Power Systems–II (PCC-EE 601)

Module 1: Power Flow Analysis (10 Hours)

Review of the structure of a Power System and its components. Analysis of Power Flows:
Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix. Real and reactive power balance equations at
anode. Load and Generator Specifications, Application of numerical methods for solution
of non-linear algebraic equations- Gauss Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods for the
solution of the power flow equations, Computational Issues in Large-scale Power Systems.
Module 2: Stability Constraints in synchronous grids (10 Hours)
Swing Equations of a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus, Power angle
curve, Description of the phenomena of loss of synchronism in a single-machine infinite
bus system, Following a disturbance like a three-phase fault, Analysis using numerical
integration of swing equations (using methods like Forward Euler, Runge-Kutta 4th order
methods), as well as the Equal Area Criterion, Impact of stability constraints on Power
System Operation, Effect of generation rescheduling and series compensation of
transmission lines on stability.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 1

 Power Systems–II (PCC-EE 601)
Module 3: Control of Frequency and Voltage (10 Hours)
Turbines and Speed-Governors, Frequency dependence of loads, Droop Control and
Power Sharing, Automatic Generation Control, Generation and absorption of reactive
power by various components of a Power System. Excitation System Control in
synchronous generators, Automatic Voltage Regulators, Shunt Compensators, Static VAR
compensators and STATCOMs, Tap Changing Transformers. Power flow control using
embedded dc links, phase shifters.
Module 4: Fault Analysis:
Its necessity, contributors to fault current, symmetrical faults, consideration of load
current, fault current calculations using computer in n-bus system, current limiting
reactors, construction, operation, rating, placement in power system, protection,
asymmetrical fault: sequence networks for generators, single line to ground, double line
to ground, and line to line fault, sequence network for transformer and transmission line,
analysis of a complete power system, Computer aided calculations; Application of fault
analysis in power system co-ordination using different power system software. (18 Hr)

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 2

Text/Reference Books:
1. J. Grainger and W.D. Stevenson, “Power System Analysis”, McGraw Hill Education,
1994.
2. O. I. Elgerd, “Electric Energy Systems Theory”, McGraw Hill Education, 1995.
3. A. R. Bergen and V. Vittal, “Power System Analysis”, Pearson Education Inc., 1999.
4. D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, “Modern Power System Analysis”, McGraw Hill
Education, 2003.
5. B. M. Weedy, B.J. Cory, N. Jenkins, J. Ekanayake and G. Strbac, “Electric Power
Systems”, Wiley, 2012.
6. E W Kimbark “Power System Stability” IEEE Press, Wiley Interscience, NY
7. Prabha Kundur “Power System Stability and Control” McGraw Hill Education

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 3

 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
 Load flow solution is essential for designing a new power system.
 For planning extension of the existing one for increased load demand.
 Load flow solution gives the initial conditions of the system when the transient
behaviour of the system is to be studied.
 The load flow solution of the power system requires mainly the following steps :
1. Formulation or the network equations
2. Suitable mathematical technique for solution of the equations
Bus Analysis
 A bus in a power system is defined as the vertical line at which the several components
of the power system like generators, loads, and feeders, etc., are connected.
 The buses in a power system are associated with four quantities.
 These quantities are
1. Magnitude of voltage (V)
2. Phase-angle of the voltage (δ)
3. Active power (P) and
4. Reactive power (Q)
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 4
Classification of Bus
 In the load flow studies, in each bus two variables are specified (i.e. known) and two
are determined (i.e. unknown) .
 The bus classification depends upon the specified variables.
 Three types of buses or nodes are identified in a power system network for load flow
studies.
 The buses are classified as follows :
1. Load bus
2. Slack bus
3. Generation bus or Voltage controlled bus

S No Bus type Specified variable Unknown variable

1 Load bus or P-Q bus P, Q V, δ

2 Generator bus or Voltage P , |V | Q, δ

controlled bus or P-V bus

3 Slack bus or Reference |V |, δ P, Q

bus or V- δ bus
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 5
1. Generator Bus or Voltage controlled Bus (P-V bus):
 Generator bus is also called the P-V bus.
 The voltage magnitude corresponding to generate voltage V and true or active power P
corresponding to its rating are specified.
 The voltage magnitude is maintained constant at a specified value by injection of
reactive power.
 The reactive power generation Q and phase angle δ of the voltage are to be computed.
 A P-V bus must have a variable source of reactive power such as a generator.

2. Load Bus (P-Q Bus) :

 This is also called the P-Q bus and at this bus.
 The load bus is injected the active and reactive power to the network.
 In the load bus active power P and reactive power Q are specified.
 The load bus voltage can be permitted within a tolerable value, i.e., 5 %.
 The mmagnitude and phase angle of the voltage are to be computed.
 The phase angle of the voltage , i.e. δ is not very important for the load.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 6
3. Slack Bus or Swing Bus or Reference Bus (V- δ Bus) :
 The slack bus in a power system is the voltage magnitude and angle are specified.
 The real and reactive powers are unknowns.
 The bus selected, as the slack bus must have a source of both real and reactive
power, since the injected power at this bus must "swing" to take up the "slack" in the
solution.
 The best choice for the slack bus requires experience with the particular system
under study.
 The behavior of the solution is often influenced by the bus chosen.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 7

Bus Admittance Matrix
 A single line diagram of a simple power
network is shown in Fig. 1.
 The bus admittance matrix Ybus relates the bus
voltage Vbus and bus current Ibus through the
relation
I bus  Ybus Vbus
 This power system network contains two
generators G1 and G2 that are connected
through transformers T1 and T2 to buses 1 and 2. Fig. 1 : Single line diagram of a
simple power network
 Let us denote the synchronous reactances of G1
and G2 by XG1 and XG2 respectively.
 The leakage reactances of T1 and T2 by XT1 and
XT2 respectively.
 Then, the system impedance diagram is as
shown in Fig. 2.
 The impedance of generators with transformers
are as follows
Fig. 2 : Impedance diagram of Fig.1
Z11  j ( X G1  X T 1 ) and Z 22  j ( X G 2  X T 2 )
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 8
 The equivalent admittance diagram of Fig. 2 is
shown in Fig. 3.
 In the Fig. 3, Y  1 ;
ij
Zij
where, i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4.

 From Fig. 3, the node equations are Fig. 3 : Equivalent admittance

diagram of Fig. 2
I1  y11V1  y12 (V1  V2 )  y13 (V1  V3 )
 I1  ( y11  y12  y13 ) V1  y12V2  y13V3 (1)
I 2  y22V2  y12 (V2  V1 )  y23 ( V2  V3 )  y24 (V2  V4 )
 I 2   y12V1  ( y22  y12  y23  y24 )V2  y23V3  y24V4 (2)

0  y13 (V3  V1 )  y23 (V3  V2 )  y34 ( V3  V4 )

 0   y13V1  y23V21  ( y13  y23  y34 )V3  y34V4 (3)

0  y24 (V4  V2 )  y34 (V4  V3 )

 0   y24V2  y34V3  ( y24  y34 )V4 (4)
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 9
 Now, the node equations are write in matrix form as below

 I1   y11  y12  y13  y12  y13 0  V1 

I    y12 y22  y12  y23  y24  y23  y24  V2 
 2  
0   y13  y23 y13  y23  y34  y34  V3 
    
0  0 Y24  y34 y24  y34  V4 
 Therefore,
 I1  V1 
I  V 
   [Ybus ]  2 
2
0 V3 
   
0
  V4 
 y11  y12  y13 - y12 - y13 0 
 - y12 y22  y12  y23  y24 - y23 - y24 
where, Ybus   
 - y13 - y23 y13  y23  y34 - y34 
 
 0 - y24 - y34 y24  y34 

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 10

 These equations can be rewritten the above equation as

 I1  Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14  V1 

 I  Y Y22 Y23 Y24  V2 
 2    21
 0  Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34  V3 
    
 0  Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44  V4 

 The generalized form of these equations can be written as

n
I p   YpqVq
q 1

where, p = 1, 2, … , n .

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 11

Bus Impedance Matrix (Zbus)

 Bus impedance matrix (Zbus) is the inverse matrix of the bus admittance matrix (Ybus).
 The relation between Zbus and Ybus is as follows:

Vbus  Ybus 1 I bus  Z bus I bus

V1   Z11 Z12  Z1n   I1 

V   Z Z 22  Z 2n   I 2 
  2    21
        
    
Vn   Z n1 Z n 2  Z nn   I n 

Advantage of Ybus over Zbus

 Ybus is a sparse matrix.
 Diagonal elements are dominating.
 Off-diagonal elements are symmetric, the diagonal elements of each node are the
sum of the admittances connected to it.
 The off-diagonal elements are negative admittance.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 12
Development of Load Flow Equations
 For n-bus system, the nodal current equation is
n
I p   YpqVq
where p = 1, 2, ... , n .
q 1
n
 I p  YppV p   YpqVq
q 1
q p

 n

1  
 Vp 
Ypp 
I p   pq q 
Y V
q 1 
 q p 
 Now, V p* I p  Pp  jQ p where, P = active power and Q = reactive power
Pp  jQ p
 Ip 
V p*
 
1  pP  jQ n

 Vp 
Ypp  V p*
p
  pq q 
Y V where p = 1, 2, ... , n .
 q 1 
 q p 
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 13
Methods of Load Flow Equations
 The bus voltage of the load flow equations are the variables.
 The load flow equations are nonlinear and they can be solved by an iterative
method.
 The iterative methods are
1. Gauss's method,
2. Gauss-Seidel method
3. Newton-Raphson method.

 We are consider a five bus system

has two generators at buses 1 and
3 and three load buses 2, 4 and 5
as shown in Fig. 4.
 Assuming that bus-1 is the slack
bus.

Fig. 4 : A five-bus system

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 14

 The load flow equations for the five bus system are written as follows:

V1  V12 [Specified fixed value]

1  P2  j Q2 
V2   
 (Y21V1  Y23V3 ) 
Y22  V2 
1  P3  j Q3 
V3    (Y V
32 2  Y V )
34 4 
Y33  V3 
1  P4  j Q4 
V4    ( Y V
41 1  Y V
43 3  Y V )
45 5 
Y44  V4 
1  P5  j Q5 
V5    ( Y V
51 1  Y V )
54 4 
Y55  V5  Fig. 4 : A five-bus system

 To solved the above non-linear equations, we make a simplifying assumption that bus
no 1 is the slack bus and other buses are load i.e. buses where P and Q are specified.
 The admittances and voltages are complex quantities.
 The number of nonlinear equations is (n-1) where n is the total number of buses in the
system.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 15

A. Gauss Iterative Method
 The following is the Gauss iterative method procedure for solving equations:
1. Assume a flat voltage profile for all nodal voltages except the slack bus 1. Let slack
bus voltage be a + j0.0. Assume a suitable value of convergence criterion ε, the
convergence is achieved and the iterative procedure is terminated.
2. Set iterative count K = 0.
3. Set bus count p = 1.
4. Check for the slack bus. If it is not a slack bus go to next step. Since voltage at the
slack bus is fixed both in magnitude and phase, it does not vary during iterative
procedure and hence go to step 6 if it is a slack bus.
5. Calculate the bus voltage VpK+1 using bus voltage equation and the difference in
bus voltage ∆VpK+1 = VpK+1 -VpK .
6. Advance the bus count by 1 to evaluate other values of VpK+1 and VpK .
7. Check if all buses have been taken into account. If yes, go to the next step,
otherwise go to back to step 4.
8. Determine the largest absolute value of change in voltage |∆V|max .
9. If |∆V|max is less than a specified tolerance ε, evaluate line flows and print the
voltage and line flows. If not, advance the iteration count K = K + 1 and go back to
step 3.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 16
 The flow chart for load flow solution
using Gauss iterative method is given in
Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 : Flow chart for load flow solution

using Gauss iterative method
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 17
Computational Facture
 It is possible to obtain significant reduction in computer time if all arithmetic operations
can be performed in advance when they do not change with the iterations.
 Since P, Q and Y at a bus do not change with the iterations, the term Pp  jQp can be
Y pq
evaluated before hand.
Pp  jQp
 Let Ap  for all p = 1, 2,  , n, p  s.
Y pq
Y pq
 Similarly let, B  for all p = 1, 2,  , n, p  s and q = 1, 2,  , n, q  p.
pq Y pp

 With these simplifications the voltage equation now becomes

Ap n
V pK 1    B pqV pK for all p = 1, 2,  , n, p  s.
(V pK ) q 1
q p

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 18

B. Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method (Including PV Buses)
 The bus voltage equation can be solved by the Gauss-Seidel method.
 In this method the new calculated bus voltage ViK+1 immediately replaces ViK and it is
used in the solution of the subsequent equations.
 The bus voltage equations (of Fig. 4) in this case become
1  P2  j Q2 K 
V2K  1   K 
 (Y21V1  Y23V3 ) 
Y22  2(V ) 
1  P3  j Q3 K 
V3K  1 
 K 
 (Y V
32 2
K 1
 Y34 4 ) 
V
Y33  (V3 ) 
K 1 1  P4  j Q4 K 1 K 
V4    (Y41V1  Y43V3  Y45V5 ) 
Y44  (V4K )  Fig. 4 : A five-bus system

K 1 1  P5  j Q5 K 1 
V5   K 
 (Y51V1  Y54V4 ) 
Y55  (V5 ) 
 The general load flow equation resultant from Gauss-Seidel method is given below:
1  Pp  j Q p p 1 n 
V pK  1   K 
  YpqVqK 1
  YpqVq 
K
Ypp  (V p ) q 1 q p1 
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 19
 1  Pp  j Q p p 1 n 
V pK  1 
Ypp
 K 
  Y V
pq q
K 1
  Y K
pq q 
V
 (V p ) q 1 q p1 
 The second term on the r.h.s. of voltage equation is clear that the voltage prior to bus
p should correspond to the value as calculated during the current iteration.
 The procedure for solution of these equations is outlined below and takes into account
the presence of voltage controlled buses in addition to the load buses.
 To solve these bus voltage equations the points must be kept in mind:
1. The voltages and admittances are complex quantities.
2. Buses 2, 4, and 5 are load buses, where P and Q are known quantities whereas
bus 3 is a voltage controlled bus where only P is known and Q is not known.
3. For solving voltage equations corresponding to a voltage controlled bus Q must
first be calculated and is given as
n

Q p   f p (e p G pq  f q B pq )  e p ( f p G pq  eq B pq ) 
q 1

where Ypq  G pq  jB pq and Vp  ep  j f p

4. The number of nonlinear equations is (n – 1) , where n is the number of buses in
the system.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 20

Gauss-Seidel iterative procedure for solving Bus Voltage equations
1. Assume a flat voltage profile 1 + j 0.0 for all nodal voltages except the slack bus 1.
Assume a suitable value of ε the convergence criterion i.e. if the absolute value of the
maximum change in voltage between any two consecutive iterations is less than a pre-
specified tolerance ε the convergence is achieved and the iterative procedure is
terminated.
a) Set iteration count K = 0
b) Set bus count p = 1
c) Check for slack bus. If it is a slack bus, go to voltage change step (step 4a),
otherwise go to next step.
2. Check which of the buses are voltage controlled and which are bad buses. For voltage
controlled buses go to next statement, otherwise go to voltage change step (step 4).
3. Replace the value of the voltage magnitude of voltage controlled bus in that iteration by
the specified value. [Calculate Q for the generator bus. If Q lies within the lower and
upper bounds calculate the term (P + j Q)/V for this bus. Repeat this for all voltage
controlled buses and calculate this term and substitute this team (P - j Q)/V in the load
flow equation corresponding to the voltage controlled bus. Calculate the new value of
voltage for the bus. It is to be noted that if there are more than one generator buses, the
voltage magnitude of that bus only is replaced by its specified value, white calculating P
and Q of a particular bus. The voltage of other generator buses will be corresponding to
the value in that iteration.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 21
 In case any or ail the voltage controlled buses violate the reactive power generation, the
bus will be treated as a load bus arid the magnitude of the reactive power at this bus will
correspond to the limit it has violated, as explained earlier, and the value of magnitude of
voltage will correspond to the value in that iteration (not corresponding to specified
voltage), and then go to next step.]
4. For bus p evaluate VpK + 1 from bus voltage equation and change in voltage
∆VpK = VpK + 1 - VpK .
a) Advance the bus count by 1 and check if all the buses have been taken into account if
yes, go to next step, otherwise go to step 1(c).
5. Find out the largest of the absolute value of the change in voltage. If this is less than a
pre-specified tolerance move on to next step, otherwise go back to step 2.
6. Calculate the injected powers and the line flows using the nodal voltages.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 22

 Flow Chart for Gauss-Seidel Method
 The flow chart for Gauss-Seidel
method is given in Fig. 5.
 The flow chart includes the presence
of voltage controlled buses and the
simplification of the computational
procedure.

Fig. 5: Flow chart for load flow solution using

Wednesday, May 10, 2023
Gauss-Seidel method 23
Note:
 The process of convergence due to G-S method is slow i.e. it requires a large number
of iterations before the solution is obtained.
 The process of convergence can be speeded up if the voltage correction during
consecutive iteration is modified to


V pK( acc1 )  V pK   V pK  1  V pK 
where α is known as acceleration factor and is a real number.
 A suitable value of α for a particular system can be obtained by running trial load
flows.
 The value of α = 1.6 is a general recommended value for most of the systems.
 It may be noted that a wrong selection of α may result in slower convergence and
sometimes even result in disadvantage for the solution.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 24

Example 1 : The following is the system data for a load flow solution.
The line admittance: The schedule of active and reactive powers:
Bus code Admittance Bus code P Q V Remarks
1-2 2 – j8.0 1 - - 1.06 Slack
1-3 1 – j4.0
2 0.5 0.2 1 + j 0.0 PQ
2-3 0.666 – j2.664
2-4 1 – j4.0 3 0.4 0.3 1 + j 0.0 PQ
3-4 2 – j8.0 4 0.3 0.1 1 + j 0.0 PQ

Determine the bus admittance matrix and the voltage at the end of first iteration using
Gauss-Seidel method. Take α = 1.6.
Solution : The bus admittance matrix is

 y12  y13  y12  y13 0 

 y y12  y 23  y24  y23  y24 
Ybus     y12  y23 y13  y 23  y34  y34


13
 
 0  y24  y34 y24  y34 

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 25

The bus admittance matrix is

 3  j12.0 2  j8.0 1  j 4.0 0 

 2  j8.0 3.666  j14.664 0.666  j 2.664 1  j 4.0 
Ybus    1  j 4.0 0.666  j 2.664 3.666  j14.664 2  j8.0 
 
 0 1  j 4.0 2  j 8.0 3  j12.0 
The powers for load buses are to be taken as negative and that for generator busses as
positive.
For a given system
1  P2  j Q2 0
V21   
0 0
 Y21V1  Y23V3  Y24V4 
Y22  V2 
 0.5  j 0.2 
1  1  j 0.0  (  2  j 8.0)  1.06  (  0.666  j 2.664)  1.0 

(3.666  j14.664)  
  ( 1  j 4.0)  1.0 
 (1.001187  j 0.02888)
V21acc  (1.0  j 0.0)  1.6 1.001187  j 0.02888  1.0  j 0.0
 (1.01899  j 0.046208)
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 26
 1  P3  j Q3 0 
V31   *
 Y V
32 1  Y V
32 2
1
 Y34 4 ) 
V
Y33  V3 
 0.4  j 0.3 
1  1  j 0.0  ( 1  j 4.0)  1.06  (  0.666  j 2.664)  (1.01899  j 0.046208) 

(3.666  j14.664)  
  (2  j8.0)  (1  j 0.0) 
 (0.994119  j 0.0229248)
V31acc  (1.0  j 0.0)  1.6 0.994119  j 0.0229248  1.0  j 0.0
 (0.99059  j 0.0467968)

1  P4  j Q4 1 
V41    Y V
42 2
1
 Y43 3 ) 
V
Y44  V4* 
1  0.3  j 0.1 
  ( 1  j 4.0)  (1.01899  j 0.046208)  ( 2  j 8.0)  (0.99059  j 0.0467968)
(3  j12)  1  j 0.0 

 (0.9716032  j 0.064684)
V41acc  (1.0  j 0.0)  1.6 0.9716032  j 0.064684  1.0  j 0.0
 (0.954565  j 0.1034944)

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 27

3. Newton-Raphson Method
Development of load flow equations
 The load flow problem can be solved by using Newton-Raphson method.
 The equations for the method are derived as follows:
We know that at any bus p,
n

Pp  j Q p  V p I p  V p 
 YpqVq  Let , V p  e p  j f p and Y pq  G pq  jB pq 
q 1
n

 (e p  j f p )  (G pq  jB pq )(eq  j f q )
q 1
n
 (e p  j f p ) (G pq  jB pq )(eq  j f q )
q 1
 Separating the real and imaginary parts we have
n

Pp   e p (eq G pq  f q B pq )  f p ( f q G pq  eq B pq )  (1)
q 1
n

Q p   f p (eq G pq  f q B pq )  e p ( f q G pq  eq B pq )  (2)
q 1

| V p |2  e p 2  f p 2 (3)
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 28
 Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the load flow non-linear equations and these are in
terms of the real and imaginary components of nodal voltages.
 Pp, Qp for a load bus and Pp and |Vp| for generator bus are specified and ep and fp are
unknown quantities.
 Let the unknown variables be x1, x2, x3, ... , xn and the specified quantities y1, y2, y3,
…. , yn.
 These are related by the set of non-linear equations:
y1  f1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn )
y2  f 2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn )

yn  f n ( x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn )
 To solve these equations we start with an approximate solution ( x10, x20, x30, …. , xn0).
 Here superscript zero means the zeroth iteration in the process of solving the above
non-linear equations.
 A flat voltage profile i.e. Vp = 1 + j 0 for p = 1, 2, …. , n except the slack bus has been
found to be satisfactory for almost all practical systems.
 We will expand first equation y1 = f1 and the result for the other equations will follow.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 29
 Assume ∆x10, ∆x20, ∆x30, …. , ∆xn0 are the corrections required for x10, x20, x30, …. , xn0
respectively for the next better solution.
 The equation y1 = f1 will be
y1  f1 ( x10  x10 , x20  x20 , x30  x30 ,  , xn0  xn0 )
f1 f1 f1
 f1 ( x10 , x20 , x30 ,  , xn0 )  x10  x10    xn0  1
x1 x0
x2 x0
xn x0

where ϕ1 is function of higher order of ∆xs and higher derivatives are neglected.
 It is the assumption which needs the initial solution to be close to the final solution.
 If all the equations are liberalized and arranged in a matrix form, we have
 f1 f1 f1 
 x 
x2 xn 
 y1  f1 ( x1 , x2 , , xn )   1
0 0 0
  x10 
   f 2 f 2 f 2   0 
 y2  f 2 ( x1 , x2 , , xn )  
0 0 0   x 
    x1 x2 xn   2 

       
 yn  f n ( x1 , x2 , , xn )  
0 0 0  0 
 f n f n f n   xn 

 x1 x2 xn 
B  J C
 Here, J is the first derivative matrix known as the Jacobian matrix.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 30
 The solution of the equations requires calculation of left hand vector B which is the
difference of the specified quantities and calculated quantities at (x10, x20, x30, …. , xn0).
 Similarly J is calculated at this guess.
 Solution of the matrix equation gives (∆x10, ∆x20, ∆x30, …. , ∆xn0) and the next better
solution is obtained as follows:
x11  x10  x10
x12  x20  x20

x1n  xn0  xn0
 The better solution is now available and it is
( x11 , x12 , x31 , , x1n )
 With these values the process is repeated till
a) the largest (in magnitude) element in the left column of the equations is less than
a pre-specified value or
b) the largest element in the column vector (∆x1, ∆x2, ∆x3, …. , ∆xn) is less than a pre-
specified value.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 31
 When referred to, a power system problem (assuming there is only one generator bus
which is taken as slack bus and all other buses are load buses), the above set of linearized
equations become
 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 
 e  
e3 en f 2 f3 f n 
 2   e2 
 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3   
  
 P2   e2 e3 en f 2 f3 f n   
 P    e3 
 3          




    Pn Pn Pn Pn Pn Pn   
      en 
  Pn    e2 e3 en f 2 f3 f n   
  
 Q2   Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 
      f 
 Q3   e2 e3 en f 2 f3 f n   2
  
    Q Q3 Q3 Q3 Q3 Q3 
   3    
 f
 Qn   e2 e3 en f 2 f3 f n   3 
   
           
 Q Qn Qn Qn Qn Qn   f n 
 n  
 e2 e3 en f 2 f3 f n 
(2( n 1)1 (2 ( n 1)(2( n 1) (2( n 1)1

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 32

 In short form we can be written as
 P   J 1  J 2   e 
         
    
 Q   J 3  J 4   f 

 In case the system contains all types of buses, the set of equations can be written as

 P   J 1  J 2
   
       e 
 Q    J 3  J 4    
   
        f 
| V |2   J  J 6 
 p   5

 The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be derived from the three load flow
equations (1) to (3).

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 33

 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J1 are
Pp
 e p G pq  f p B pq , q p
eq
Pp n n
 2e p G pp  f p B pp  f p B pp   (e p G pq  f q B pq )  2e p G pp   (e p G pq  f q B pq )
e p q 1 q 1
q p q p

 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J2 are

Pp
 e p B pq  f p G pq , q  p
f q
Pp n
 2 f p G pp   ( f q G pq  eq B pq )
f p q 1
q p

 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J3 are

Q p
 e p B pq  f p G pq , q p
eq
Q p n
 2e p B pp   ( f q G pq  eq B pq )
e p q 1
q p

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 34

 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J4 are
Q p
 e p G pq  f p B pq , q p
f q
Q p n
 2 f p B pp   (eq G pq  f q B pq )
f p q 1
q p

 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J5 are

 | V p |2
 0, q p
eq
 | V p |2
 2e p
eq
 The off-diagonal elements and the diagonal elements of J6 are
 | V p |2
 0, q p
f q
 | V p |2
 2 fp
f q

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 35

 Next, we calculate the residual column vector consisting of ∆P, ∆Q, and |∆V|2.
 Let Psp, Qsp, and |Vsp| be the specified quantities at the bus p.
 Assuming a suitable value of the solution (flat voltage profile in our case) the value of P,
Q and |V| at the various buses are calculated.
 Then,
Pp  Psp  Pp0
Q p  Qsp  Q 0p
| V p |2  | Vsp |2  | V p0 |2
where the superscript zero means the value calculated corresponding to initial guess i.e.
zeroth iteration.

 Having calculated the Jacobian matrix and the residual column vector corresponding to
 e 
the initial guess (initial solution) the desired increment voltage vector   can be
 f 
calculated by using any standard technique.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 36

 The next better solution will be

e1p  e0p  e0p

f p1  f p0  f p0
 These values of voltages will be used in the next iteration.
 The process will be repeated and in general the new better estimates for bus
voltages will be

e kp 1  e kp  e kp
f pk  1  f pk  f pk

 The process is repeated till the magnitude of the largest element in the residual
column vector is less than the pre-specified value.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 37

Flow chart for load flow solution
using Newton-Raphson method:

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 38

The sequence of steps for the solution of load flow problem using Newton-Raphson Method

1. Assume a suitable solution for all buses except the- slack bus. Let, VP = 1 + j0.0 for p = 1,
2, ….. , n, p ≠ s, Vs = a + j0.0 .
2. Set convergence criterion = ε i.e. if the largest of absolute of the residues exceeds ε the
process is repeated, otherwise it is terminated.
3. Set iteration count K = 0.
4. Set bus count p = 1.
5. Check if p is a slack bus. If yes, go to step 10.
6. Calculate the real and reactive powers Pp and Qp respectively using equations (1) & (2).

7. Evaluate Ppk  Psp  Ppk .

8. Check if the bus in question is a generator bus. If yes, compare the QPk with the limits. If
it exceeds the limit, fix the reactive power generation to the corresponding limit and
treat the bus as a load bus for that iteration and go to next step. If the lower limit is
violated set Qp-sp = Qp-min. If the limit is not violated evaluate the voltage residue.
| V p |2 | Vsp |2spec  | V pk |2 and go to step 10.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 39

9. Evaluate Q pk  Qsp  Q pk .
10. Advance the bus count by 1, i.e. p = p + 1 and check if all the buses have been
accounted. If not, go to step 5.
11. Determine the largest of the absolute value of the residue.
12. If the largest of the absolute value of the residue is less than ε, go to step 17.
13. Evaluate elements for Jacobian matrix.

14. Calculate voltage increments e kp and f pk .

15. Calculate new bus voltages e kp 1  e kp  e kp

k 1 k k
and f p  f p  f p .

Evaluate cos δ and sin δ for all voltages.

16. Advance iteration count K = K + 1 and go to step 4.
17. Evaluate bus and line powers and print the results.

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 40

Approximation to Newton-Raphson Method
 We know that a small change in phase angle changes the flow of active power and does
not affected much the flow of reactive power.
 Similarly a small change in nodal voltage affects the flow of reactive power whereas
active power practically does not change.
 Keeping these facts in mind and using the polar coordinates, the set of linear load flow
equations can be written in matrix form as follows:
 P   J 1 0    
 Q    0 J 4  | V |
  
P
 Here J1 corresponds to the elements which exist.

P
 J2 corresponds to the elements which do not exist and therefore , are zero.
 |V |
Q
 J3 corresponds to the elements which do not exist and therefore , are zero.

Q
 J4 corresponds to the elements  | V | which exist.

 This certainly simplifies the calculation and results in smaller computation time.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 41
Line Flow Equations
 After the iterative solution of bus voltage is completed, line flows can be calculated.
 The current at bus p in the line connecting bus p to q is
ypq
i pq  (V p  Vq ) y pq  V p (1)
2
 Now Ppq  jQ pq  V pi pq
 ypq 
 V p (V p  Vq ) y pq  V p 
 2 
  ypq
 V p (V p  Vq ) y pq  V pV p (2)
2
 Here Ppq is the real power flow from bus p to q and Qpq is the reactive power flow
from bus p to q.
 Similarly, at bus q power flow from bus q to p is
ypq
Pqp  jQqp  Vq (Vq  V p ) y pq  VqVq (3)
2
 The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power flow (Pqp – jQpq) and
(Ppq – jQqq) .
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 42
Fast-Decoupled Load Flow
 This method is an extension of Newton-Raphson method formulated in polar coordinates
with certain approximation which results into a fast algorithm for load flow solution.
 We derive load flow equations in polar coordinates.
 We know that
n
Pp  jQq  V p I p and Ip   YpqVq
q 1
n
 Pp  jQq  V p  YpqVq (1)
q 1

 The voltage and admittance in polar coordinates are expressed as

V p  | V p |exp ( j p ) and Y pq  | Ypq |exp ( j pq )
 Substituting these values in Eq. (1), we obtain
n
Pp  jQq  | V p |exp ( j p )  | Ypq |exp ( j pq ) | Vq |exp ( j q )
q 1
n
 Pp  jQq   | V p || Vq || Y pq | exp{ j ( pq   p   q )}
q 1

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 43

 Separating the real and imaginary parts we have
n
Pp   | V pVqYpq | cos ( pq   p   q )
q 1
n
Qq   | V pVqYpq |sin( pq   p   q ) where p  1, 2,  , n
q 1
 Above equations are rewritten as
n
Pp  | V pVqY pp | cos  pp   | V pVqYpq | cos ( pq   p   q ) (2)
q 1
q p
n
Qq  | V pVqY pp |sin  pp   | V pVqYpq |sin( pq   p   q ) (3)
q 1
q p
 These equations after linearization can be rewritten in matrix form as
 P   H N    
 Q    M  
L    E E 
(4)
  
 Here H, N, M and L are elements Jacobian matrix.
 The first assumption under decoupled, load flow method is that real power changes (ΔP)
are less sensitive to changes in voltage magnitude and mainly sensitive to angle.
Wednesday, May 10, 2023 44
 Similarly, the reactive power changes are less sensitive to change in angle but mainly
sensitive to change in voltage magnitude.
 With these assumptions, equation (3) reduce to
 P   H 0    
 Q    0  
L    E / E 
(5)
  
 The equation (5) is decoupled equation which can be expanded as
P  [ H ][ ] (6)
Q   L   E / E  (7)
 Using equations (2) and (3) the elements of the Jacobian matrices H and L are obtained
as follows:
a) Off-diagonal element of H is
Pp
H pq   | V pVqY pq |sin( pq   p   q )
 p


 | V pVqY pq | sin  pq cos( p   q )  cos  pq sin( p   q ) 
 
 | V pVq | | Y pq | sin  pq cos( p   q )  | Y pq | cos  pq sin( p   q )

 | V pVq | B pq cos( p   q )  G pq sin( p   q ) (8)

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 45
 Similarly off-diagonal element of L is
Q p
L pq 
Vq
 | V pVqY pq |sin( pq   p   q )

 
 | V pVq |  B pq cos( p   q )  G pq sin( p   q ) (9)

 From equations (8) and (9), it is seen that

 
H pq  L pq  | V pVq |  B pq cos( p   q )  G pq sin( p   q )

 The diagonal elements of H are given as

Pp
H pp 
 p
n
  | V pVqY pq |sin( pq   p   q )
q 1
q p

 Q p  | V pVqY pq |sin  pq  Q p  V p 2 B pp (10)

Wednesday, May 10, 2023 46

 Similarly diagonal elements for the matrix are given by:
Q p n
L pp   | 2V p2Ypq |sin  pp   | V pVqYpq |sin( pq   p   q )
Vq q 1
q p

 | 2V p2Ypq |sin  pp  Q p  | V p2Y pp |sin  pp  Q p  | V p2Y pq |sin  pp

 Q p  V p 2 B pp (11)

 In the case of fast decoupled load flow method following approximations is further
made for evaluating Jacobian element.
cos( p   q )  1 G pq sin( p   q )  B pq and Q p  G pqV p2
 The Jacobian elements now become
L pq  H pq   | V pVq | B pq and L pp  H pp   B pq | V p |2 for q p
 With these Jacobian demerits equations (6) and (7) become
[Pp ]  [ V p ][Vq ][ Bpq ][ q ] (12)
|E |
[Q p ]  [ V p ][Vq ][ Bpq ] E q (13)
q
where Bpq and Bpq are the elements of [ B pq ] matrix.
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Further decoupling is obtained as follows:
1. Omit from B” the angle shifting effects of phase shifters,
2. Omit from B’ the representation of those network elements that affect MVAr flows
i.e. shunt reactors and off-nominal in phase transformer taps,
3. Divide equations (12) and (13) by VP and assuming VP = 1 p.u. and also neglecting
the series resistance in calculating the elements of B’.
 With these assumptions, equations (12) and (13) for the load flow solution take the
form
 Pp 
 E p   [ B ][ ]
 (14)

 Q p 
 E p   [ B][E ] (15)

 It is to be noted that [B’] and [B”] are real and sparse and have similar structures as
those of H and L respectively.
 The nature of Jacobian matrices [ B’] and [ B”] and the sparsely of these matrices that
the method is fast.

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