1/1 ..

TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK MODEL

•Telecommunication network is a circuit-switched
network that is structured as a public network accessible
by any user• The organization that provides service is
called a telecommunication service provider E.g. BSNL,
Airtel.•To interface, a terminal or host connected to an
end-office switch communicates with the host connected
to another end-office switch by modems at each
end.•Modems transfer the information from digital to
analog at source & back to digital at destination.
•This communication system architecture is expensive &
inefficient because the user has to pay for the data traffic
over the public or leased
telecommunications line.
•To reduce the cost &
improve the performance,
the computer terminals can
communicate with a local
communications processor,
which can then communicate
with remote hosts.
•Processor-to-processor
communications over the
telecommunications lines
takes less time & therefore
are less expensive.

1/2.. OSI COMMUNICATION ARCHITECTURE

•OSI model was developed based on the premise that
the different layers of protocol provide different
services,and that each layer can communicate with
only its own neighboring level •Two systems can
communicate on a peer-to-peer level i.e. at the same
level of the protocol OSI LAYERS & SERVICES
1.Physical layer•Transfers to & gathers from the
physical medium raw bit data• Handles physical &
electrical interfaces to the transmission medium.
2.Data link layer•Consists of two sublayers:
LLC(Logical link control) & MAC(Medium access
control).•LLC formats the data to go on the medium,
performs error control & flow control.•MAC controls
data transfer to & from LAN, resolves conflicts with
other data on LAN.3.Network layer•Forms the
switching/ routing layer of the network .4.Transport
layer•Multiplexes & demultiplexes messages from
applications.•Acts as a transparent layer to applications & thus isolates them from the transport system
layers.•Makes & breaks connections for connection-oriented communications. •Controls flow of data in both
directions.5.Session layer•Establishes & clears sessions for applications, and thus minimizes loss of data
during large data exchange.6.Presentation layer•Provides a set of standard protocols so that the display
would be transparent to syntax of the application.•Data encryption & decryption.7.Application layer•
Provides application-specific protocols for each application & each transport protocol system.
1/3..NETWORK MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONAL GROUPING
NETWORK & SYSTEM MANAGEMENT•The problem in
the application program is a system problem & falls
under the category of system management. •
Network management also addresses end-to-end
connectivity between any two processors in the
network. System management also addresses logging
& archiving events. NETWORK PROVISIONING •The
engineering group keep track of new technologies &
introduces them as needed.•Determination of what is
needed & when is made through analysis of the traffic and performance data provided by the network
operations. NETWORK OPERATIONS & THE NOC FAULT MANAGEMENT:• This involves detection & isolation
of the problem that caused the failures, and restoration of the service.• An NMS can also detect failures of
components & indicate them with appropriate alarms.• The responsibility to fix the problem usually rests
with the I&M group. CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT:• There are 3 configurations of the network:1) One is
the static configuration & is the permanent configuration of the network. The static configuration is on that
would come up if the network is started from idle status.2)The second configuration of a network is the
current running configuration.3)The third configuration is the planned configuration of the future when the
configuration data will change as the network is changed. Security management• This involves physically
securing network, access to network resources & secured communication over network.• Access privilege to
application software is not the responsibility of the NOC unless the application is either owned or maintained
by the NOC. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT• This is concerned with the performance behaviour of the
network.• The status of the network is displayed by a NMS that measures the traffic & performance of
thenetwork. ACCOUNTING MANAGEMENT• The NOC administers costs & allocates the use of the network.
• Metrics are established to measure the usage of resources & services.
1/4… CHALLENGES IN MANAGING THE NETWORK
• Analyzing problems, which requires intuition & skill •Anticipating customers' demands• Acquiring
resources •Managing the client/server environment •Networking with emerging technology as part of
continuing education • Collaborative research between academic institutions & industry •Maintaining
reliability •Diagnosing problems or outrages in a non-disruptive manner• Estimating value of a technology
transition •Maintaining a secure firewall between the internal network & the Internet •Sustainable network
that is scalable & maintainable• Staying abreast of the rapid advance of technology• Determining
responsibility for outages to the WAN.
1/5…INTERNET FABRIC MODEL/LAYERED
ARCHITECTURE
•MAC fabric interfaces the user plane & the LAN
plane. The user's workstation interfaces to a LAN
via a MAC
•LANs interface to a WAN by a switching fabrics of
bridges, routers & switches.•Each WAN can be
considered an autonomous network, & hence
needs a gateway to communicate with another
WAN. Gateway fabric interconnects different
WANs
1/6… NETWORK MANAGEMENT DUMBELL ARCHITECTURE
the messages consist of management
information data & management
controls.•Application services are the
management-related applications
such as fault &configuration
management. •The management
protocols are CMIP for the OSI model
& SNMP for the Internet model.•
Transport protocols are first 4 layers
of OSI model & TCP/IP over any of first
2 layers of the 7- layer OSI model.

1/7…ANALOGY OF TELEPHONE NETWORK MANAGEMENT

The architecture of the Telephone network is hierarchical therefore it is reliable, dependable and hence
provides good Quality of
Service(QoS). •The
structure of a telephone
network is depicted
Trunk is a logical link
between two switches-
and may traverse one or
more physical links that is
the end office or Class 5.
It comprises following 3
transmission trunks: •A
direct trunk connects to
end offices• A toll
connecting trunk
connects an end office to
any toll office• A toll
trunk connects any to toll
offices}}} A circuit
connection is set up
either directly using a
local trunk or via the
higher level switches &
routes. Primary &
secondary routes are
already programmed into
the switch. If the primary
route is broken or the facilities over the primary route are filled to capacity, an alternative route is
automatically assigned.
1/8…CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK IN A DCE
•The client initiates a request to the server & waits.•The server executes the process to provide the
requested service & sends the results to the client.•Each client's
request is normally processed by the server according to the FIFO
rule (Figure: 1.8,). This delay could be minimized, but not eliminated
by concurrent processing of requests by the server.•Since the client
& application processes are running in a distributed computing
environment, each of them can be designed to execute a specific
function efficiently. When it receives that information, it sends out

joe.stone's message via the bridge to the

network.•In this example, the mail server
behaves both as a server & as a
client.•The 3 processes in this scenario,
namely the client, the mail server and the
DNS are considered cooperative
computing processes & may be running in
3 separate platforms on remote LANs
connected by a WAN. The communication
between these processes is called peer-
to-peer communication.
1/9…TWO CASE BASED HISTORY IN NETWORK MANAGEMENT
Network management is more than just managing a network .Network management is also referred to as operations
administration,maintenance and provisioning. each organization has his own network engineer to deal with network.
even some organization has number ofspecialists of networks to manage their larger networks. "
1)Importanant of topology each corporate network contains several minicomputers and about 1// desktop
workstation. sometime network goes down without any apparent reason all user in company start claiming about
networkfailure so here the problem arise. in this way we have to check wholenetwork topology being used and
check whether the wire connected properly. if you did not use a proper topology then it will be very difficult for %ou
to find reason of network failure it means thattopology is very important for network management operations.
2)Centrally managed network issue
Centrally managed network are the networks in which we centralize our resources on network. it is mostcommon
e.g. sharing a printer on network it centrally managed networkthere is a dC (domain controller) that provide login
services to all clientsconnected with it. for e.g. an organization has thousands of user login through 0C. if 0C crash
due to some reason then we single user can login on computer here is a problem occurred how can user performs
their tasks on computers. this problem is solved by configuring an "adC(dditional 0omain Controller) in
network when 0C crashes then "dC start services to user without any problem.
3) transaction delay in client server network
in current nation and global enterpriseorgani(ations application server provide services to thousands of
client. Most common example is banking system where every day thousands of people maketransaction
and sometime transaction delay due to load on application server andthis delay problem is solved by
adding more servers in networks.
4)service impact in end to end service custemer
end-to-end services means identify the customerproblem before customer complaints .for e.g. in an optical
fiber transport networkthat carries thousands of channels, a failure of single component affects service of
hundreds of customer. an end-to-end services break down is to be traced to failureof single or multiple
network elements by finding root cause of failure.
2/1… MANAGEMENT INFORMATION TREES/INTERANL AND OBJECT PERCPECTIVE{MIT}OR
CONCEPTUAL VIEW
The managed objects are uniquely defined in a tree structure. This structure
has been specified by the OSI model and used in the Internet model also.The
following figure depicts the tree representation known as Management
Information Tree (MIT). There is root node and well-defined nodes
underneath each node at different levels, desingated as Level 1, Level 2 and
so on. Each managed object in the network occupies a node in the tree. •iso
International Standards Organization itu International Telecommunications
Union dod Department of Defense •Designation:•iso 1•org 1.3•dod
1.3.6•internet 1.3.6.1
Managed Object Perspective
A managed object need not be a physical element. An object has many
atributes. Attributes can be accessed by the user. The people who have
access to attributes can view and change them.For example Packet counter is
an object and the count value is it attribute. The user
who has accees to this value can set / reset the count

value.
2/2…NETWORK MANAGEMENT STANDARDS AND PROTOCOL OR SALIENT FEATURES
1.OSI/CMIP:•International standard (ISO/OSI)•Management of data communications networks--LAN &
WAN•Deals with all 7 layers•Object oriented•Well structured & layered•Consumes large resource in
implementation•The OSI management protocol standard is CMIP (Common Management Information
Protocol) , & has built-in services ,CMIS (Common Management Information Service) that specify the basic
services needed to perform the various functions 2.SNMP/Internet•Industry standard (IETF)•Originally
intended for management of Internet components, currently adopted for WAN &telecommunication
systems•Easy to implement•Most widely implemented 3.TMN•International standard (ITU-T)
•Management of telecommunications network•Based on OSI network management framework
•Addresses both network & administrative aspects of management•IEEE standards adopted internationally
•Addresses management of LANs & MANs•Adopts OSI standards significantly•Deals with first 2 layers of
the OSI reference model 4.Web Based Management •This is based on using Web technology, a web server
for the management system and web browsers for network management stations•Web Based Enterprise
Management (WBEM)•Java Management Extensions (JMX)•DMTF (Desktop Management Task Force) is
developing specifications for WBEM.•JMX is based on a special subset of Java applets developed by Sun
microsystems that runs in the network components.
2/3… TWO TIER AND 3 TIRE ORGANIZATION MODEL {REFERRR… 3/1}
2/4..SNMP BASED ASN.1 DATA TYPES STRUCTURES.
Simple Type•A simple type one for which the values are specified directly. For example, we can define a
page of a book as PageNumber of simple type. i.e. PageNumber::=INTEGER}}
ChapterNumber::=INTEGER }} Structured Type }}•A data type is a structured type when it contains other
type.•Types that are within a structured type are called component types. For example ,we can define all
the pages of the book as a collection of individual pages.}} i.e. BookPages::=SEQUENCE OF {SEQUENCE
{ChapterNumber , Separator ,PageNumber} }•SET is distinguished from SEQUENCE in 2 respects:
1)The data types should all be distinct and 2)The order of values in SET is of no consequence whereas it is
critical in the SEQUENCE construct.Tagged Type•Tagged type is a type derived from another type that is
given a new tag id.•A
tagged type is defined
to distinguish types
within an application.
Other Type•
Other type is a data
type that is not
predefined.•This is
chosen from CHOICE
and ANY types, which
are contained in other
types.•Type CHOICE
defines the selection of
one value from a
specified list of distinct
types.

2/5…TLV ENCODING STRUCTURE AND MACROS

ENCODING STRUCTURE•The ASN.1 syntax that contains the
management information is encoded using the BER defined
for the transfer syntax.•The ASCII text data is converted to
bit-oriented data.•Example of encoding structure is TLV
which denotes type, length & value components of
structure.•The type has 3 subcomponents: class, P/C & tag
number •P/C specifies whether the structure is a primitive,
or simple, type or a construct.•This is encoded as a one byte
(an octet) field.•The value of P/C is 0 for primitive & 1 for
construct.
MACROS:The data types and values that discussed so far use ASN.I
notation of syntax directly and explicitly, ASN.I language permits
extension of this capability to define new data types and values by
defining ASN.l macros. The ASN.I macros also facilitate grouping of
instances of an object or concisely defining various characteristics
associated with an object. The structure of a macro shown below:
2/6…COMMUNICATION MODEL WITH NEAT DIAGRAM.
In communication model, the
applications in the manger module
initiate requests to the agent in the
Internet Model. It is the part of the
operations in the OSI model. The
agent executes the request on the
network element (managed object)
and returns responses to the manager.
the communication protocol used to
transfer information between
managed object and managing processes, as well as between management processes. The OSI model uses
CMIP along with CMIS. The Internet uses SNMP for communication. The Internet uses connectionless UDP /
IP protocol for transporting messages. CMIP and SNMP specify the management communication protocols
for OSI and Internet management. The application processes invoke the management communication layer
protocols. Basic application service modules are defined by CMIS. In the Internet, operations are executed
by SNMP messages.
2/7… FUNCTIONAL MODEL
• The functional model component addresses the user-oriented applications, which are
formally specified in the OSI model . • The functional model consists of 5 sub-models: configuration
management, fault management, performance management, security management and accounting
management. •The functional model deals with the user-oriented requirements of network management.

2/8…NETWORK MANAGEMENT MODEL

•OSI network management architecture model comprises of 4 models: organization model, information
model, communication model & functional model.
•The functional model deals with the user-oriented requirements of network management.
•The information model deals with the structure & organization of management information.
•The communication model has 3 components: management application processes that function in the
application layer, layer management
between layers and layer operation
within the layers.
•The organization model describes the
components of a network
management system, their functions
and their infrastructure.
3/1.. SNMP MODEL / SNMP ORGANIZATION MODEL
•ORGANIZATION MODEL →
Relationship between network
element, → Agent, and manager
→ Hierarchical architecture
•INFORMATION MODEL → Uses
ASN.1 syntax → SMI (Structure of
Management Information → MIB (
Management Information Base)
•COMMUNICATION MODEL →
Transfer syntax → SNMP over TCP/IP
→ Communication services addressed
by messages → Security framework community-based model
TWO-TIER MODEL •This consists of an agent process, which resides in
the managed object, and a manager process, which resides in the NMS and
manages the managed object. • Both the manager and the agent are
software modules. •The agent responds to any NMS that communicates
with it using SNMP. Thus, multiple managers can interact with one agent.
•In the 2-tier models, the network manager receives raw data from agents
& processes them. Sometimes, it is beneficial for the network manager to
obtain preprocessed data
THREE-TIER MODEL• In 3-tier organization model, the network manager
receives data from the managed objects as well as data from the RMON
agent about the managed objects • The RMON function has greatly
increased the centralized management of networks.
3/2.. SNMP NETWORK MANAGEMENT ARCHITECTURE
• This portrays the data path between
the manager application process and
the agent application process via the
4 transport protocols: UDP, IP, DLC &
PHY. The 3 application layers above
the transport layer are integrated in
the SNMP process 1) The get-
request message is generated by
the management process
requesting the value of an object.
2) The get-next-request is similar
to get-request. In many situations,
an object may have multiple
values because of multiple
instances of the object. 3) The set-
request is generated by the
management process to initialize
or reset the value of an object
variable.
4) The get-response message is
generated by an agent process. It
is generated only on receipt of a
getrequest, get-next-request or
set-request message from a
management process.
5) A trap is an unsolicited message generated by an agent process without a message or event arriving
from the manager process.
3/3… REMOTE MONITORING Remote Monitoring (RMON) is a standard specification that facilitates
the monitoring of network operational activities through the use of remote devices known as monitors or
probes. RMON assists network administrators (NA) with efficient network infrastructure control and
management.•The monitored information, gathered & analyzed locally, can be transmitted to a remote
network management station. In such a case, remotely monitoring the network with a probe is referred to
as RMON •Two remote LANs, one a token ring LAN and another, an FDDI LAN ,are connected to the
backbone network. The NMS is on the local Ethernet LAN. •An Ethernet probe is on the Ethernet LAN
monitoring the local LAN The FDDI backbone is monitored by an FDDI probe via the bridge and Ethernet
LAN A token ring probe monitors the token ring LAN.. •All 4 probes that monitor the 4 LANs and
communicate with the NMS are RMON devices.
ADVANTAGES: 1)..Each RMON device monitors the local network segment and does the necessary
analyses. This relays information in both solicited & unsolicited fashion to the NMS. 2)...For example, RMON
could be locally polling the network elements in a segment. If it detects an abnormal condition such as heavy
packet loss or excessive collisions, it sends an alarm. Because the polling in local, the information is fairly
reliable. 3)...The local monitoring and reporting to a remote NMS significantly reduces SNMP traffic in the
network. 4)...RMON reduces the need for agents in the network to be visible at all times to the NMS.
5)...Monitoring packets such as ICMP pings, may get lost in long-distance communication, especially under
heavy traffic conditions. Such losses may wrongly be interpreted by the NMS that the managed object is
down. RMON pings locally and hence has less chance of losing packets, thus increasing monitoring reliability.
6)...The individual segments can be monitored almost continuously. This capability provides better statistics
and control. Thus a fault can be diagnosed more quickly by the RMON and reported to the NMS.
3/4…RMON1 GROUPS & FUNCTIONS
• The data gathering modules, which are LAN
probes, gather data from the remotely monitored
network. comprising Ethernet & token ring LANs.
The data can serve as inputs to 4 sets of
functions, 3 of which monitor traffic statistics
1) STATISTICS: provides link level statistics.
2) HISTORY: collects periodic statistical data &
stores them for later retrieval. 3) ALARM:
generates events when the data sample gathered
crosses pre-established threshold.
4) HOST: gathers statistical data on hosts. 5)
HOST TOP N: computes the top N hosts on the
respective categories of statistics gathered. 6)
MATRIX: gathers statistics on traffic between
pairs of hosts. 7) FILTER: performs filter function
that enables capture of desired parameters. 8)
PACKET CAPTURE: provides packet capture
capability for gathering packets after they flow
through a channel. 9) EVENT: controls the generation of events & notifications.
3/5.. . SNMP COMMUNITY We will refer to the application entity residing in the management station as the
SNMP manager, and the application entity in the element as the SNMP agent. The pairing of the two entities is called
an SNMP community. The SNMP
community name, called the community,
is specified by a string of octets. Multiple
pairs can belong to the same community.
3/6.. RMON TOKEN RING MIB GROUPS & TABLES
1)The MAC layer statistics group collects
data on token ring parameters such token
packets ,errors in packets ,bursts ,polling
etc. 2)The promiscuous statistics group
collects statistics on the number of packets
of various sizes and the type of packets--
multicast or broadcast data. 3)The ring
station group provides statistics on each
station being monitored on the ring ,along
with its status. The data are stored in the
ringStationTable. The rings and parameters
to be monitored are controlled by the
ringStationControlTable.
4)The ring station order group provides the
order of the station on the monitored rings
& has only a data table 5)The ring station
configuration group manages the stations
on the ring.
6)The Source routing group gather statistics
on routing information in a pure source
routing environment. LIST:- 1).statistcs 2)..promiscuous statistic 3).. MAC-layer history 4)..ring
station 5)..ring station order 6)..ring station order 7)..ring station configuration 8)..source-routing
3/7..INTERFACES GROUP.
The Interfaces group contains managed objects associated with the interfaces of a system. If there is more than one
interface in the system, the group describes the parameters associated with each interface.
 The Interfaces group
specifiesthe number of
interfacesin a network
component and managed
objects associated with each
interface. Implementation of
Interfaces group is
mandatory for all systems. It
consists of two nodes
 The number of interfaces of
the entity is defined by
ifNumber, and the
information related to each
interface is defined in the
Interfaces table, ifTable.
 The index for the table is just
one entity, specified by
ifIndex, as shown below in
the definition of the ifEntry
module under ifTable.
3/8.. INTERNET DOCUMENTS
Originally, RFC was just what the
name implies—Request for
Comments. Early RFCs were messages
between ARPANET architects about
how to resolve certain problems. Over
the years, RFC has become more
formal. It had reached the point that
they were being cited as standards,
even when they were not. To help
clear up some confusion, there are
now two special subseries within the
RFCs: FYIs and STDs. The “For Your
Information” RFC subseries was
created to document overviews and
topics that are introductory.
RFC documents are available in public
libraries and can be accessed via the
Internet. Some sourcesthat are in the
public domain to access RFC and other
INTERNET DOCUMENTS ARE:
ftp://ftp.internic.net/rfc
ftp://nic.mil/rfc ftp.nic.it
http://nic.internic.net/

3/9..ATM REMOTE MONITORING

• Switch extensions for RMON & ATM
RMON define RMON objects at the
base layer, which is the ATM
.sublayer. ATM protocol IDs for RMON2
define additional objects needed at the
higher levels.
• Extending RMON to ATM devices
requires design changes and new
functionality.
• Particular attention must be paid to
high-speed requirements, cells versus
frames, and the connection-oriented
nature of ATM.• The high-speed nature
of ATM imposes a severe set of
requirements in ATM RMON implementation.• At the data link sublayer, ATM RMON measures cells instead
of packets or frames, and provides cell-based perhost
and per-conversation traffic statistics At the application
layer, RMON provides basic statistics for each monitored
cell stream, for each ATM host, and for conversations
between pair-wise hosts .• It also provides the capability
for flexible configuration mechanisms suited to the
connection-oriented nature of ATM
3/10 …RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTROL AND DATA TYPES

DATA PLANE:The data plane (also referred to as the forwarding plane) is responsible for forwarding data
packets between devices in the network.Since it operates at a lower level of abstraction than the control plane,
it forwards packets according to the routing information provided by the control plane.The data plane is critical
for the network’s performance because it’s responsible for the efficient transfer of data between
devices. It uses protocols such as Ethernet and Internet Protocol (IP) to perform its functions. So, the data plane
processes data packets and forwards them to their intended destination by effectively executing previously defined
routes. CONTROL PLANE: The control plane is responsible for managing network routing protocols, which
enable communication between devices.It controls the exchange of routing information between devices
in the network and determines the best path for data to take. This plane can use protocols such as
the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) to do that.
4/10…BROADBAND LAN ARCHITECTURE A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and
peripheral devices that share a common communications line or wireless link to a server within a distinct
geographic area. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users in a home office or thousands
of users in a corporation's central office.
Broadband Remote Access Servers (BRASes) play a crucial role in today's networks, handling all traffic
coming from access networks (e.g., DSL traffic), applying operator policies and providing the first IP point in
the network. It is perhaps unsurprising then, that these are expensive, proprietary, difficult-to-upgrade
boxes.
4/1.. ADSL ….(ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE)
Among all the xDSLs, the asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is the technology that is being deployed now in
most of the world. and consists of an ADSL transmission unit (ATU) and splitter at each end of the ADSL line. The ATU
acronym has also been expanded in print asthe ADSL transceiver unit as well as the ADSL terminating unit, although
ADSL TR-001 defines it as the ADSL transmission unit. The ATU at the central office is ATU-C and the one at the
customerresidence is ATU-R. The ATUis also called the ADSL modem.
ADSL ACCESS NETWORK ADSL SPECTRUM ALLOCATION

As mentioned above, upstream and downstream signals are placed

asymmetrically in the frequency spectrum, The POTS signal is always allocated
the baseband of 4 kHz and separated from the broadband signal by a guard
band. There are two schemes for separating the upstream and downstream
frequency bands: frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation.
ADSL FAULT MANAGEMENT
After the automatic indication of faults, ATU-C and ATU-R self-tests as specified
in T1.413 could be used to assist in the diagnostics The ADSL line status shows
the current state of the line as to whether it is operational, or there is a loss of
any of the parameters on frame, signal, power, or link. It also indicates
initialization errors. Alarms are generated when the preset counter reading
exceeds 15 minutes on loss of signal, frame, power, link, and error seconds.

4/2…ADSL ARCHITECTURE/REFEERENCE MODEL

Additional components are splitters at
the central office and customer
premises, which separate low-frequency
telephony from video and digital data.
Public-switched telephone network
(PSTN) is the switch connected at the
central office, while telephones are off
the splitter at the customer end. Digital
broadcast is the typical broadcast video.
Network management could be treated
as one of the operations system
components.
Interesting aspects of the ADSL system
reference model shown in Figure 4.19
are the interfaces between components
of the ADSL network and interfaces between ADSL access network and external networks. There are five basic
interfaces: V, U, T, B, and POTS. VC is the interface between the access node and the network and is usually a physical
interface. An interface could have multiple physical connections
4/3…ADSL – CHANNELING SCHEMES
There are two perspectives in discussing transport channels in an ADSL access network. The first perspective is the
traditional transport bearer channels as they are defined in ISDN. For ADSL transport frames, there are seven “AS”
bearer channels defined for the downstream signal operating in a simplex mode. The AS bearer channels are in
multiples (one, two, three, or four) of T1 rate of 1.536 Mbps or E1 rate of 2.048 Mbps
The second perspective in discussing the channels is how the signal is buffered while traversing the ADSL link.
Real-time signals, such as audio and real-time video, use a
fast buffering scheme and hence are referred to as the fast
channel. Digital data that could tolerate delay use slow
buffers that are interleaved between the fast signals. The
digital data channel is referred to as the interleaved
channel. Thus, a physical interface would carry both the fast
channel and the interleaved channel and needs to be
addressed in the network management of interfaces.
4/5..ADSL –
ENCODING SCHEMES
ADSL management is dependent on the line-encoding scheme used. There are
two encoding schemes used in ADSL line encoding. They are carrierless
amplitude and phase (CAP) modulation and discrete multitone (DMT)
technology. Both are based on the QAM scheme. In both cases, the basic
approach is to separate the POTS band (0–4 kHz)..
ANSI has recommended the use of DMT for ADSL, there currently exist
deployed systems that use the CAP system. CAP, as you may recall, is carrier
less. In other words, the signal is quadrature amplitude modulated at a specific
carrier frequency; the carrier is suppressed at the transmitter, and then sent.
The carrier is regenerated at the receiver to detect the signal bits. In CAP, the
entire local loop bandwidth (25–200 kHz for upstream or 200 kHz to 1.1 MHz
for downstream) is used in the encoding.
4/6… HFC../..CABLE MODEM TECHNOLOGY
CM technology, also known as HFC
technology, is based on existing cable
television (cable TV or CATV)
technology. Originally, cable TV
systems were built on coaxial cable
facilities from the head end of the
MSO to the customer premises and
used a tree structure. It has since
been upgraded inmost placestoday
toHFC,where the signal is brought to a
fiber node via a pair of optical fibers
and then distributed via a coaxial
cable to the customer premises. At
the head end, signals from various
sources, such as traditional satellite
services, analog and digital services
using WAN, Internet service provider
(ISP) services using a private
backbone network, and voice-over-IP
service are multiplexed and up-
converted from an electrical (radio
frequency (RF)) to an optical signal. Communication is one way on the optical fiber. The broadband signal over the
coaxial cable differs from the baseband signal over a pair of wires, for example, a telephone signal of up to 4 kHz. The
baseband signal istransmitted over a short distance of up to a few kilometers. The coaxial cable is a shared access
medium and is designed to carry signals up to tens of kilometers. The signal is amplified on the way in both
directions, At the customer premises there is a network interface unit (NIU), also referred to as network interface
device (NID), which is the demarcation point between the customer network and the service provider network.
4/7..DATA-OVER-CABLE REFERENCE ARCHITECTURE
the system reference architecture of HFC data-over-cable services and interfaces. It is a subset of the HFC network
portraying a link from the subscriber workstation to the WAN connection. It is made up of head end, HFClink, CM,
and subscriber PC. The head end is connected to WAN. Multiple head ends could be connected via the WAN to a
regional center head end. In such a case, the local head end may be referred to as the distribution hub. The HFC link
consists offiberlinks and a coaxial cable, connecting the head end to the CM at the subscriber location. presents an
expanded view ofthe head end. It comprises cable modem termination system (CMTS), switch/router, combiner,
transmitter, receiver, splitter and filter, servers, operations support system/element manager, and security and access
controller. The CMTS consists of a modulator, mod, and a demodulator, demod, on the HFC link side, and a network
terminator, network term, to the switch/router connecting to the WAN and to the Telephone Router Access
Controller, TRAC. The modulator is connected to the combiner, which multiplexes data and video signals and feeds
them to the transmitter. The RF signal is converted to an optical signal in the transmitter.

4/8…BROADBAND ACCESS NETWORK/LAN NETWORK

There are three different types of customers have access to the broadband network. The first type is a corporate or
enterprise user who has a campus-wide network. The second type is the service provider. The third type is a
residential and small business customer, who has multimedia requirements. However, they typically have neither a
sophisticated LAN environment norlarge
bandwidth requirements in both directions.
In the first customer type, access to
broadband WAN for corporate or enterprise
customers are accomplished by an optical
fiber link from the WAN router or switch to
a campus device, which could be either a
switch or a router. Four categories of access
technologies are currently available either
in deployable or developmental stage for
connection to residential and small and
medium business customers. Two access
networks that are extensively deployed now
are networks based on HFC (Hybrid Fiber
Coaxial)/cable modem (CM) and digital
subscriber line (DSL). The access network
based on either of these two technologies
could support the use of voice, video, and
data equipment.
4/9…BROADBAND ACCESS TECHNOLOGY
Broadband access technology is still an emerging field. There are four modes of access using four different
technologies., they are cable, DSL, wireless, and PON communication. Satellite communication technology is not
presented in the figure as it is not deployed as access network to home and SME. Cable access network technology
uses television transmission facilities and CMs and is the most widely deployed access network in North
America.Cable access network could be implemented as either one-way with telephony-return or two-way. In the
one-way telephony-return configuration, the downstream signal to the customer traverses the cable medium. The
return upstream signal from the customer premises is carried over the telephone facilities using a regular modem.
Typically, data from a residential customer are significantly less than that to the customer and hence this approach of
two- or one-way communication is acceptable. For example, the residential customer may make a request for a
movie or download programs from the Internet. Such requests require small bandwidth. The transmission of a movie
and digital video, or
downloading of the program
to the customer site,
requires large bandwidth. In
a two-way mode of cable
access network technology,
both upstream and
downstream are handled by
the HFC medium using CMs.

4/10…DSL ACCESS NETWORK

Themainmotivating factorto employ xDSL(x digitalsubscriberline)for access technology in multimedia services is the
pre-existence of local loop facilities to most households. Information capacity of a 3,000 Hz analog voice channel of
30 dB signal-to-noise ratio based on Shannon limit is 30,000 bits per second. However, an unloaded twisted pair of
copper wire from the central office to a residence can carry a digital T1/DS1 signal at 1.544 Mbps up to 18,000 feet,
and a STS-1 signal at 51.840 Mbps up to 1,000 feet. Thus, Shannon’s fundamental limitation of data rate that is
prevalent in an analog modem can be overcome by direct digital transmission. This is the basic concept behind xDSL
technology. You are referred to numerous books on the subject [e.g., Gorlaski, 2001] for an in-depth treatment.
Distance can be increased for
analog telephony if loaded
cables are used that
compensate for loss and
dispersion. However, they
cannot support the DSL as the
loaded coils attenuate high
frequencies. Many modern
communities have been cabled
with fiber coming to the curb
with the digital multiplexer at
the end of the fiber.

4/11 …PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORK

The third “wired” broadband access network that to be considered is
the passive optical network (PON). It is not really wired but the copper
is replaced with fiber, although PON can also be implemented on
copper. Optical access networks use optical fiber transmission from the
central office to the customer premises. The transmission path could
have active elements such as regenerative repeaters or amplifiers, in
which case it is not a PON. Passive elements such as a beam splitter or
a wavelength division multiplexer (WDM) could be present in aPON. A
generic representation of PON is shown in Figure 4.30. It is the segment between the optical line termination (OLT)
that is located in the central office (CO) and the ONU equipment that is located in the customer premises (CPE) or
home.
5/1..FAULT MANAGEMENT
Fault in a network is normally associated with failure of a network component and subsequent loss of
connectivity. Fault management involves a five-step process:(1) fault detection,(2)fault
location,(3)restoration of service,(4)identification of root cause of the problem, and(5)problem
resolution.}}he fault should be detected as quickly as possible by the centralized management system,
preferably before or at about the same time as when the users notice it. Fault location involves identifying
where the problem is located. We distinguish this from problem isolation, although in practice it could be the
same. The reason for doing this is that it is important to restore service to the users as quickly as possible,
using alternative means. The restoration of service takes a higher priority over diagnosing the problem and
fixing it. However, it may not always be possible to do this. After identifying the source of the problem, a
trouble ticket can be generated to resolve the problem.
5/2…FAULT DETECTION
Fault detection is accomplished using either a polling scheme (the NMS polling management agents
periodically for status) or by the generation of traps (management agents based on information from the
network elements sending unsolicited alarms to the NMS). An application program in NMS generates the
ping command periodically and waits for response. Connectivity is declared broken when a pre-set number
of consecutive responses are not received. The frequency of pinging and the preset number for failure
detection may be optimized for balance between traffic overhead and the rapidity with which failure is to
be detected. The alternative detection scheme is to use traps.For example, the generic trap messages
linkDown and egpNeighborLoss in SNMPv1 can be set in the agents giving them the capability to report
events to the NMS with the legitimate community name. One of the advantages of traps is that failure
detection is accomplished faster with less traffic overhead.
5/3… INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
Inventory management software is a software system for tracking inventory levels, orders, sales and
deliveries. It can also be used in the manufacturing industry to create a work order, bill of materials and other
production-related documents. Manufacturing inventory management system (MIMS)
Manufacturers need an inventory system to store raw materials and finished products. Hence, the primary
task of any MIMS is to help factory managers maintain balanced levels of both types of inventories so that
the production process is smooth and continuous.}} Network provisioning in broadband wireless area
network (WAN) communication using ATM technology is more complex. The virtual-circuit concept is always
used and has to be taken into account in the provisioning process. The switches are cell-based, in contrast to
frame-based packet switching. Each ATM switch has knowledge of the virtual path– virtual circuit (VP–VC) of
each session connection only to the neighboring nodes and not end-to end. Each ATM switch vendor has
built their proprietary assignment of VP–VC for end-to end design into the ATM switch. The architecture of
end-to-end provisioning of ATM circuits could be either centralized or distributed, and is based on whether
the circuit is a permanent virtual circuit (PVC) or a switched virtual circuit (SVC). Commercial products, which
provision PVCs across multiple vendor products, have recently been introduced in the market.
5/4 PERFORMANCE METRICS IN PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
Performance Metrics : The parameters that can be attributed to defining network performance on a global
level are throughput, response time, network availability, and network reliability. Some of the parameters
that impact network throughput are bandwidth or capacity of the transmission media, its utilization, error
rate of the channel, peak load, and average load of the traffic. These can be measured at specific points in
the network }}For example, bandwidth or capacity will be different in different segments of the network.
An Ethernet LAN with a capacity of 10 Mbps can function to full capacity with a single workstation on it, but
reaches full capacity with a utilization factor of 30–40% when densely populated with workstations. This
utilization factor can further be defined in terms of collision rate, which is measurable. In contrast, in a
WAN, the bandwidth is fully utilized except for the packet overhead. •He defines three types of metrics to
measure application responsiveness: application availability, response time between the user and the
server, and the burst frame rate, which is the rate at which the requested data arrive at the user station.
•Macro-level : Throughput, Response time, Availability , Reliability•Micro-level : Bandwidth, Utilization,
Error rate, Peak load, Average load•Data Monitoring•Problem Isolation•Performance Statistics
5/5 PROTECTION OF NETWORK FROM VIRUS ATTACKS
In the current Internet environment, we cannot leave the subject of security without mentioning the
undesired and unexpected virus attack on networks and hosts.}} It is usually a program that, when
executed, causes harm by making copies and inserting them into other programs. It contaminates a
network by importing an infected program from outside sources, either online or via disks.{{In the current
Internet environment, we cannot leave the subject of security without mentioning the undesired and
unexpected virus attack on networks and hosts. It is usually a program that, when executed, causes harm
by making copies and inserting them into other programs. It contaminates a network by importing an
infected program from outside sources, either online or via disks.{{ In the current Internet environment, we
cannot leave the subject of security without mentioning the undesired and unexpected virus attack on
networks and hosts. It is usually a program that, when executed, causes harm by making copies and
inserting them into other programs. It contaminates a network by importing an infected program from
outside sources, either online or via disks.
5/6 RULE-BASED REASONING
• Rule-based reasoning (RBR) is the earliest form of correlation technique. It is also known by many other
names such as rule-based expert system, expert system, production system, and blackboard system. It has
a knowledge base, working memory, and an inference engine }} The three levels representing the three
components are the knowledge level, the data level, and the control level, respectively.The knowledge base
contains expert knowledge as to}}(1)definition of a problem in the network and (2)action that needs to be
taken if a particular condition occurs.The knowledge base information is rule-based in the form of if–then
or condition–action, containing rules that indicate which operations are to be performed when. The
working memory contains—as working memory elements—the topological and state information of the
network being monitored. When the network goes into a faulty state, it is recognized by the working
memory Rule-Based Reasoning• Rule-based paradigm is an iterative process•RBR is “brittle” if no
precedence exists• An exponential growth in knowledge base poses problem in scalability •Problem with
instability {{ if packet loss < 10% {{if packet loss => 10% < 15% if packet loss => 15% Solution using fuzzy
logic.
5/7 WRITE SHORT NOTE ON i) Firewalls ii) Policy-Based Management iii) Service Level Management
IV)Accounting management
Firewalls• The main purpose of a firewall is to protect a network from external attacks. It monitors and
controls traffic into and out of a secure network. It can be implemented in a router, or a gateway, or a
special host. A firewall is normally located at the gateway to a network, but it may also be implemented at
host access points.• There are numerous benefits in implementing a firewall to a network. It reduces the
risk of access to hosts from an external network by filtering insecure services. It can provide controlled
access to the network in that only specified hosts or network segments could access some hosts.
Policy-Based Management• Policy-based management is a technology that can simplify the complex task
of managing networks and distributed systems. Under this paradigm, an administrator can manage
different aspects of a network or distributed system in a flexible and simplified manner by deploying a set
of policies that govern its behavior. Service Level Management•Service Level Management (SLM) aims to
negotiate Service Level Agreements with the customers and to design services in accordance with the
agreed service level targets. •An operations system, in general, does an exclusive or special purpose
function. With the availability of element management and NMSs, it is time for the arrival of a generalized
service level management. Service level management is defined as the process of SLA characteristics:
•Service parameters•Service levels•Component parameters•Component-to-service mappings
Accounting management•Accounting management is the process used to measure network/system
utilization parameters so that individual or group users on the network/system for accounting or billing. A
usage-based accounting and billing system is an essential part of any service level agreement
(SLA).•Accounting management is probably the least developed function of network management
application.•Accounting of individual hosts is useful for identifying some hidden costs.•For example, the
library function in universities and large corporations consumes significant resources and may need to be
accounted for functionally. This can be done by using the RMON statistics on hosts.
5/8… CRITTER ARCHITECTURE
• Propose” is
additional (5th)
module to CBR
architecture;
permits manual
intervention
Codebook
correlation model
State transition
graph model
Finite state
machine model

•CRITTER is CBR-based trouble resolution system •Integrated with Cabletron Spectrum NMS
5/9…SECURITY BREACHES AND RESOURCE NEEDED AND PREVENT & EXPLAIN SECRET KEY
AND PUBLIC-KEY.
when a website unintentionally reveals sensitive information to its users. Depending on the context,
websites may leak all kinds of information to a potential attacker, including: Data about other users, such as
usernames or financial information, Sensitive commercial or business data Technical details about the
website and its infrastructure Secure communication requires:•Integrity protection: ensuring that the
message is not tampered with •Authentication validation: ensures the originator identification
• Security threats•Modification of information•Masquerade•Message stream modification•Disclosure
• Hardware and software solutions• Most secure communication is software based
Secret key cryptography• Each letter is replaced by another letter n letters later in the alphabet (i.e., key of
n). Of course, the sender and
the receiver have to agree
ahead on the secret key for
successful communication. It
is the same key that is used
for encryption and decryption
and is called secret key
cryptography.•The
encryption and decryption
modules can be implemented in either hardware or software. It is not hard to decode the above ciphertext
by an intruder. It would only take a maximum of 26 attempts to decipher since there are 26 letters in the
alphabet.• In this cryptography method (also known as symmetric-key cryptography), the single key needed
to encrypt and decrypt messages is a shared secret between the communicating parties.
Public Key Cryptography• Public key cryptography uses a pair of keys to encrypt and decrypt data to
protect it against unauthorized access or use......This key is used to encrypt the message, and to
send it to the recipient. When the message arrives, the recipient decrypts it using a private key, to which no
one else has access. }} Example: Public keys of every user are present in the Public key Register. If B wants
to send a confidential message to C, then B encrypt the message using C Public key. No other recipient
other than C can decrypt the message because only C know C's private.
5/10…POLICY MANAGEMENT ARCHITECTURE

he objects in the
domain space are events such as alarms in fault management, packet loss in performance, and
authentication failure in security management.The objects have attributes.{{For example, attributes of
alarms are severity, type of device, location of device, etc. Attributes of packet loss can be the layer at
which packets are lost, the percentage loss, etc. Rules in the rule space define the possible actions that
could be taken under various object conditions. It is the same as in RBR, with if–then, condition–action.
•Domain space consists of objects (alarms with attributes)•Rule space consists of rules (if-then)•
Policy Driver controls action to be taken•Distinction between policy and rule; policy assigns responsibility
and accountability•Action Space implements actions
5/11..AUTHENTICATION SERVER SYSTEM.
•An authentication server system, shown in Fig,is somewhat similar to the ticket- granting system except
that there is no ticket granted.•No login identification and password pair is sent out of the client
workstation. The user authenticates to a central authentication server, which has jurisdiction over a domain
of servers.•The central authentication server, after validation of the user, acts as a proxy agent to the client
and authenticates the user to the application server. This is transparent to the user, and the client proceeds
to communicate with the application server. This is the architecture of Novell LAN.

5/12…REPORT MANAGEMENT Report Management

•Network management reporting is an essential tool for network administrators. Comprehensive network
management reporting provides IT teams with data to monitor their infrastructure, increase productivity
and aid in decision-making.
•We have elected to treat report management as a special category, although it is not assigned a special
functionality in the OSI classification. Reports for various application functions—configuration, fault,
performance, security, and accounting— could normally be addressed in those sections.
•The reasons for us to deal with reports as a special category are the following. A well- run network
operations center goes unnoticed. Attention is paid normally only when there is a crisis or apparent poor
service. It is important to generate, analyze, and distribute various reports to the appropriate groups, even
when the network is running smoothly.
•We can classify such reports into three categories:
(1)planning and management reports,
(2)system reports, and
(3)user reports.