Chemical Reactions - Introduction
Term:
A chemical reaction is a chemical change in which matter transforms into a new substance or substances.
This transformation is often accompanied by external indicators or characteristics.
Indications Accompanying a Chemical Reaction:
a) Change of Properties:
- Color: Mercury [II] oxide
- Before Reaction: Red
- After Reaction: Silvery
- Equation: \(2Hg + O_2 → 2HgO\)
b) Evolution of Gas:
- Gas Evolved: Hydrogen gas
- Zinc reacting with dilute hydrochloric acid:
- Equation: \(Zn + 2HCl (dil.) → ZnCl_2 + H_2 (g)\)
c) Evolution or Absorption of Heat:
- Heat Energy:
- Exothermic Reactions: Proceed with the evolution of heat energy.
- Endothermic Reactions: Proceed with the absorption of heat energy.
- Example:
- Exothermic Reaction: Calcium oxide & water
- Equation: (CaO + H_2O → Ca(OH)_2\)
- Endothermic Reaction: Nitrogen & oxygen
- Equation: \(N_2 + 2O_2 → 2NO\)
d) Formation of Precipitate:
- Precipitate Formed:
- Certain chemical reactions are characterized by the formation of insoluble precipitates.
- Example:
- Precipitate (ppt.) Formed: Silver chloride (AgCl)
- Reaction: \(AgNO_3 + HCl (dil.) → HNO_3 + AgCl\)
- Result: Formation of milky white precipitate.
Main Types of Chemical Reactions:
1. Direct Combination Reactions (Synthesis)
Direct combination reactions, also known as synthesis reactions, occur when:
a) Element + Element → Compound:
- Two or more elements combine to form a compound.
- Example:
- Metal (e.g., \(4Na\)) + Oxygen → New compound (e.g., \(2Na_{2}O\)).
b) Compound + Element → New Compound:
- An element combines with a compound to form a new compound.
- Example:
- Metallic oxide (e.g., \(2CaO\)) + Non-metal (e.g., \(S\)) → New compound (e.g., \(2CaS\)).
c) Compound + Compound → New Compound:
- Two or more compounds combine to form a new compound.
- Examples:
- Metallic oxide (e.g., \(Na₂O\)) + Water → New compound (e.g., \(2NaOH\)).
- Non-metallic oxide (e.g., \(CO₂\)) + Water → New compound (e.g., \(H₂CO₃\)).
2. Decomposition Reaction
It is a chemical reaction in which a compound decomposes to form:
a) Two elements.
b) One new compound and a new element.
c) Two new compounds.
Examples:
Thermal Decomposition:
- A decomposition reaction brought about by heat.
a) Compound → Metallic oxide + Oxygen:
- Example: \(2HgO → 2Hg + O_2\).
b) Compound → New Compound + New Compound:
- Example: \(2KNO_3 → 2KClO_3\).
c) Compound → Metallic oxide + Carbon dioxide:
- Example: \(CaCO_3 → CaO + CO_2\).
Thermal Dissociation:
- A decomposition reaction in which a substance dissociates on application of heat.
- Example: \(Zn(OH)_2 → ZnO + H_2O\).
Electrolytic Decomposition:
- A decomposition reaction brought about by the passage of electric current.
- Example: \(2H_2O → 2H_2 + O_2\).
Photochemical Decomposition:
- A decomposition reaction that occurs in the presence of light.
- Example: Decomposition of silver salts in the presence of sunlight.
Here's the cleaned-up version:
3. Displacement Reaction
It is a chemical reaction in which an element displaces another element in a compound, based on their
positions in the activity series.
Example:
- Element (Zn) + Compound (CuSO₄) → New Compound (ZnSO₄) + Displaced Element (Cu):
- Zinc displaces copper in a solution of copper sulfate.
- Activity series: Zn is higher than Cu.
4. Double Decomposition Reaction
It is a chemical reaction in which both reactants (compounds) decompose to give two new compounds
by exchanging their radicals.
a) Neutralization Reactions:
- Reactions between an acid and a base to give two new compounds (salt and water) by interchange of
radicals.
- Example:
- Base (NaOH) + Acid (HCl) → Salt (NaCl) + Water (H₂O)
b) Precipitation Reactions:
- Reactions between two compounds in an aqueous solution to give two new compounds, one of which
is insoluble and called a precipitate.
- Example:
- Compound (\(FeCl_3\)) + (\(3NaOH\)) → \(Fe(OH)_3\) (gelatinous white precipitate).
Reactivity Series
The reactivity series is a ranking of metals in order of their reactivity, from most active at the top to least
active at the bottom.
Properties of Metals and Their Reactivity:
- Reaction with Water:
- K and Na: React violently with cold water.
- Ca: Reacts less vigorously with cold water but smoothly with steam.
- Mg to Fe: React with water, the reactivity decreasing from Mg to Fe.
- Reaction with Acids:
- K and Na: React with acids.
- Fe to Pb: React with decreasing vigor with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) or dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
- Cu to Au: Do not react with dilute acids, displacing hydrogen.
- Reaction with Air (Oxygen):
- K to Ag: React with oxygen to form metallic oxides.
- Pt and Au: Do not react with oxygen below hydrogen.
Displacement Reactions:
- Any metal in the reactivity series can displace another metal below it from its aqueous solution. For
example, zinc displaces copper from copper(II) sulfate solution:
- \(Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu\)
Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions:
Chemical reactions involve breaking existing bonds and forming new ones, with absorption or release of
energy such as heat or light. They occur due to collision of particles or by supplying energy:
- Heat: Initiates faster movement of reacting particles, increasing collisions.
- Light Energy: Activates reactant molecules.
- Other factors supplying energy include electricity, catalysts, or pressure.
5. Reversible Reaction
A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction in which the products formed can react together to form the
original reactants, depending on the conditions of the reaction.
Examples:
- Sulfur dioxide & Oxygen: \(2SO_2 + O_2 \rightleftharpoons 2SO_3\) (at 150°C)
- Iron & Steam: \(3Fe + 4H_2O \rightleftharpoons Fe_3O_4 + 4H_2\)
- Calcium Carbonate (heat): \(CaO + CO_2 \rightleftharpoons CaCO_3\)
- Nitrogen & Hydrogen: \(N_2 + 3H_2 \rightleftharpoons 2NH_3\) (at 450°C)
6. Catalytic Reaction
A catalytic reaction is a chemical reaction in which a catalyst is used to alter the rate of the reaction. A
catalyst is a compound that speeds up the rate of a reaction but does not take part in it.
Examples:
- Hydrogen Peroxide: \(2H_2O_2 \-> 2H_2O + O_2\) (using manganese dioxide as a catalyst)
- Sulfur Dioxide & Oxygen: \(2SO_2 + O_2 \-> 2SO_3\) (using vanadium pentoxide as a catalyst)
- Nitrogen & Hydrogen: \(N_2 + 3H_2 \rightleftharpoons 2NH_3\) (at 450-500°C, using iron as a catalyst)
- Ammonia & Oxygen: \(4NH_3 + 5O_2 \-> 4NO + 6H_2O\) (using platinum as a catalyst)
Types of Catalysts:
- Positive Catalyst: Speeds up the rate of the reaction.
- Negative Catalyst (Inhibitor): Reduces the rate of the reaction.
- Promoter: Increases the efficiency of the catalyst.
- Enzymes: Catalysts present in the human body, accelerating biochemical reactions. For example, pepsin
accelerates the conversion of proteins to amino acids in the stomach.
7. Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions
Exothermic reactions are chemical reactions that proceed with the evolution of heat energy, while
endothermic reactions are chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of heat energy.
Representation:
- Exothermic reactions: \(ABC \-> \text{Product/s} + \text{Heat}\)
- Endothermic reactions: \(A + B \-> C + \text{Heat}\)
Examples:
- Exothermic Reactions:
- Catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide: \(2SO_2 + O_2 \-> 2SO_3 + \text{Heat}\)
- Addition of water to quicklime: \(CaO + H_2O \-> Ca(OH)_2 + \text{Heat}\)
- Endothermic Reactions:
- Formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen: \(N_2 + 3H_2 \x->[\text{450-500°C}]{\
text{Catalyst}} 2NH_3 + \text{Heat}\)
- Passage of steam over heated coke: \(N_2 + O_2 \x->[\text{3000°C}]{\text{Catalyst}} 2NO + \
text{Heat}\)
Decomposition Reactions - Formation of Oxides:
Chemical compounds decompose or split to give two or more simpler substances. Thermal
decomposition is brought about by heat.
Examples:
- Metal Carbonates: (Metal Carbonate -> Metal Oxide + CO_2), e.g., (CaCO_3 -> CaO + CO_2)
- Metal Nitrates: (Metal Nitrate -> Metal Nitrite + O_2), e.g., (2Ca(NO_3)_2 -> 2CaO + 4NO_2 + O_2)
- Metal Hydroxides: (Metal Hydroxide -> Metal Oxide + H_2O), e.g., (Ca(OH)_2 -> CaO + H_2O)
The activity series of metals represents metals arranged according to their reactivity, with the most
reactive metal at the top and the least reactive at the bottom.
Oxides
1. Term:
Oxides are binary compounds composed of a metallic or nonmetallic element combined with oxygen.
2. Preparation:
- By Direct Combination:
- Example: \(S + O_2 \-> 2ZnO\)
- By Action of Steam on a Metal:
- Example: \(3Fe + 4H_2O \-> Fe_3O_4 + 4H_2\)
- By Heat on Oxides:
- Example: \(2Fe_3O_4 \x->{\text{Heat}} 6FeO + O_2\)
- By Heat on Nitrates:
- Example: \(2Ca(NO_3)_2 \x->{\text{Heat}} 2CaO + 4NO_2 + O_2\)
- By Heat on Carbonates:
- Example: \(CaCO_3 \x->{\text{Heat}} CaO + CO_2\)
3. Classification:
Oxides are classified into four main classes based on their nature:
- Acidic Oxides: Oxides of nonmetals (e.g., \(SO_2\), \(CO_2\)).
- Basic Oxides: Oxides of metals (e.g., \(K_2O\), \(CaO\)).
- Amphoteric Oxides: Oxides capable of reacting with both acids and bases to form salts and water.
- Neutral Oxides: Oxides that do not show acidic or basic properties (e.g., \(NO\), \(CO\)).
Reactivity of Oxides:
- Acidic Oxides: React with water to give acids (e.g., \(CO_2 + H_2O \-> H_2CO_3\)).
- Basic Oxides: React with acids to give salts and water (e.g., \(CaO + 2HCl \-> CaCl_2 + H_2O\)).
- Amphoteric Oxides: React with both acids and bases to give salts and water.
Miscellaneous Oxides:
- Besides acidic, basic, amphoteric, and neutral oxides, there are miscellaneous oxides such as peroxides
(\(Na_2O_2\)), mixed oxides (\(Pb_3O_4\), \(Fe_3O_4\)), and dioxides (\(PbO_2\)).
Amphoteric Hydroxides:
- These are hydroxides of metals that react with acids and bases to give salts and water.
- Examples: Zinc hydroxide (\(Zn(OH)_2\)), lead hydroxide (\(Pb(OH)_2\)), aluminum hydroxide (\
(Al(OH)_3\)).
