbing examination malpractices.

Indexing and Abstracting Services:

Indexes describe sources of information and indicate where they can be found. An abstract is a
concise summary of a document such as journal article, a text book, a report, conference papers,
thesis etc.
70
Indexing and Abstracting services assist library users in searching for relevant
information/literature. Searching would be impossible to do effectively within a reasonable time
scale without them.

Reading Space:

Reading spaces in libraries enable readers read within the library without necessary borrowing
books. This service is enjoyed by registered members only.
Photographs, video coverage, lamination of ID card and other documents: There services are
offered at the audiovisual section of the library.

Telephone/Intercom and internet services:

There services are provided in modern libraries, library users can make phone call, send electronic
mails, and browse/surf the internet for recent publications that are available. These could be
publications, published within or outside the country.

Inter Library Loan Service and Cooperation:

Requests that cannot be met within a particular library are catered for through inter library loan
service. Also libraries can direct their clientele to other libraries if they cannot satisfy their
information requests. Letters of introduction are given to users to visit other libraries.

71
 CHAPTER EIGHT

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

A library is a repository of wisdom of great thinkers of the past and present. It is a social institution
charged with the responsibility of disseminating knowledge to the people without discrimination.
The holdings of the library are priceless heritage of mankind as they preserve facts, ideas, thoughts
accomplishments and evidence of human development in multifarious areas, ages and directions.
The past records constitute a natural resources and indispensable to the present generation as well
as to the generation to come. Any loss to such materials is simply irreplaceable. Therefore,
preserving this intellectual, cultural heritage becomes not only the academic commitment but also
moral responsibility of the librarian and information scientists who are in charge of these
repositories. Besides proper dissemination of library materials is possible if the documents are in
good and usable condition. These demands for the proper preservation and conservation of library
materials. Any librarian responsible for the preservation of these documentary heritages should
know the various causes of deterioration of library materials and the methods for their
preservation.

Causes of Deterioration of Library Materials

Deterioration is a change of original state of any material by interaction between the object and
factors of destruction. The different types of deterioration of paper based materials are reflected in
wear and tear, shrinkage, cracks, brittleness, warping, bio infestation, discoloration, abrasion, hole,
dust and dirt accumulation etc. generally library materials are susceptible to deterioration by the
following factor:

i. Environmental (Climatic Factors) factors like light, heat, humidity and moisture, dust
and dirt, water.
ii. Biological factors: Micro-organisms, insects and rodents.
iii. Chemical factors
iv. Human factors and
v. Disasters

72
Environmental Factors

Environmental factors such as high temperature, relative humidity, exposure to rays of sunlight are
leading causes of deterioration of library materials. This is because the chemical constituents of
paper react with each other very easily and some environmental serves as catalysts to these
chemical reactions. This leads to rapid deterioration of the paper. High temperature and rapid
humidity speed up chemical reactions in the paper. Long exposures to sunlight, which is one of the
factors that accelerate deterioration, also affect library materials. The ultraviolet radiations of light
are mainly responsible for photochemical degradation of paper which takes place rapidly when
paper is exposed to sunlight.

Other environmental factors that affect deterioration of papers include airborne pollutants like dust
which is highly dangerous for the library and archival collection. Dust is hygroscopic in nature and
when mixed with high humidity, it is transform into dirt and if this dirt sticks to the surface of
books it becomes difficult to remove.

Biological Factors

The deterioration caused by biological agents such as micro-organism (Fungus and bacteria),
insects and rodents is generally known as bio-deterioration. Almost all book components, be it
paper, leather, textile or strawboard used for binding are prone to attacks by these biological
agents. The environmental conditions, especially humid conditions, favour these agents to
accelerate the deterioration of paper. Because of humid conditions, it is very easy for the agents to
survive in a library or archives and thereby cause damage to materials. The microbiological
organisms such as fungi are the most destructive because their spores reproduce easily when they
have the required conditions. They colour the paper from white to green to yellow. They produce
variety of colours in the paper, which are sign of deterioration. For example, when brown sports
appear on a paper it is as a result of mould and mildew which is caused by high humidity and
temperature.

Insects such as termites, book worms, book lice, silverfish and cockroaches, and rodents also
attack library materials. They are especially attracted by starch in the book bindings and glues.
Dust and dirt also attract these insects. They are generally found in dark places and active at nights.

73
Rodents include mice, rats, squirrels and many other species. Mice and rats are mainly found in
libraries and they find their ways into buildings through dry drains and openings in doors and
windows. They eat and destroy materials made up of paper, cloth, leather glue etc.

Chemical Factors

In the manufacturing of paper sometimes, fibers are used with low cellulose contents and some
chemical compounds like alum, rosin etc. are used for sizing paper which cause acidic effect and
facilitate chemical deterioration of the paper with the passage of time. Beside, in the atmosphere
among various constituents unwanted materials such as oxides of carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulphides are also present. Because of the moisture absorbed by paper, the materials get
affected. The notable deleterious substances for the library materials are sulphur dioxide is a
hazard or cellulose material like paper and cloth. The most familiar effect in libraries is the brown
and brittle edges of books caused by sulphur dioxide. Most of the nitrogen dioxide comes from
automobile exhausts and when combines with oxygen and water turns into nitric acid. The nitric
acid has strong acidic effects and attacks the dyes in ink, cloth, paper and leather. Ozone acts as a
powerful destroyer of organic materials. It makes the colours of fabric book covers fade and the
book binding materials such as leather, gelatin, glue and paste are also susceptible to deterioration
by ozone in humid atmosphere.

Human Factors

Human beings also handle books roughly and this often leads to rapid deterioration, especially
when they are defaced. The standard care and handling of books by custodian and users is often
pretty low, improper storage, faulty repairs, rough handling, deliberate abuse, folding the fore-
edges of pages as a mark of reading, marking by pen, mutilation, vandalism are all examples of
deterioration of books by human beings.

Disasters

No library is exempted to the devastations that can occur as a result of natural or man made
disasters. Disasters such as fire and floods are also major causes of deterioration. Wars, civil strife,
high winds, cyclones, earthquakes are also agents of deterioration for library collections.

Preventive Measures for Environmental Factors

74
Control of environmental factors partially begins from selection of site, the planning and
construction of the library building and also the soil on which it will be constructed. It is important
to choose the best architectural design for the library having cross ventilation facilities for free air
circulation within the building.

If there is a need to use wooden materials, the wood selected should be well seasoned and must be
treated to avoid insects. Growth of plants near the building must be avoided, and trees with the
types of roots which can damage the building foundation should be avoided. It is always better to
construct the building away from traffic and bus stops to avoid dust and dirt. Provision of adequate
number of air conditions, electric fans and a few exhaust fans will facilitate air circulation in the
library.

Sunlight should be prevented from failing directly on papers because the sun is great emitted of
ultraviolet rays. The windows must be provided with colour curtains, which prevent failing of
direct light as well as absorb ultraviolet rays. Lemon yellow or green colour glass panes should be
fitted in window panes as these are more effective in blocking ultraviolet rays. It is extremely good
to fit acrylic plastic sheet in the panes of window because it filters out ultraviolet rays to a greater
extend than colour glass. The ultraviolet rays of fluorescent tubes should be filtered by covering
the tubes.

As high humidity and temperature are more hazardous for library materials, thus, library materials
should be housed in air-conditioned environment so that moderate temperature and relative
humidity can be maintained. It is advisable to maintain ideal room temperature (20-25oC) and
relative humidity of (RH45-55%) for preservation of document.

Preventive Measures for Biological Factors

Since stagnant air, dampness, dark and dingy places in a library facilitate the growth of biological
pests, good housekeeping and maintenance of optimum storage condition is necessary to control
the propagation of the insects. There should be regular dusting of library materials as this would
eliminate most of the microbiological organisms that accelerate deterioration. It is preferable to
avoid contact of book racks with walls (at least 15 cm away from the walls) to eliminate dampness.
Attending to cracks, crevice and loose joints in floors and walls eliminate the possibility of insects
hiding in these places. Presence of edibles inside the library should not be allowed. It is also
necessary to regularly fumigate library materials, so that insects that damage books could be
eliminated. Periodic use of insecticidal powder at the dark corner walls, beneath the racks and
75
almirahs is a good precautionary measure to prevent insect. Measures should be taken as much as
possible to keep the pests away from library materials.

Preventive Measure for Chemical Factors

If the air pollution is controlled there will not be any external acidity in the paper materials. One of
the best ways controlling atmospheric pollutants is filtering of the air intake in to storage areas
which can be attained by air conditioning system operating for 24 hours throughout the year.
Without facility simple measures like wrapping the books and manuscript cloth or placing them in
book containers reduces the effects of pollution to a great extent. The books kept inside cupboards
are better protected than those which are kept outside. Documents kept inside folders are safer than
those which are kept in the open. Proper care should be taken to save books and documents from
dust. It is preferable to use vacuum cleaner and fine brushes for dusting of shelves and books. No
chemical formulations should be applied directly on book covers, since they may have an adverse
effect on the books as well as users of the books and staff of the library. Wooden storage should be
avoided as it gives off volatile acidic vapours, if it is to be used, it must be covered with coats of
acrylic emulsion paint. Besides, acid free paper board and good quality materials should be used
for repair and restoration of documents.

Preventive Measures for Human Factors

There are certain do’s and don’ts which the library staff and the users should follow to increase
the longevity of the library resources. Among which are:

i. Important books and manuscripts should be kept in special prepared containers.

ii. For carrying a large number of books, trolleys should be used. Utmost care should be taken
while transporting rare, valuable and delicate books.
iii. Care should be taken while photocopying the books as at that time considerable stress is
imposed of the material and the bindings suffer most and also the spine damages.
iv. Use bookend to support books when shelves are not full. Books should not be shelved too
tightly or too loosely.
v. It must always be ensured while opening books that pages are not torn and covers are not
damaged. To turn a page, lift the top corner and lightly slip the finger tips down the fore-
edge supporting the page.
vi. Pages should never be folded otherwise creases will be formed and they may be torn at the
folds. Corner of pages should not be folded to mark pages.
76
vii. Avoid licking of fingers as an aid to turn pages.
viii. Underling must be avoided.
ix. Books should not be left open on the reading table, face downwards.
x. Learning on an open book should be avoided since this can damage the spine and binding.
xi. Never allow a book to stand on it fore edge
xii. When a book is displayed pen, never use metal clips or pins to hold book pages open.

Disaster Preparedness

The library should have policy of managing disaster. Some disasters such as fire, flood and
earthquake might occur at any time. It is necessary for a library to have in place a policy that will
mitigate the effects of disaster. For example, in case of fire disaster there should be abundance of
fire extinguishers at appropriate places in the library and staff should be trained on how to handle
such instrument in quenching a fire. It might be necessary for a library to insure its holdings
against such risks of fire, flood and earthquakes

77
 Chapter Nine

LIBRARY AUTOMATION

This chapter will start with knowing what is computer before dwelling in the library automation.

Definition of computer

There are several definitions of computer forwarded by different authors, some of the definitions
include:

French, C.S (1996), defined computer as a device, which works under the control of a stored
program, automatically accepting and processing data to produce information which is the result of
that processing, according to kola (1996), a computer is an electro mechanical device, which under
the control of a set of instructions or programs desired functions or carries out any processing task
and generates information. Akona (1999) defines computer as an electronic machine that accepts
data in a prescribed format, processes the data and finally gives information.

Odion, Agana & Gbaden (2003), defined computer as an electronic device that operates under the
control of instruction stored in its, memory accepts inputs or data supplied through an input device,
processes the input or data into information which can be stored in its memory for future use, or
communicate to the user via available output device. Ikwun (2004), sees computer as an electronic
machine in various sizes, which accepts unprocessed information (raw data) from an input
medium, processed and manipulates that data, stores the data where necessary and gives a result as
an output in a form understandable to the user. The author further stated that, the processes of
accepting the raw data, manipulating and eventually producing the end result do not necessarily
have to be understood by the user, although the user would have instructed the computer
appropriately through relevant programs or packages.

Kembe, Imande & Gbaden (2003), defined computer as an electronic device that is capable of
receiving data, processing same on the basis of previously installed instructions and making the
result available, if desired.

Based on the above definitions, computer can be defined as an electronic device that accept data
through input devices, processes the data into information with the aid of central processing unit
(CPU), and stores the information which is the result of that processes in its memory or generate
the result to the user through output devices.

The depth of understanding computer differs from region to region depending on

the scientific and technological exposure as well as advancement in such regions. The impact of
computers on human beings in recent years has been quite pervasive and virtually every field of
human Endeavour has witness the influence of the computer.

Characteristics of computers

78
According to Kembe, Imande & Gbaden (2003), computer is in different shapes and forms but all
display the following characteristics:

1. Accuracy: Results produced by computer are highly accurate.

2. Speed: computer is capable of being performing operations at very high speeds
measured in nano seconds (billionths of seconds) or even pico seconds (trillionths
of seconds).
3. Reliability: computer is capable of being relied upon to produce accurate results.
4. Versatility: computers have different uses and this is the reason why they are found
in several fields.
5. Storage: computers have very large storage capabilities, an area capable of storing
information for future use or retrieval.
6. Decision-making: Computers have the ability to use simple logical rules to make
decisions for their internal control, or for the control of some external activity.
7. Economy: A computer acquired in an organization is sure to pay for itself in terms
of the benefits it would provide, after some time, since it can generate revenue for
the organization.

Components of Computer

There are three components of computer system. These include:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People ware or human ware

Hardware

This is the physical structures, which make up a computer system. The main hardware elements of
a computer system are grouped under the following:

1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. Central processing unit (CPU)
4. External or auxiliary storage.

Input Devices

Input devices are devices used to translate data/information which is recognized by human beings
into a state that can be processed by a computer. Input device help the computer user to
communicate with the computer. There are many types of input devices they include: computer
punched cards, keyboard, scanner, mouse, light pen, joy stick e.t.c.

79
Output devices

These are devices that translate the processed data into a form that human beings can interpret,
output devices convey information from the computer to the user in a form that is easy to
understand and useful to people. Output devices include, Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor,
printer, speakers, computer output microfilm (com),

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is made up of three components namely, the memory, control unit and Arithmetician and
Logic Unit (ALU). CPU is referred to as the brain of computer. The memory as a part of CPU
stores data, instructions and results of processing. From the access perspective, there are two types
of memory. These are Radom Access memory (RAM) and Read only memory (ROM).

The control unit is the nerve center of the computer that coordinates and controls all hardware
operations. It directs the manner and sequence of operation of the other units. It controls the flow
of data and instructions to and from the memory, backing store, during input and output and within
the CPU itself. The control is achieved by a master program called the operating system. This is
normally supplied by the computer manufacturer.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) also is a part of CPU which actually processed data. It receives
the data to be processed from the main memory, processes the data and the results produced are in
turn sent back to the memory, the ALU performs two basic functions viz:

Arithmetic operation e.g. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division e.t.c

Logic operations e.g. AND, OR, NOT e.t.c.

Auxiliary or External Storage:

This can also be referred to as backing storage or secondary storage. The computer uses the
auxiliary storage to increase the power of the computer by storing large quantities of data for rapid
access. Ideally, all data processing should be stored in the main storage so that internal operations
can be carried out at maximum speed. But because the computers main memory is expensive and
limited in capacity, the auxiliary storage is used to supplement it. Devices capable of both input
and output can serve as backing storage devices, e.g.: Magnetic tapes, magnetic disk (such as hard
disk & floppy disk), flash disk, compact disk e.t.c.

SOFTWARE

Before a computer can perform any task, it must read in a set of instructions called programs that
tells the computer what operations to perform. Computer professionals called programmers
prepare the instruction or programs.

Software therefore, is a set of programs or instructions and documentation that direct the operation
of a computer system (kembe, Imande and Gbaden 2003).
80
There are two types of software viz:

1. System software
2. Application software

System software:

These are programs that control and support the operation of a computer itself. It enhances the
general capacities of the system. These set of programs are usually supplied by the manufacturer.
System software can be grouped into three viz:

a. System management programs: They manage the use of hardware, software and
data resources of the computer system during execution. Examples are operating
system and data communication monitor.
b. System support program: They support the operations and use of a computer system
by providing a variety of support services. Examples: Utilizes, Editors, and
Libraries.
c. System Development programs: These help users develop programs and
procedures. Examples: Assemblers, compilers and interpreters.

Application software:

These are programs designed to direct computer to perform specific jobs for user. They are written
to meet the individual need of user. Application software is grouped into the followings.

i. World processing application packages: These are used for creation and production
of document such as memos, books letters, e.t.c. Examples include, Microsoft
world, world perfect, word star e.t.c.
ii. Spreadsheets: These are used for reporting and decision making within
organizations. At home it can be used for budgeting or income planning. Examples
include: Microsoft Excel, Lotus, up planner, Quattro pro super-cal e.t.c
iii. Database management application packages: These are meant to organize, store,
update and retrieve data. Example include: Dbase, Microsoft Access, Oracle e.t.c
iv. Desktop publishing Application packages: Examples are page makes, CorelDraw
e.t.c
v. Programming applications: Example includes BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL,
PASCAL e.t.c

Peopleware or Humanware

These are the people that make use of the computer. Without people the computer cannot function
on its own. These people are grouped into three viz;

(i) Computer professionals: these are computer educators, computer analyst, computer
programmers, computer engineer e.t.c

81
 (ii) Computer end-users: These are people that make use of the computer for their day
to day activities in places like business centers, banks, libraries, markets e.t.c
(iii) Computer policy makers: There are those that make laws concerning the
manufacturing and use of computers.

Classification of Computers

Computers are classified based on type, size and purpose.

Types of Computers

There are three basic types of computers, they are:

1. Digital computer: These types of computers are programmed to process data that can be
meaningfully represented in numbers and alphabets (letters). They process discrete signals.
All data originating either as alphabetical characters or symbols are converted in a series of
binary digits stored and processed in this form and output converted back to characters or
symbols. A personal computer for example is a digital computer.
2. Analog computer: An Analog computer is programmed to process continuous signals.
Analog computers are akin to measuring instruments such as thermometers and voltmeters
with pointers and dials. These computer process data in the form of electrical voltages,
which are variable, like the variable positions of a pointer on a dial.

The output from analog computers is often in the form of smooth graphs from which information
can be read.

According kembe, Imande & Gbaden (2003) application of analog computer include:

a. Solving equations, which cannot be easily solved by digital means?

b. Providing a computer model of a changing situation. This is called a simulation.
3. Hybrid computers: hybrid computers are the attempt to the high arithmetic speed
(especially in the solution of differential equation) of the analog machine with the
flexibility of a digital machine. A hybrid computer consists of an analog and a digital
computer connected together in a single system. They employ analog to digital and vice
versa. The only disadvantage of a hybrid computer is that the user must posse’s skills in
both form of computing.

Classification of Computers by Size.

Generally, they are four major classes of computer by size. These include:

82
 1. Mainframe computers: These are the largest and most expensive size of computer and are
made up of several parts. Because of their size, they have special or higher power and
environmental control requirements and hence they are power consuming, temperature and
humidity. Mainframe requires greater management and has a high words size.
More than one user can use mainframe computers at a time by connecting individual
terminals to it and infact, they are able to support large networks of individual’s terminals.
Example of mainframe computers is IBM.360/370 etc.
2. Mini computers: These are also called medium-sized computers and are smaller, slower
and less expensive than mainframes. Mini computers have no special power or
environmental control requirements. They can perform many of the tasks that mainframes
can but only at reduced scale. User terminals can be connected to mini computers, not as
many as mainframe. They are used by medium size organization for their processing needs
or by larger organization as part of a network system.
3. Micro computers: These are built on a micro processor. A micro-processor is a chip that is
capable of performing arithmetic and logic function under program control in a bit parallel
fashion. A micro computer utilizes a microprocessor as the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
of the computer. They are the latest to be developed the smallest and the slowest of the four
sizes. They have the lowest management and other control requirements. Micro computers
are sometimes known as desktop computer, because they can fit nicely on desktops, and be
as personal computer (PCs) because they can be purchased for personal use. E.g. laptop,
palm top, pocket size e.t.c.
4. Super computers: They belong to the mainframe but have higher capacity and performance.
They are very expensive and are mostly used in military installations, oil companies, and
government establishments that have much works that needs high processing power.
Example includes, vp400, CRAY-2 e.t.c.

Classification of Computers by Purpose.

By purpose computers are classified in to two, viz.

1. Multi-purpose or general purpose computers: As the name suggests, these computers can
carry out processing tasks for a wide variety of applications and most organization will
make use of this type of computer. These computers may have in them several programs or
packages. Most business centers have these types of computers.

83
2. Dedicated or special purpose computers: These computers are fundamentally the same as
the general purpose computer in their logical structure except that they have been
programmed for a specific application. The general purpose computers be designed to carry
out only specializes tasks, thus making them dedicated.
The advent of cheap microprocessor based systems has led to an expansion of their use in
controlling machines and many household products such as washing machines and micro
ovens which are controlled by such systems.

LIBRARY AUTOMATION

The word automation has many connotations but central to them is mechanical forces. In the first
place, it can be described as a technique by which mechanical processes are subjected to some
degree of automatic control without human intervention. Automation should be seen as something
mechanical without human intervention. Our major concern here however is to understand the
concept of Library Automation.

There are several definitions of Library Automation but in this book the author sees Library
Automation as the application of computers and telecommunication devices in the library to carry
out library activities for the purpose of improving and enhancing services to library users.
Telecommunication devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave, fiber optics,
satellites, and Internet e.tc.

AREAS OF COMPUTER APPLICATION IN LIBRARY

Computer can be used variously in different sections of the library or information centers,
prominent among them are:

1. Acquisition section: computer can be used in acquisition section of the library for
book selection, book request, order placement, bibliographic details/ verification,
file maintenance, accessioning of newly acquired materials and issuance of
accession number etc.
2. Technical section: According to Ape (2010), the library catalogue is frequently used
by readers to locate and retrieve library materials. The computerization of technical
section allows new approaches to cataloguing access, such that the document under
search can be approached from many entry points by providing keyword. Thesaurus
terms, author, title, subject, call number or index number by publisher. The

84
 computer can link the book, the borrower and data information rapidly and
accurately. It can deal with returned of reserved, maintain statistics, e.t.c.
3. Circulation section: Computer can be used in circulation section for registration of
library users, production of library user’s identity cards. It can also be used for
lending operations such as returning publications, renewal, charging and
discharging, sending overdue notice and records of overdue fines. It also keeps
records of library stock and inter-library loan and alike.
4. Serial control: serial control is a major task in the library. A computer can hold
records of various particulars about serials, such as periodicity, frequency of
arrivals, whether the current issue has been received or not, whether subscriptions
have been paid or not. They are three states of serials viz, the current issue, the
retrospective or back issue and bound volume.
5. Storage of information: The use of computer in the library provides facilities for the
storage of information materials. Storage facilities such as magnetic disk and tape,
Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) floppy disk, and flash disk are used
to provide additional storage media for information. CD-ROM has brought the
existence of electronic versions of reference materials, journals and other text in
soft copies. Materials are in most cases downloaded from the Internet and saved on
the CD-ROM for consultation. With this, one can get animation, text, videos and
graphics as well as audio.
6. Dissemination of information: With the use of computer in library, information can
be conveyed from one part of the word to another within a given limited time
without hindrances. With computer, geographical distance in terms of conveyance
of information is no longer a barrier. Computer has the potential capability to
disseminate information no matter the size of the information or the distance is to
be delivered provided it is connected to the internet. Today, information travels at a
very high speed to unknown destination by the help of computers. Therefore,
information can be disseminated to any destination as when needed. With the aid of
computer, the information conveyed new can be described as the information
superhighway.

85
LIBRARY ORIENTED SOFRWARE PACKAGES.

These are the application software packages designed to carry out library operations.

Library oriented software packages are categorized into two viz:

A. Specific function software: As the name implies this carryout a specific function of
the library operation e.g. cataloguing and information retrieval. Some of these are
Integrated Technical services for windows (ITS), procite 5, omnipage pro and
library master e.t.c The first three have been tested and found trusted by University
of Jos, library (Audu, Anozie and Atamu 2006), Bayero University Kano and
Ahmadu Bello University library (Kashin Ibrahim) are also experimenting ITS for
libraries.
B. Integrated library software: This is also referred to as integrated library
management system. This carry out all library operations, it may carry out all
library operations. Prominent among these softwares are computer Documentation
System/Integrated Set of System (CDS/ISIS), The information Navigator Library
management (TIN-LIB), X-LIB, ALICE, and GLAS etc.

86
 Chapter Ten

VIRTUAL LIBRARY

Virtual library has been variously defined by different scholars in librarianship, some sees virtual
library as a collection of resources available on one or more computer systems, where a single
interface or entry point being that the user need not know where particular resources are located,
that is the location is “virtual”. Virtual library according to the free dictionary by farlex is the
worldwide collection of online books, journals and articles available on the Internet. Aina (2004)
maintained that when an electronic library or digital library is not located within any building, it is
said to be virtual library. Aina further says that it is not a “real life” library as a library is
commonly known; it uses mainly computers and computer networks by linking with many separate
libraries.

According to poulter (1993) cited in Aina (2004) a virtual library can be defined as an
“information service or resource which a user accesses via telecommunications network and which
may be an amalgam of services and resources housed in a number of different locations”. The
resources according to Aina (2004) will include: computer files, graphic files, electronic mailing
lists, discussion groups, bulletin boards, and Telnet which permits connection to a remote
computer via the Internet. Thus a virtual library is composed of electronic library,
telecommunications and computer terminals.

A virtual library according to Wise GEEK (2003) is a digital space that keeps and organizes virtual
books and their associated documents. It also can refer to a space where the books can be read.
These spaces can include computers, mobile devices and the Internet. Some virtual libraries can be
accessed for free, and others require subscriptions. Virtual libraries have evolved because of
electronic library and the world wide web of the Internet. Virtual library have been greatly
promoted by digital libraries. Because of the availability of the Internet it is now become possible
to have virtual libraries.

An electronic library according to Aina (2004) is basically a library that consists of materials and
services in electronic format rather than the print format. Thus digital materials such as electronic

87
databases, CD-ROM and materials used in the library such as video and audio tapes, microforms,
e.t.c that require the use of electricity will come under electronic library.

A digital library consists of mainly digital materials and services. The items in a digital library are
stored and processed using digital devices. They are transmitted over networks. According to
Ojedokun (2000) cited in Aina (2004), a digital library is listed as including electronic databases
on the Internet, www, CD-ROM Technology, and proprietary services such as Dialog,
inforAmerica e.t.c. Thus, a digital library is viewed as a collection of full-text and bibliographic
information sources and information technology tools.

THE INTERNET

The information superhighway or the INTRNET is the name given to the connection of all the
computers and computer networks in the world linked together through international phone
system, and all the systems in the network communicate in the same computer language or
protocol. The term INTERNET is thus an acronym of INTERnational NETwork.

The Internet is a veritable tool in Information Technology (IT) because of the invaluable nature of
information and the diverse, fast and efficient need for communicating such information. The
Internet is a collection of vast information sources of interlinked computer network. It is usually
referred to as a network of networks. Millions of computer world wide are interconnected and the
information sources in each computer are made available to all users who have access to the
Internet.

The basic language of the Internet is the Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) used to regulate the traffic of data and information to computers on the Internet. Vinton
Cerf and Robert kahn developed this language (Agana & Gbaden, 2004). The TCP/IP is a twin-
layered means of communication. While the TCP manages the splitting of the message into
packets over the computer network, the IP locates the address of the other computer.

There are different modes or levels of connection to the Internet these include, fast and direct
connection, full access, and slower connection over normal telephone line, connection through
Internet Service Provider (ISP), and connection through traditional online services.

ACCESSING THE INTERNET

88
For one to have access to the vast information resources of the Internet one needs a computer with
a fast modem, and an Internet Service Provider (ISP), a dedicated telephone line, which must be
connected to the modem. The computer has to installed with a web browser. This enables one to
visit web sites on the World Wide Web. This is actually an effort to organize information on the
Internet into hypertext searchable formats. Examples of web browsers are Netscape, cyber dog,
Lynx, Internet Explorer e.t.c. once a connection is made to the ISP, the user would be expected to
provide the user name and password. The user now has access to the internet.

INTRNET APPLICATIONS

There are many Internet applications. They include, E-mail, World Wide Web (www), Usenet or
Newsgroup, Gopher, Bulletin Board system, file sharing and Topic searching, telnet, Internet
Relay chat, downloading e.t.c. In order to locate and access or use any item of information on the
Internet, the address of the item or what is called the Universal Resource Locator (URL) must be
known. The URL is usually composed of the protocol specification, the domain specification and
the file or directory specification.

E-MAIL (Electronic Mail): This is most common resource provided and used on the Internet
worldwide. It is a system of sending and receiving electronic messages. As long as a user has an e-
mail address, he/she can enjoy this facility. Thus, users with e-mail facilities can send and receive
messages on the Internet from anywhere in the world regardless of the distance.

The advantage of an e-mail over postal system is that the message is accessed instantly once the e-
mail address is correct. One can also send any computer file, such as texts, images, e.t.c. through
file attachment. Thus, through this device, one can send full texts of documents, scanned images,
e.t.c. Another advantage of e-mail is one can send one message at the same time to many or
multiple users.

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW): (WWW) is a network of documents and files that can be
commercially accessed on the Internet in a multimedia format that is, graphics, sounds and texts.
The Hypertext Transport Protocol (http) Universal Resources Locators (URLs) are the most
popular forms on the WWW, and the resources here are web pages (sites). The protocol helps to
send Hypertext Marked up Languages (HEML) pages over the Internet.

The World Wide Web (WWW) assists the storage and retrieval of information. This is done
through computers visual display unit or monitor.
89
The massage on a www is addressed as follows: - protocol: http

Web page address: //www.domain (class). country/page topic

Example: http//www.bsum.edu.nig.com

Usenet or Newsgroup: This is another popular application on the Internet. The Usenet is a service
that offers access to newsgroup for group discussion on specific topics. The resource in Usenet
refer to articles and contributions of people interested in a particular field of study or interest e.g.
fishing, herbal machine, and sports e.t.c.

A Usenet or Newsgroup acts like a public notice board on the Internet. Any user that has access to
the Internet can read the massage on the board and react publicly by posting the message on the
board or privately sending the message through the e-mail of the contributor.

- Bulletin Board system: This is a variation of the Usenet. The bulletin Board system are
similar to Usenet, except that all files located on a single computer, usually maintained by a
single person or group, the contents of bulletin reflect the varied interests, view point, and
moral values of those that use them.
An example of this services is found with manufacturers of machinery, installations, e.t.c.
the manufacturers of the diesel power plants, which BCC (PLC) uses in the generation of
Internal power supply, have written severally recently requesting BCC (PLC) to come on
line (connect to the internet), so as to enjoy the privilege of receiving information from
service bulletins within 24 hours of their release as compared to two months from the
regular mail.
- Gopher: This helps to locate and retrieve files on the Internet. It normally requires the
address of the gopher server. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) URL are used to locate files on
the FTP servers usually anonymous FTP server (i.e. files that you can log into using the
“anonymous” as your login ID and your E-mail address as your password). The facility
here includes file transferring.
- File Sharing and Topic Searching: One of the original Internet goals was world wide
information sharing locating a subject within the Internet is analogous to locating a phone
number by using a telephone directory. Locations of interest on the Internet may be found
by first gaining access to search sites. The user supplies a word or a phrase and the site
replies with a list of Internet locations where such information can be found. The search is
free of charge and takes only a couple of seconds:
90
- Internet Relay Chat: This service allows a group of people using anonymous names
(aliases) to send immediate message to one another. It is most popular among young people
most especially with the advent of social networks connection brings the user in contact
with a large number of other users all round the world. Chat rooms or channels, which
feature specific subjects or topics such as sports, science fiction, movies, romance, politics,
e.t.c, are created. All messages imputed within a chat room appear almost simultaneously
on the computer visual display units of all participants for that chat room.
A chat room is analogous to a party of people mingling and talking at the same time, except
that all of them are typing short messages. They are usually operative 24 hours a day.
- Downloading of Information: To download is to retrieve or extract information from the
Internet into one’s personal computer storage disk for use at any desired time. There are
many things on the Internet that can be downloaded freely. These include Library
catalogues (OPAC) electronic books and journals, newspapers and magazines e.t.c.
SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET
The Internet is very vast and covers every discipline. Information can only be obtained on the
Internet through search tools. Search tools are tools used to find information on the web.

There are three basic types of search tools. These are (i) Search Engine (ii) Meta Engines and (iii)
Directories

- Search Engines: These are large, spider created databases of web pages that help searchers
find specific information on any given subject. There is a space on the search engine where
one is required to type in a search term, search query or keyword and the search engine
retrieves pages that correspond to the search query. The search engines have different
strengths for different subjects on the Internet. It is important to choose the most relevant
search engine for the user’s area of discipline. Alta vista, Northern light and Hotbot are the
biggest search engines on the web. Other useful search engines are Google, infoseek,
Lycos, Excite, Ask.com e.t.c
- Meta Engine: These are search tools that help in scanning the contents of some of the sites
by gathering information from several search engines. Users will receive the best hits to
their keywords from each search engine. Usually, it does not give the same quality result as
using each search engine and directory. Good examples of metal engines are Dog pile, and
metal crawler.

91
- Directories: These are smaller and selective than search engines. They use categories to
focus your search, and their sites are arranged by categories not just by keywords. As they
are arranged by subjects are handy for broad searches, as well as finding specific web sites.
They are more informational, than commercial. A good example of directory is Yahoo.

Advantages of Virtual Library

There are many advantages of virtual library some of the advantages include the following.
1. It saves and/or reduces the physical space taken up by library materials.
2. It provides unlimited access to information resources.
3. It provides the user with the capability to download and manipulate resources
4. It often allows for multiple, concurrent users.
5. It provides unlimited opening hours
6. It serves time to the user.
7. It permits easy searching provided the user possesses computer manipulative skills.
8. It eliminates the problem of a book being missing or off the shelf.
9. It facilitates longer preservation of resources.
10. Less manpower is required.

Disadvantages of Virtual Library

One of the major problems to virtual library is lack of power supply. The backbone of virtual
library is the availability of electricity to enable the electronic devices work effectively. Power
supply in Nigeria is epileptic in generation, lack of adequate power supply greatly affect virtual
library because the electronic devices cannot be operational without power supply. These devices
require regular power supply at least 24 hours without interrupted.

Another problem is lack of technical know-how: Most of the information professionals or

technologists that we have in Nigeria are not competent to maintain and manage virtual libraries.
Because of specialized nature of virtual library, the people who claim to have studied and acquired
professional knowledge in it are bereft of the needed technical know-how.

Since these technical and professional knowledge is lacking amongst Nigerians, foreigners or
expatriate are needed to handle and manage these highly technical equipments thereby, defrauding
Nigeria of their hard earn money since, these expatriates are paid in foreign currency.
92
Poor ICT infrastructure: Information and Communication Technology development skills in
Nigeria are very inadequate; it will not be easy building and managing virtual libraries. They are
payments to be made for access and downloading of documents electronically. There is
connectivity cost; the problem here is who bears the cost? Because no government in Nigeria has
really shown an appreciable concern to improve and encourage the development of ICT

93
 References
Adagana, B.L. (2000). The Use of Library and Information TechnologyLibrary. Yola: paraclete
Adomi, E.E. (2008). Library and Information Service Policies. Benin City: Ethiope
Publishing Corporation.

Adomi, E. E. (2012). Information Sources in the Humanities. Benin City, Nigeria: Ethiope
Publishing Corporation.

Agana, M. & Gbaden, T. (2004). Gateway to Computer Operations and Networking.

Agiating, A.G., Atagher, C.C. & Adung, D.A. (2005). Introduction to Library Science for
Schools and Colleges. Makurdi: Hill-Alex Ventures.

Aguolu, C. C. & Aguolu, E. I. (2002). Libraries and Information Management in Nigeria:

Seminar, essays themes and problems. Maiduguri, Nigeria: ED Information services

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science Texst for Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria: Third
world information services.

Ape, R. (2010). Modern Library Instruction for Higher Education. Makurdi: Midan
enterprises.

Ape, R. (2012). Modern Library Instruction for Higher Education (2nd Ed.). Makurdi: Midan
enterprises.

Audu, C., Anozie, C. & Atamu, M. (2006). A Study of the Automation of the Cataloguing
Departments of University of Jos, University of Nigeria and Delta State University
Abaraka. A seminar paper presented at the Department of Library and Information
Science, University of Nigeria, Nsuka February.

Basic Rules for APA References List: Laguardia Community College Library Media
Resources Center. Retrieved September 2, 2015 from
http://library.laguardia.edu/research/apabasic

Boces, E.I. (2012). Library Automation. Retrieved October 25, from

http://www.elb.org/trainingworkshops/library/libraryautomation.aspx Book of
Readings (2nd Ed.). Enugu: Praise House Publishing.

Bower, F. (1971). Four Faces of Bibliography. Papers of Bibliographical Society of Canada. 10,
33-40

94
Cater & Barker (2004). Bibliography: ABC for Book Collectors (8th Ed.). Oak knoll press and
British library.

Citation. Retrieved October 2, 2015 from http.//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/citation

Dike, V.W. (2010). School Librarianship. UNN Lecture Note (Unpublished).

Edoka, B.E. (2000). Introduction to Library Science. Onitsha: Palma Publishing and Links
Company Limited.

French, C.S. (1996). Computer Science. London: Letts Educational.

General Reference Information on Citing. Retrieved August 9, 2015 from

http://www.easybib.com/reference/guide/apa/general

Kembe, M., Imande, M. & Gbaden, T. (2003). Introductory Computer Science for
Undergraduates. Makurdi: Selfers.

Lam, K.T. (2002). Issues in Library Automation: Lecture Notes. Retrieved October 25,
2015 from http://ihome.ust.hk/~lblk/diploma/libauto/libauto.html

Madu, E. C. & Ezeani, C. N. (2010). Modern Library & Information Science: for Information
Professional in Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria: Textlinks publishers.

Mckenzie, J. (2010). Citation Guide: APA (6th Ed.): General Notes. Retrieved October 2, 2015
from http://www.lib.sfu.ca/help/cite-write/citation-style- guides/apa

Obi, D.S. (1977). A manual for School libraries on small Budgets. Ibadan: Oxford
University press.

Ode, E. O. & Omokaro, A. D. (2007) Basic Principle and Practice of Librarianship. Nigeria:
PSG-Franc Publication.

Odion,T., Agana, M. & Gbaden, T. (2003). Computing in the Computer Age. Ikeja-Lagos:
setop Arts production.

Olanlokun, S.O. & Salisu, T.M. (1985). A handbook on Library

Use. Lagos: Concepts publications.
Oluwumi, W. (2000). Systematic Computer Approach. Lagos: Bizeduc Ventures Limited.
Osunah, M. A. (2007). Understanding the use of library: Users guide. Auchi, Edo state: A &
B Computer venture.
The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2010). Telegraph. Encyclopedia Britannica (vol. 21.).

95