Biogeography
Dr. Mahasin Ali Khan
Department of Botany
Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University
Biogeography (distribution of biota/planta and animals)
(Biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of
living and fossil plants and animals as a result of ecological and
evolutionary processes)
Biota (All living organisms in a given region; Flora +Fauna)
Flora (the plants of a given region)
Fauna (the animals of a given region)
Flora (mainly refers to the botanical composition of a place i.e. the names of different plant
Species)
Vegetation (refers to the totality of forms in which the emphasis is not on names of different
Plants but their life forms, numbers and coverage)
Phytogeography (Distribution of Plants/flora)
Zoogeography (Distribution of fauna/animals)
Two main approaches to the study of biogeography
Descriptive/static biogeography
Deals with the description of the biota of different botanical and zoological areas of the earth
Interpretative/Dynamic biogeography
Deals with the description of the forces which have brought about plant and animal distribution
Phytogeography
Phytogeography or botanical geography
Branch of science that deals with the study of the geographic distribution of plant
species.
OR
Plant geography or phytogeography- deals with the distribution of flora or
vegetation in various regions of the earth (floristics).
The term is derived from two words ‘Phyto’ meaning plant and ‘geography’ meaning distribution.
Alexander von Humboldt is called the "father of phytogeography".
It covers all aspects of plant distribution including the individual species and the factors that regulate the
composition of communities and flora
Phytogeography encompasses various fields such as environment, flora (taxa), vegetation (plant community), and
origin.
Main branches of Phytogeography
Ecological phytogeography
deals with the role of biotic and abiotic interactions on plant distribution
Historical phytogeography
related to the historical reconstruction of the origin, dispersal, and extinction of taxa
Historical plant geography (paleobotany, paleogeobotany): Palaeophytogeography
TYPES OF VEGETATION
Vegetation refers to the plant cover or the plant community present on earth.
It includes both man-made vegetation and natural vegetation.
The term describes the total plant cover in an area or on the surface of the earth as a whole.
A plant community that grows naturally without human aid and remains left undisturbed for a
long time is called virgin vegetation.
Vegetation is present as a rich diversity of plants. They range from redwood forests,
Sphagnum, coastal mangroves, desert plants, weeds, and cultivated plants.
Vegetation plays a vital role in the ecosystem. It supports the biosphere in various ways.
It regulates the flow of numerous biogeochemical cycles, most importantly water, carbon, and
nitrogen.
It contributes to energy balance at the local and global levels.
Major types of vegetation
Natural vegetation – The plants which are found naturally in an area. This type of vegetation is
formed naturally without human intervention or without agricultural practices. It includes virgin
vegetation generated by natural means. The spread of this vegetation is controlled by the
climatic conditions of the region.
Man-made vegetation or cultural vegetation – It includes plant species cultivated by man. The
plantations are done for the production of wood and fiber, protection of soil, and conservation of
biological diversity.
Different types of vegetation
The type of vegetation formed within an area is influenced by soil formation, topography, climate, and human
impact.
Forest vegetation
It refers to a plant community where a large area is covered with tall trees.
The foliage covers large areas on the ground and shows stratification with more than one layer.
Trees found in the forest vegetation mainly include pine, mahogany, willows (Salix), maple (Acer), birches
(Betula), rosewoods, mangroves, and oaks.
The forests are further characterized as evergreen, coniferous, deciduous, and rainforests depending upon the
growth pattern followed by trees or the availability of water in the region.
Grassland vegetation
It includes plant cover dominated by grass or glass-like vegetation.
The grasslands are called by different names in different parts of the world. They are called Steppes in Russia,
Savannahs in Central Africa, Prairies in North America, Pampas in South America, and Downs in Australia.
Most of the grasslands are located in the temperate zone (between latitude 23 ½0N and 66 ½ 0N in the Northern
hemisphere and between latitude 23 ½ 0S and 66 ½0S in the southern hemisphere).
Desert vegetation
This type of vegetation is found in dry regions covered with sandy soil and rocky soil.
The short shrubs occur in patches and are characterized by thorns, thick stems, long roots, wax-coated leaves,
and stems.
plants found in desert areas include cactus, date palms (Phoenix dactylifera), Acacia, thorny bushes, and coarse
grasses.
The area has high temperatures and receives a little amount of rainfall.
The regions include the south West Australian desert, Arabia, Indian desert, Sahara desert, Atacama Desert (SA),
Kalahari Desert (SAF).
Tundra vegetation
This type of vegetation is found in North America, Europe, and Asia.
The sub-soil is covered with permafrost (a permanently frozen layer) and is about 1500 ft deep.
The area possesses fewer trees with stunted shrubs, lichens, mosses, and sedges (Any plant of the genus Carex (Cyperaceae),
perennial herbs, often growing in dense tufts in marshy places. They have triangular jointless stems, a spiked inflorescence, and long grass-like leaves which are
usually rough on the margins and midrib)
The winters are dry and long.
The plants found in the tundra region include birches, willow trees, junipers, mosses, lichens (a complex life form
that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an alga), arctic bluegrasses (Poa), poppy
(Papaver), and catchfly (Silene; Caryophyllaceae).
Endemic or indigenous species
The virgin vegetation present in an area or restricted to an area is referred to as endemic or indigenous species
Exotic species.
Thorny grasses
Conifer Maple
Lichens
Willow Birches
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION IN WORLD
The vegetation of the world has been arranged in the form of bands aligned linearly along the latitudes.
The vegetation differs while going from northward of the equator to southward direction.
More land is present in the north of the equator, hence the banding pattern is less pronounced in the Southern Hemisphere.
The pattern gets disturbed by high mountains and varies with climate change.
The changes in temperature and precipitation with altitude affect the vegetation.
Timberline is the upper limit of tree growth and separates the alpine tundra from the coniferous forests. It is present at about
10,000 feet in the Mountains.
Plants show different tolerance ranges to different environmental conditions.
Extremes of temperature and precipitation affect the development of vegetation and can result in the disappearance of flora
from the region.
The number of species inhabiting a region varies due to changes in climatic conditions and altitudinal differences.
In the tropical regions about 40,000 species of vascular plants are found while in the Canadian arctic only 425 species are
reported.
The rainforests are predominantly are found in the tropical areas near the equator while deciduous forests are
found in the temperate region.
The vegetation bands are sparsely spread in the Southern Hemisphere because less land is present here.
Tundra is found on the top of high mountains, coniferous forests in middle slopes, and deciduous forests at the
base of mountains.
Tropical rain forests occur in the wettest regions of the world, deserts in the hottest, driest areas while tundra in
the coldest, driest region of the earth.
The tropical rainforests occupy the regions near the equatorial band in the Northern Hemisphere, while
deciduous forests occupy temperate areas.
The coniferous forests occupy the arctic tundra.
Treeless alpine (low-alpine) or montane vegetation is characterized by meadows, shrubs, and sporadic dwarfed
trees. Vegetation in the tropics includes rain or coniferous forests.
Conifers forests consist of evergreen trees that bear needles instead of leaves, and cones instead of flowers.
They survive in very cold or dry areas.
Some of the common conifer species are spruces (Picea), pines, and firs (Abies).
Coniferous forests found in the northern hemisphere are called the taiga.
Deciduous forests are located in the mid-latitude areas. The leaves of the trees fall before the onset of winter.
The deciduous forests get about 20 to 60 inches of precipitation throughout the year.
Monsoon and rain forest zones are located along the equator. The rainfall is high (> 1500 mm per year) and
results in the formation of evergreen rainforests with increased biodiversity. The duration of the dry season is
limited to a maximum of two months.
Tundra is located at the top of the world, near the North Pole.
The most distinctive characteristic of tundra soil is its permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of ground.
During brief summers, the soil may thaw allowing plants and microorganisms to grow and reproduce.
The tundra has cool summers and cold winters.
During the summer, temperatures range between 37oC to 54oC.
During winter the temperature goes down up to -94° F.
The temperature conditions restrict plant growth.
Greenland coasts and the Canadian archipelago are covered by tundra.
Semi-evergreen rainforests are found in areas having two to three arid months.
The area receives rainfall of about 1100 to 1500 mm per annum.
Rainforests are of two types - tropical and temperate.
Tropical rainforests are found closer to the equator where it is warm.
Temperate rainforests are found near the cooler areas near the north or south of the equator.
The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome where it rains all year long. It is known for its dense canopies of
vegetation that form three different layers. (canopy refers to the upper layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns and
including other biological organisms (epiphytes, lianas, arboreal animals, etc. Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the outer
layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. Shade trees normally have a dense canopy that blocks light from lower growing plants.
Monsoon forests are deciduous tropical humid forests.
The tropical coasts are lined with mangrove forests.
The equatorial monsoon and rainforest zones are connected to open landforms of the savanna.
The sclerophyll forests are found in arid Mediterranean regions.
The trees possess a protective layer on leaves (small, thick, and wax-coated) that prevents evaporation.
Wetlands are found located along the humid coastal regions of North and South America.
Grasslands grow under hot, dry climatic conditions.
They are characterized by scattered trees and a continuous tall grass understory.
The annual rainfall is about 20-50 inches per year, with 6-8 months of rain.
High-mountain grasslands are spread in the interior of the Rocky Mountains (the Great Basin), in the high mountain valleys of
the Andes.
The Steppe is a dry, cold, grassland dominated by short grasses and no trees.
Steppe is located away from the ocean and close to mountain barriers.
Steppes are mainly found in Central Asia, Eastern Europe, East Asia, and east of the Andes in South America.
Pampas temperate grassland is located in South America.
Semi-desert and desert areas are distributed along the tropic lines.
Most of the hot and dry deserts are located near the Tropic of Cancer or the Tropic of Capricorn, while cold deserts are
present near the Arctic region of the world.
The rainfall is low (< 200 mm annual rainfall on average) and vegetation is sparse in these regions.
Principles of Phytogeography
Lowerence (1951) has suggested the following thirteen modern principles of Phytogeography which are classified
into four groups:
I. Principles concerning environment:
1. The distribution of plants is primarily controlled by climatic conditions.
2. There has been variation in climate during geological history in the past which affected the migration of plants.
3. The relations between landmasses and seas have varied in the past. The large landmasses split up to form new
landmasses or continents which separated and reoriented. Land bridges between continents acted as probable
routes for the migration of plant and animal species. The land bridges became submerged in the sea with the
passage of time and the possibility for migration of plants and animals from one continent to another disappeared
forever.
4. Soil conditions on plains and mountains of different landmasses show secondary control on the distribution of
vegetation. Halophytes, psammophytes, calcicols, calcifobs etc. have developed because of edaphic conditions.
5. Biotic factors also play important role in the distribution and establishment of plant species.
6. The environment is holocentric, i.e., all environmental factors have combined effects on the vegetation of a place
(Ale & Pank, 1939).
II. Principles concerning plant responses:
7. Range of distribution of plants is limited by their tolerances. Each plant species has a range of climatic and edaphic conditions.
Therefore, tolerance of a large taxon is the sum of tolerances of its constituent species.
8. Tolerances have a Genetic basis. The response of plants to the environment is governed by their genetic makeup. Many of the
crops through breeding and genetic changes have been made to grow in a wider range of environmental conditions. In nature,
hybrid plants have been found to have a wider range of tolerances than their parents.
9. Different ontogentic phases have different tolerances. Different developmental stages of plants show different degrees of
tolerances, as for example seeds and mature plants are more tolerants to temperature and moisture variations than their
seedlings.
III. Principles concerning the migration of floras and climaxes:
10. Large-scale migrations have taken place. The fossils and palaeoecological evidence reveal that large-scale migrations of plants
and animals have taken place during the Mesozoic era and Tertiary periods.
11. Migration resulted from transport and establishment. In the process of migration plants are dispersed to new habitats
through their propagules such as spores, seeds, bulbils etc., and there they are established if environmental conditions are
favorable. Plants grow and reproduce there and progeny perpetuates through ecological adjustments.
IV. Principles concerning the perpetuation and evolution of floras and climaxes:
12. Perpetuation depends first upon migration and secondly upon the ability of species to transmit the favourable variations to
the progenies.
13. Evolution of floras and climaxes depends upon migration, the evolution of species, and environmental selections.
Distribution
On the basis of the area of the earth’s surface occupied by the plants, the various taxa are categorized as under:
Allopatric: literally, "other country"; refers to distribution areas of different taxa that do not overlap.
Circumboreal: found throughout the high latitude forests of the northern hemisphere; that is, in North
America and Eurasia.
Circumpolar: refers to a distribution area that circles either the north pole or south pole.
Cosmopolitan/Wide: worldwide, or nearly so, in distribution. Plants widely distributed over the earth in
definite climatic zones and the different continents are referred to as wides.
Continuous: A taxon distributed throughout the world in all climatic zones.
Disjunct: refers to a fragmented distribution area with two or more geographically separated ranges.
Pantropical: refers to a distribution area that extends through the tropics (that is generally between 23° 30'
S and 23° 30' N latitude)/ Plants of tropical regions
Endemics
Endemics: A taxon whose distribution is confined to a given area is said to be endemic to that area.
Relict/Palaeoendemics: a distribution area that is a mere remnant of a formerly wider range.
They are the survivors of once widely distributed ancestral forms, for example, Ginkgo biloba (restricted to China
and Japan; They are also called living fossils. Because of little variability the endemics are adapted only to a
particular environment and even if they reach new areas, they fail to establish themselves in new environment.
Neoendemics: The other endemics may be modem species which have had not enough time for occupying a large
area through migration. They are called neoendemics. Shorea robusta (Dipterocarpaceae)
Local endemics which are found in small land features, some species exhibit very localized distribution
Progressive /expanding endemics which tend to spread with time; Some species may show a restricted
distribution but cover large areas in course of time
Retrogressive / contracting endemics in which case the area of distribution is contracting. Some old species may
be restricted to a small region because of a severe decline in their population.
Pseudo endemics: These endemics arise due to mutation in the existing population at a particular place. These
pseudo endemics or mutants may or may not persist for long in the particular area where they originate.
Sometimes mutants appear and vanish without being able to compete with parental species and are called
pseudoendemics.
Centre of origin
For every crop species, there is one region from where it come into existence.
Palaeobotanical/plant fossils evidence helps us to arrive at conclusion on the centre of origin of
plants.
Tomato and Tobacco……………………………………………………..South America
Cotton and Chilly………………………………………………………….Central America
Lichi, tea, brinjal………………………………………………………………………….China
Rice, sugarcane, gram ………………………………………………………………....India
Discontinuous Distribution
When plants occur at two or more distant places of the world which are separated by overland’s or oceans
hundreds or thousands of kilometers apart. Such a distribution is called discontinuous or disjunct distribution.
Such taxa may occur in several small areas in the same continent or in two different continents of the same same or
different hemispheres.
The significant phytogeographical causes for discontinuous distribution are as follows:
(i) The species might have evolved in more than one place and they failed to migrate outside their original habitats because
of barriers.
(ii) The species which were once widely distributed in the past disappeared from certain areas and are now surviving in some
distant pockets.
(iii) The climate may also be a factor for discontinuity in distribution of species.
•Theories of Discontinuous Distribution:
1. Theory of Land Bridge:
According to this theory, land bridges occurring between the separated
continents are believed to have helped in the migration of various taxa
from one continent to the other.
Uniform distribution of plants and animals in different parts of the
world during Palaeozoic era is believed to have been due to those land
bridges.
With the passage of time, the land bridges became submerged in sea
and the connections between the various continents snapped beyond
the dispersal capacity of organisms resulting thereby the discontinuity
in the distribution.
The two important intercontinental connections of Laurasia were the trans-Atlantic connection and the trans-
Beringian connection.
The trans-Atlantic land bridges include various North Atlantic Land Bridges (NALBs) from the
Paleocene to early Eocene connecting Europe and North America (Tiffney and Manchester, 2001;
Marincovich Jr. and Gladenkov, 2001), and include transfer via Greenland.
The Trans-Beringian route includes the Beringian Land Bridge (BLB) across what is now the Bering
Sea, which has intermittently connected North America and Asia since the mid-Cretaceous (~100
Ma).
2. Theory of Continental drift:
The theory of continental drift was propounded by Wegner (1912 1924). According to him the whole land- mass of
the world was a single super continent during Palaeozoic era. He named it as Pangaea. That super continent was
surrounded by sea on all the sides which was named Panthalassa. During Mesozoic, Pangaea split up into two large
landmasses; Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south.
The two landmasses were separated by Tethys Sea. Du Toit (1937), however, suggested that Laurasia and
Gondwanaland existed from the very beginning. The two large landmasses having characteristic flora and fauna
broke up into new landmasses called continents. Laurasia gave rise to Eurasia, Greenland and North America and
similarly Gondwanaland gave rise to South America, Africa, India, and Polynesia, Australia Antarctica etc.
About 135 million years ago reorientation of continents began. The continents were drifted apart by the oceans.
This is called Continental Drift. The occurrence of Dinosaurs and many fossil plants lend support to the existence of
Laurasia and Gondwanaland. With the separation of continents the distribution areas of several plant and animal
species got separated and gave rise to discontinuous distribution areas.
