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UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

INDEX NUMBERS:
SUSANA LAMISI ALHASSAN : UEB0917022
NANA ADJEI ASAMOAH: UEB0903822
QUARTEY KWESI MMRAE CLIFFOED: UEB0908722
ANANE SARPONG KINGSLEY: UEB0914222
EMMANUEL DONKOR: UEB0905122

GROUP NUMBER: GROUP 27

COURSE: ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

COURSE CODE: ELNG 257

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PROGRAM: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

LEVEL 200

LABORATORY REPORT

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................3
Screenshots of components used in the experiments.......................................5
Fig. A-I........................................................................................................ 5-12
CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................13
P-n Junction Diode Characteristics...............................................................13
Fig.1.0 connected circuit diagram of the p-n junction diode...................14
Table. 1.0 Recorded values of the input, diode current and output voltage...…15
Fig. 1.1 Graph behavior of the p-n junction diode characteristics………16
CHAPTER TWO...……………………………………………………….…….17
Half wave rectification…………………………………………… ……….……...17
Fig. 2.0 Connected circuit diagram of the half wave rectifier……………………...19
Fig. 2.1 Nature of the input wave form without the filter…………………………..20
Fig. 2.2 Nature of the output wave form without the filter…………………………20
Table 2.0 Recorded values of the input and output voltages without the filter……..21
Fig. 2.3 Screenshot of the recorded value of the dc voltage without the filter….…..22
Fig. 2.4 Screenshot of the recorded value of the ac voltage without the filter……….22
Fig. 2.5 Nature of the output waveform when the filter was employed…………….23
Fig. 2.6 Screenshot of the recorded value of the output voltage with filter………….23
Fig. 2.7 Screenshot of the recorded value of the input voltage with filter…………..24
Table 2.1 Recorded values of the input and output voltages with the filter used…..24
CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………….....26
Full wave rectification with the center-tapped transformer and two diodes used…..26
Fig.3.0 Connected circuit diagram of the full wave rectifier with two diodes used..28
Fig. 3.1 Screenshot of the input waveform before rectification without the filter…...28
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Fig. 3.2 Screenshot of the output waveform after rectification without the filter……29
Table 3.0 Recorded values of the input and output voltages without the filter………29
Fig 3.3 Screenshot of the output waveform when the filter used…………………….30
Table 3.1 Recorded values of the input and output voltages with the filter………….30
Fig 3.4 Screenshot of the recorded input Ac voltage when the filter was used……31
Fig. 3.5 Screenshot of the recorded output Dc voltage when the filter was used….31
CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………32
Full wave bridge rectification with four diodes employed……………………….32
Fig. 4.0 Connected circuit diagram of the full wave bridge rectifier………………35
Fig. 4.1 Screenshot of the input waveform before rectification without the filter…35
Fig. 4.2 Screenshot of the output waveform after rectification without the filter…....36
Table. 4.0 Recorded values of the input and output voltages without the filter……...37
Fig 4.3 Screenshot Of The Output Waveform With The Filter …………………37
Table. 4.1 Recorded values of the input and output voltages with the filter used...…38
Fig 4.4 Screenshot Of The Output Waveform With filter …………………………...38
CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………….38
TRANSFORMER TESTS WITH SIMILINK…………………………………38
Polarity Test……………………………………………………………….39
Fig 4.5 screenshot of the polarity test of the transformer with Simulink
Short Circuit Test………………………………………………………………….39
Fig 4.6 screenshot of the short circuit test
Open Circuit Test …………………………………………………………..40
Fig 4.7 screenshot of the open circuit test
Turns Ratio Test…………………………………………………………..43
Fig 4.8 screenshot of the turns ratio test
CHAPTER SIX………………………………………...………………………….45
Introduction to KiCad………………………………………………………………...45
Construction of PCB……………………………………………………46-50
Figure 4.9 screenshot of schematic diagram of 5 volts DC power supply
……………………………………….47
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD(PCB) OF A 5-V POWER SUPPLY UNIT…………49

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LABORATORY REPORT ON RECTIFICATION

The aims of this experiment report are as follows:

 To offer a comprehensive comprehension of half wave rectification.
 To offer a comprehensive comprehension of full wave rectification.
 To enable the differentiation between a half and full wave rectifier.
 To analyze the output wave characteristics after rectification.
 To examine the utilization of a capacitor for ripple filtration in rectification.
 To investigate the waveform nature when a capacitor is integrated into the circuit.

INTRODUCTION TO RECTIFICATION PROCESS

The proper functioning of most electronic devices relies on the use of direct current
(dc) voltages. However, since many devices are linked to power sources such as 120-
Vac or 230-12Vacx2v center-tapped power lines, it is necessary to transform the
alternating current (ac) into the required dc value. This process is carried out by a
device known as a power supply, which is responsible for converting the ac power-
line voltage into the desired dc value. A crucial element in power supplies is the
rectifier diodes, which convert the ac voltage into dc voltage by allowing current to
flow through them in only one direction, as they are unidirectional devices. The
conversion of ac voltage into dc voltage is known as rectification, and it finds various
applications, such as driving a dc motor from an ac source and producing direct-
voltage supplies for electronic amplifiers.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE RECTIFICATION

PROCESS

Diode 1N4007 (Si)

Resistor (1k ohm)
Capacitor (100µF)
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Digital voltmeter
Digital ammeter
Regulated power supply
Transformer
Connecting wires
Two channel oscilloscopes
Digital multi-meter

THESE ARE THE SCEENSHOTS OF THE COMPONENTS AND

EQUIPMENTS USED IN THIS EXPERIMENTS AND HOW THEY WHERE
SELECTION IN THE MULTISIM APPLICATION

Fig. A
The components were selected in the component button In The Multisim

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Fig. B
A DC_Interactive Voltage was selected from The Multisim: It is used to provide
a source voltage to the circuit and to vary the voltages

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Fig. C
This Is How the Diode Was Selected from The Multisim: it is used to rectify an
alternating current to a direct current

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Fig. D
The Resistor is Selected From The Basics Of The Components: it offers an
opposition to the flow of current in the circuit called the drop

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Fig. E
How The Capacitor is Selected In The Multisim: it is used to filter the ripple in
the ac voltage and hence smoothening the curve.

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Fig. F : How The Transformer Was Selected In The Multisim From The Basic:
it is used to either step up or down a voltage in a circuit.

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Fig. G: How The Center-Tapped Transformer Was Selected: it is used to step up

or down the voltage in a circuit depending on the turns ratio

Fig. H: Digital Multi-Meter Used In The Multisim: it is used to measure both the
ac and dc voltages and currents in a circuit at the same time

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Fig. I : Oscilloscope Used In The Multisim: it is used to measure both the input
and output waveform of the circuit and also can be used to determine the peak
voltage, period of oscillation and frequency

CHAPTER ONE
P-N JUNCTION DIODE FORWARD CHARATERISTICS
Introduction

A PN Junction is created by combining P-type and N-type semiconductor material,

where one side is doped with donor impurities while the other side is doped with
acceptor impurities. A PN Junction Diode, one of the simplest semiconductor devices,
allows electric current in one direction only when it is forward biased, while it blocks
electric current when it is reverse biased. When a diode is forward biased, it conducts
current in the forward direction, which is directly proportional to the amount of
forward voltage. The relationship between the forward voltage and current is known
as the ampere-volt or IV characteristic of a diode.

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Objectives:
The objectives of this experiment were: To plot the volt-ampere characteristics of a
silicon junction diode. To determine the cut-in voltage for a silicon P-n junction diode.
To find the static and dynamic resistance in forward and biased conditions for a silicon
P-N junction diode.

Materials
 Breadboard
 Regulated power supply
 Digital ammeter
 Digital voltmeter

 Connecting wires
Components required
 Diodes 1N4007(Si)
 Resistor 1 kilo-ohm

Procedure:
Connect the regulated power supply to the semiconductor diode, with the p-side
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side connected to the
negative terminal, to forward-bias the diode. Connect the 1 kilo-ohm resistor in series
with the regulated power supply. Connect an ammeter in series with the 1 kilo-ohm
resistor to measure the current. Connect a voltmeter across the 1N4007 semiconductor
diode to measure the voltage
Results: The experimental results show the relationship between the forward voltage
and current, as

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Table 1.0 Containing Recorded Values of The Diode Current and The
Dc Voltage and Their Respective Input Voltages Varied.
Vin Vdc/v Idc/mA
0.3 291.135 0.00887
0.6 440.468 0.1595
0.9 489.378 0.4106
1.2 515.8 0.6842
1.5 533.671 0.9663
1.8 547.116 1.253
2.1 557.873 1.542
2.4 566.828 1.833
2.7 574.495 2.126
3.0 581.194 2.419
3.3 587.141 2.713
3.6 592.487 3.008
3.9 597.342 3.303
4.2 601.789 3.598
4.5 605.889 3.894
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4.8 609.684 4.19

5.1 613.243 4.487
5.4 616.568 4.783
5.7 619.695 5.08
6.0 622.647 5.377
9.0 645.566 8.354
12.0 661.492 11.339
15.0 673.719 14.326
18.0 683.653 17.316
21.0 692.024 20.308
24.0 699.264 23.301
27.0 705.644 26.294
30.0 711.359 29.289

GRAPH OF THE FORWARD CURRENT (Id) AGAINST FORWARD

VOLTAGE (Vd) OF THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Fig 1.1 Graph Illustrating The Nature Of P-n Junction Diode Characteristics.

Reading from the graph,

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i. Cut-in voltage = 700mv

Cut-in voltage = 0.7v

ii. Static forward resistance (R) = VD/ID

Therefore the static forward resistance is(R) = 700mv/23mA
R = 30.434ohms

iii. Dynamic forward resistance (r) = change in VD/change in ID

r = Vdmax-Vdmin/Idmax-Idmin
r = 700-500/23-0
r = 8.695ohms

Discussion:
The recorded values of Vdc and Idc were used to plot a graph showing the forward
characteristics of the PN junction diode. The graph indicates that the diode conducts
current when it is connected in the forward bias. The curve gradually rises as the
forward voltage increases.

Conclusion:
When a diode is connected in the forward bias, the P-type material is connected to a
positive voltage while the N-type material is connected to a negative voltage. If the
external voltage applied is greater than the potential barrier of approximately 0.7 volts
for silicon, the diode will start to conduct current.

CHAPTER TWO
Half Wave Rectifier
Introduction:
A half wave rectifier is a rectifier that only permits one half-cycle of an AC voltage
waveform to pass while blocking the other half-cycle. Its purpose is to convert AC
voltage to DC voltage, and it requires only one diode to do so. The rectifier takes
advantage of the fact that diodes allow current to flow in only one direction. Filters
are also used in half wave rectification to convert pulsating DC waveform into
constant DC waveform by suppressing DC ripples in the waveform. In practical
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applications, half-wave rectifiers without filters are not useful, as DC equipment

requires a constant waveform. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter, but
the half-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter is the most commonly used.

Objectives:
To examine the input and output waveform of a half wave rectifier.
To determine the triple factor.

Equipment Required:
 Breadboard
 Oscilloscope
 Connecting wire
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Transformer
 BNC probes

Components Required:
 Capacitor (100uF)
 Diode (IN4007)
 Resistor (1 Kilo-ohm)

Procedure
 Connect the AC voltage source to the primary winding of a step-down
transformer.
 Connect the secondary winding of the transformer to a diode in series with a load
resistor.
 Connect the other end of the load resistor to the ground.
 Connect an oscilloscope in parallel to the load resistor to observe the waveform.
 Turn on the power supply and observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope.
 Record the values of the input and output voltage using a digital multi-meter.
 Calculate the ripple factor by dividing the AC component of the output voltage by
the DC component.
 Repeat the same process for different load resistor values to study their effect on
the output waveform and ripple factor.

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 Analyze the results and compare them with the theoretical values to determine the
performance of the half-wave rectifier circuit.

Fig 2.0 Connected Circuit Diagram Of The Half Wave Rectification without
filter.

Fig 2.1 Nature Of The Input Waveform measure By The

Oscilloscope

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Peak voltage = peak to peak /2

Peak voltage = 11.432/2
Peak voltage = 5.716v
Frequency = 50Hz
Period = 19.697ms

Fig 2.2 Nature Of The Output Waveform Of The Half Wave Rectifier without
filter By The Oscilloscope

Peak voltage = peak to peak/2

Peak voltage = 11.273/2
Peak voltage = 5.6365v
Frequency = 50Hz
Period = 19.866ms

Observation:
Based on the above results, it was noticed that the input waveform was a full wave,
but after the rectification process, it became a half wave. This indicates that the input
was subjected to half-wave rectification, where the rectifier circuit converted the AC
signal to DC by allowing only one-half cycle of the waveform to pass while blocking
the other half. This type of rectification is achieved using a single diode, as
demonstrated in the diagram above.

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Table 2:0 Recorded Values Of The Input And Output Voltages With Ripple
Determined Without The Filter

USING DIGITAL Vac(V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/Vdc

MULTIMETER(DMM)

6.262 5.083 1.232

Theoretical value of the ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is 1.2 which is
approximately
the same as practical value of 1.23 and hence proven.

Fig 2.3 Screenshot Of Recorded Value Of The Output Dc Voltage

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Fig 2.4 Screenshot Of The Value Of The AC Voltage From The Multisim
Without The Filter

Fig 2.5 Nature Of Output Waveform When The Capacitor Was Employed
From the above Fig 2.5
The peak voltage, frequency and period are
Peak voltage = 9.732v
Frequency = 50 Hz
Period = 9.848ms

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Fig 2.6 Screenshot Of The Recorded Value Of The Output Dc Voltage With
Filter

Fig 2.7 Screenshot Of The Recorded Value Of The Input Ac Voltage with filter

Table 2:1 The measures and Recorded Values Of The Input And Output
Voltages With Ripple Determined with filter

USING DIGITAL Vac(V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/Vdc

MULTIMETER(DMM)

0.790 14.961 0.0523

Discussion
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In the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode is in forward bias and allows
the current to flow. However, in the negative half cycle, the diode becomes reverse
biased and stops the flow of current. As a result, the final output voltage waveform on
the secondary side becomes DC.

Conclusion
To sum up, in half wave rectification, the output is obtained only during the forward
biased diode, while the negative or blocked cycle of the wave is discarded, resulting
in only half of the wave being effective in AC to DC conversion. The output voltage
(Vout) is the difference between the maximum voltage (Vm) and the voltage across
the diode (Vd)

CHAPTER THREE
Full Wave Rectifier using Center-Tap (C.T)
Transformer
Introduction:
A full wave rectifier circuit produces a DC output voltage or current, which is either
purely DC or has a specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers offer many
advantages over half wave rectifiers. The average (DC) output voltage of a full wave
rectifier is higher than that of a half wave rectifier. Additionally, the output of a full
wave rectifier has much less ripple, producing a smoother output waveform. In the
Full Wave Rectifier circuit, two diodes are used, one for each half of the cycle. A
multiple winding transformer is used, and its secondary winding is split into two equal
halves with a common center-tapped connection (C).

Objectives:
To analyze the input and output waveforms of a Center-Tapped (C.T) transformer full
wave rectifier.
To calculate the ripple factor.

Equipment Required:
 Oscilloscope
 Connecting wires

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 Breadboard
 Digital Multimeter
 Center-tapped Transformer

 BNC probes
Components Required:
 Capacitor (100uF)
 Diode (IN4007)
 Resistor (1Kilo-Ohm

Procedure:
Connect the primary winding of the transformer to a 230V, 50Hz AC power supply.
Connect two IN4007 diodes in parallel.
Tap from the center of the transformer.
Connect capacitor C1 and the load resistance RL in parallel.
Discussion: In a full wave rectifier circuit using a center-tap transformer, each diode
conducts when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center
point C, producing an output during both half-cycles. This results in an output that is
twice that of a half wave rectifier, making it 100% efficient.
Conclusion: Full wave rectifiers have many advantages over half wave rectifiers,
including a higher average (DC) output voltage and less ripple. The use of a center-
tap transformer in a full wave rectifier circuit results in higher efficiency, making it an
effective method for AC to DC conversion.

CONNECTED DIAGRAM FOR THE CENTRE-TAPPED TRANSFORMER

WITH TWO DIODES EMPLOYED

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Fig 3.0 Connected Circuit Diagram For The Full Wave Rectifier Using Two
Diodes And The Center-Tapped Transformer

Fig 3.1 Screenshot Of The Input Waveform Of The Rectifier

Peak voltage = peak to peak voltage/2

Peak voltage = 34.070/2
Peak voltage = 17.035v
Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 20.265ms

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Fig 3.2 Screenshot Of The Output Waveform After Rectification without filter

Figure of output waveform after rectification without filter measured with the
oscilloscope
Peak voltage = 9.008v
Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 22.919ms
Experimental results;
Table 3.0 Recorded Values Of The Input And Output Voltages And The Ripple
Determined Without The Filter
USING A Vac (V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/ Vdc
DIGITAL
MULTIMETEER
5.164 10.168 0.5079

Theoretical value of a full wave is 0.48 which is approximately 0.5 which is the
same as the result from the practical value hence proven.

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Fig 3.4 Nature Of The Output Waveform When The Filter Was Employed.
Peak voltage = 15.662v
Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 10.227ms

Table 3.1 Recorded Values Of The Input And Output Waveform When The
Filter Was Used
USING A Vac (V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/ Vdc
DIGITAL
MULTIMETEER 0.40125 15.713 0.0255

Theoretical value of ripple is given by Ripple r = 1/4√3FCR

r = 1/ (4√3×50×100×10^-6×1000)
r = 0.028
Since the theoretical value and practical values are almost the same hence proven,

Fig 3.5 Screenshot Of The Recorded Value Of The Input Ac Voltage With The
Filter
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Fig 3.6 Screenshot Of The Recorded Value Of The Output Voltage When The
Filter Was Used.

Discussions
In the positive half cycle, Diode D1 is forward biased and Diode D2 is in the reversed
biased, so current flow through the diode D1 to the load resistor and back to the supply.
Hence making D1 to conduct.
In the negative half cycle, Diode D2 is forward biased and Diode D1 is reversed biased.
Current flow through D2 to the load resistor and back to the supply.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we can say that full wave rectification has been successfully achieved
as the output waveform shows a complete wave. Additionally, since the simulated
values match the practical values obtained from the experiment, it can be confirmed
that full wave rectification is possible with a full wave rectifier.

CHAPTER FOUR
Bridge Rectifier Circuit
Introduction:

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A bridge rectifier circuit is a circuit that converts AC voltage to DC voltage by

utilizing both half cycles of the input AC voltage. The circuit consists of four diodes
that are connected to form a bridge. The AC input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge, while the load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge. During the positive half cycle of the input AC voltage, diodes
D1 and D2 conduct while diodes D3 and D4 remain off. As a result, the conducting
diodes are in series with the load resistance (RL), allowing the load current to flow
through RL. During the negative half cycle of the input AC voltage, diodes D3 and
D4 conduct while diodes D1 and D2 remain off. As a result, the conducting diodes D3
and D4 are in series with the load resistance, and the current flows through RL in the
same direction as in the previous half cycle. In this way, a bidirectional wave is
converted into a unidirectional wave.

Objectives:
To observe the input and output waveform of a bridge rectifier circuit.
To calculate the ripple factor of the output waveform.

Components Required:
 Breadboard
 Oscilloscope
 Connecting wires
 Digital multimeter
 Bridge rectifier circuit

 BNC probes
Components:
 Capacitor (100µF)
 Diode (IN4007)
 Resistor (1kΩ)

Procedure:
Connect the AC voltage source to the input of the bridge rectifier circuit.
Connect the output of the bridge rectifier circuit to the load resistance (RL).
Connect a capacitor (C1) in parallel with the load resistance.

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Use an oscilloscope to observe the input and output waveform

Calculate the ripple factor of the output waveform.

Experiment Objectives:
To observe the input and output waveform of a bridge rectifier.
To determine the ripple factor of the output waveform.

Equipment Required:
Breadboard
Oscilloscope
Connecting wires
Digital Multimeter
Center-tapped transformer
BNC probes

Components Required:
Capacitor (100uF)
Diodes (IN4007) x 4
Resistor (1kilo ohm)

Experimental Procedure:
Connect the primary winding of the transformer to a 230V, 50Hz AC supply.
Connect the secondary winding of the transformer to the bridge circuit.
Connect the load resistance in parallel with the bridge circuit.
Connect the 100uF capacitor across the load resistance.
Ground the entire circuit.

CONNECTED DIAGRAM FOR THE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER FOR THE

BRIGDE TRANSFORMER

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Fig 4.0 Connected Circuit Diagram Of A Bridge Full Wave Rectifier With Four
Diodes Employed

Fig 4.1 Screenshot Of The Input Waveform Of The Full Wave Rectifier
Peak voltage = 11.937v
Frequency = 100Hz

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Period = 20.076ms

Fig 4.2 Nature Of The Output Waveform Of The Full Wave Rectifier Without
The
Capacitor.
Peak value = 8.246v
Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 10.417ms
Table 4.0 Recorded Values Of The Input And Output Voltages And Ripple
Determined Without Filter
USING A Vac (V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/ Vdc
DIGITAL
MULTIMETEER 5.096 9.532 0.5346

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Theoretical value is 0.48 which is approximately 0.55 hence proven.

Fig 4.3 Screenshot Of The Output Waveform With The Filter

Peak voltage = 7.580v

Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 10.417ms

Table 4.1 Recorded Value Of The Input And Output Voltages And Ripple
Determined with filter
Vac (V) Vdc(V) r=Vac/ Vdc

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USING A 0.3373 14.948 0.0226

DIGITAL
MULTIMETEER

Theoretical value is given by

Ripple = 1/4√3×50×100×10^-6×1000
Ripple = 0.028, since the practical value and the theoretical value are
approximately the same hence the ripple is proven.

Fig 4.4 Screenshot Of The Output Waveform With filter

Peak voltage = 10.580v

Frequency = 100Hz
Period = 20.833ms

Discussion:
In the bridge rectifier circuit, four diodes are arranged in a bridge formation which
allows the conversion of both halves of the AC input voltage into DC output voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the AC input voltage, diodes D1 and D2 conduct,
and during the negative half cycle, diodes D3 and D4 conduct. As a result, the output
voltage is a unidirectional DC voltage.
During the experiment, the input and output waveforms of the bridge rectifier were
examined using an oscilloscope. It was observed that the output waveform was a
pulsating DC voltage with less ripple compared to the full wave center-tap rectifier

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circuit. The ripple factor of the circuit was also calculated and found to be lower
compared to the center-tap rectifier circuit, indicating a smoother output waveform.

Conclusion:
The bridge rectifier circuit is a more efficient and effective way to convert AC to DC
compared to the center-tap rectifier circuit. The output waveform of the bridge
rectifier has less ripple and a higher average (DC) output voltage compared to the
center-tap rectifier circuit. The bridge rectifier circuit is widely used in power supplies
and electronic devices due to its efficiency and effectiveness.

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CHAPTER FIVE
TRANSFORMER TEST WITH SIMULINK
POLARITY TEST
Introduction:
The polarity test was performed simply but essential procedure to check the correct
connection of the transformer. It verified that the primary and secondary windings of
the transformer have the same relative polarity, meaning that they produce the same
voltage and current direction at any given instant.

Objectives:
To determine whether the transformer has;
 Additive polarity
 Subtractive polarity

Components required:
MATLAB Simulink

Experimental Procedure

1. Connect the circuit as shown above with a voltmeter (Va) across primary
winding and another voltmeter (Vb) across the secondary winding.
2. If available, take down the ratings of the transformer and the turn ratio.

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3. We connect a voltmeter (Vc) between primary and secondary windings.

4. We apply some voltage to the primary side.
5. By checking the value in the voltmeter (Vc), we can find whether it is additive
or subtractive polarity.

Fig 4.5; polarity test setup of a transformer using Simulink

Discussion:

If additive polarity – Vc should be showing the sum of Va and Vb.

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If subtractive polarity – Vc should be showing the difference between Va and Vb.

Caution: Be careful that the max. measuring the voltage of voltmeter Vc should be
greater than the sum of Va (Primary winding) and Vb (Secondary winding) otherwise
during the additive polarity, the sum of Va and Vb comes across it.
Note: If we require additive polarity, but we have subtractive polarity, we can simply
change it by keeping any of the primary or secondary windings in the same fashion
and reversing the winding connection of the other one. Similarly, if we require
subtractive polarity but have additive polarity, we could do the same procedure as
above.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the polarity test conducted using Simulink revealed the presence of
both additive and subtractive polarities in the transformer windings. This suggest sa
potential discrepancy in the winding connection or orientation. Further investigation
and alignment are necessary to ensure proper transformer operation and to prevent
issues such as phase shifts or voltage regulation problems. Additionally, this
highlights the importance of accurate simulation setup and parameter verification to
maintain consistency and readability in transformer testing procedures.

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Introduction:

The short circuit test is a crucial evaluation method for determining the impedance of
a transformer and its ability to withstand short circuit conditions. In this report, we
aim to discuss the procedure, observations, and conclusions drawn from conducting a
short circuit test using Simulink.

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Procedure:

Fig 4.6; short circuit test setup in sumilink

1. Model Setup: The transformer model was constructed in Simulink, including the
primary and secondary windings, core, and necessary parameters such as
resistance and reactance.

2. Short Circuit Configuration: A short circuit was introduced on the secondary

side of the transformer model to simulate a fault condition.

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3. Simulation: The Simulink model was run to simulate the response of the
transformer under short circuit conditions.

4. Data Collection: Key parameters such as short circuit current, voltage drop, and
impedance were monitored and recorded during the simulation.

5. Analysis: The collected data were analyzed to understand the transformer's

behavior and performance under short circuit conditions.

Discussion:
During the short circuit test simulation, several observations were made:
1. Short Circuit Current: The short circuit current was significantly higher
compared to normal operating conditions, indicating the transformer's ability to
deliver high currents under fault conditions.

2. Voltage Drop: A substantial voltage drop was observed across the transformer
terminals due to the short circuit impedance, highlighting the impact of fault
conditions on voltage regulation.

3. Impedance: The impedance of the transformer was calculated based on the short
circuit current and voltage drop, providing valuable insights into the transformer's
reactance and resistance characteristics.

Additionally, the simulation allowed for the analysis of transient behavior, including
the time taken for the fault current to reach its peak value and the decay of current
after fault clearance.

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Conclusion:
In conclusion, the short circuit test conducted using Simulink provided valuable
insights into the performance and behavior of the transformer under fault conditions.
The observations regarding short circuit current, voltage drop, and impedance
contribute to a better understanding of the transformer's capability to withstand short
circuit events and its overall reliability in power systems. Further analysis and
refinement of the simulation model can enhance its accuracy and predictive
capabilities, aiding in the design and operation of safe and efficient power distribution
systems.

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

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INTRODUCTION

In this experiment, the open-circuit test of a single-phase transformer using Matlab Simulink is
performed to determine the shunt branch parameters. The purpose of this test is to find the iron loss
and no-load current, which are essential in calculating the core loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance of the transformer.

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to conduct the open-circuit test on a single-phase transformer and
determine the shunt branch parameters, specifically the core loss resistance (Ro) and magnetizing
reactance (Xm).

Materials and Components:

 Matlab Simulink software

 Single-phase transformer (20 kVA, 115 V/230 V, 50Hz)
 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Watt-meter

Procedure:

 Set up the circuit according to the Simulink implementation of the open-circuit test as shown in
Figure 4.7.
 Leave the secondary terminal open circuited.
 Connect the voltmeter, ammeter, and watt-meter to the low voltage side.
 Apply rated voltage to the low voltage side of the transformer.
 Record the readings of the voltmeter, ammeter, and watt-meter in a tabular form.
 Calculate the values of Ro and Xm .
 Draw the equivalent circuit referred to the primary and insert all calculated values.

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Discussion:

The open-circuit test allows us to determine the iron loss and no-load current of the transformer. As
the secondary terminal is left open, the ammeter reading provides the no-load current, which is
typically very small, around 2 to 5% of the full load current. The watt-meter reading gives the iron
losses, which remain constant for all loads. These parameters are essential for further analysis and
design of the transformer.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the open-circuit test of the single-phase transformer yields valuable information about
its shunt branch parameters. By performing this test and analyzing the obtained data, we are able to
determine the core loss resistance and magnetizing reactance, crucial for understanding the
transformer's behavior under different operating conditions.

TRANSFORMER TURN RATIO TEST

Introduction:
The transformer turn ratio test is a crucial step in assessing the performance and efficiency of a
transformer. By determining the ratio of primary to secondary voltages, we can ensure the
transformer operates within specified parameters and meets design requirements.

Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to perform the turn ratio test on a transformer using Matlab
Simulink. This test allows us to accurately measure the ratio of primary to secondary voltages,
providing valuable insight into the transformer's performance.

Materials and Components:

 Matlab Simulink software
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 Transformer
 Voltmeter V1 (for primary side)
 Voltmeter V2 (for secondary side)

Figure: 4.8 simulink model of turn ratio text

Procedure:
1. Set up the circuit in Matlab Simulink.
2. Connect voltmeter V1 to the primary side and voltmeter V2 to the secondary side of the
transformer, as shown in figure 4.8, to measure primary and secondary voltages respectively.
3. Record the readings of both voltmeters in the provided table.
4. Attach a full screenshot of the Simulink circuit for documentation purposes.

Readings V1 V2 V3
Case I 99.85 230.3 132.4
Case II 99.89 230.4 331.3

Discussion:
The turn ratio test provides valuable information about the transformer's performance by
determining the ratio of primary to secondary voltages. This ratio ensures the transformer operates
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efficiently and within specified parameters. By accurately measuring these voltages, we can assess the
transformer's suitability for its intended application. Transformers are referred to as having
either additive polarity or subtractive polarity. What this refers to is the relative
position of high-voltage terminals with respect to the low-voltage terminals as they
are brought out of the transformer case
Additive: A transformer is said to be additive if the indicated voltage(V3) is the sum
of indicated voltage(V1) and (V2)
Thus; V1+V2=V3
Subtractive: A transformer is said to be Subtractive if the indicated voltage(V3) is the
difference between indicated voltage (V2) and (V1)
Thus; V2 -V1=V3
For turns ratio(a) it’s determined by;
.
a= = .
= 0.43

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the turn ratio test is a vital step in evaluating the performance of a transformer. By
performing this test using Matlab Simulink and recording the primary and secondary voltages, we can
ensure the transformer operates efficiently and meets design requirements.

CHAPTER 6
A Journey through the 5V DC Power
UNIT

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Introduction
As we venture into the world of electrical design, our journey begins with a simple yet profound
quest : to harness the power of electrons. With KiCad as our guide trusted guide, we set our sights on
crafting a masterpiece that will illuminate the world. Through meticulous planning and precision, we
endeavor to design a marvel that not only powers the pinnacle of engineering ingenuity.

Objective:

In the pursuit of electrical mastery, the mission unfolds: to craft a 5V DC power unit PCB using KiCad
version 7. With precision akin to artisans of old, adherence to electrical laboratory standards is
paramount . The aim is clear: to illuminate the path of electrical prowess, where circuits hum with
energy and innovation reigns supreme.

Materials and Components:

 2 Capacitors
 2 Screw Terminals (Input and Output)
 Resistor
 Voltage Regulator
 LED
 4 Diodes

Procedure and Discussion

 Schematic Design:

In the dim glow of the virtual canvas, embarked on the first leg of the journey: the schematic design.
Guided by KiCad's interface, meticulously placed each symbol, representing a component in the grand
design. Capacitors poised like reservoirs, ready to smooth the flow of electrons' dance. Screw
terminals, guardians of ingress and egress, awaited their role in channeling the power's essence. With
a resistor to temper the current's zeal, a voltage regulator emerged as the maestro orchestrating the

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symphony of volts. Atop it all, the LED, a beacon of illumination, whispered promises of power's
fruition. Each connection forged, each node linked, the schematic breathed life into the virtual realm,
a testament to the vision's might.

 Component Placement:

With the symphony of electrons' dance laid out in the schematic's embrace, transitioned to the realm
of physicality: component placement. Like a conductor guiding an orchestra, delicately positioned
each component on the canvas of the PCB layout. Capacitors, guardians of stability, found their abode
near the power inputs, poised to absorb and release energy's flow. Screw terminals, gatekeepers of
connection, stood sentinel at the edges, ready to interface with the outside world. A resistor, humble
in its role, nestled amidst the pathways, tempering the current's ardor with measured resolve. At the
heart of it all, the voltage regulator, a titan among components, claimed its throne at the circuit's
center, dictating the flow of voltage with steadfast authority. With each placement, each alignment,
sculpted a landscapes of conductivity, a testament to the design's harmony with the physical realm.

Figure 4.9 screenshot of schematic diagram of 5 volts DC power supply with power flag

 Verification and Simulation:

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Upon completion of the design layout and pathway establishment, delving into the realm of
validation and simulation commenced. Employing KiCad's tools, the circuitry was animated within the
digital domain.Through simulations, observation of current flow and voltage fluctuations was
conducted to ensure intended behavior of the design. With each iteration, refinement of
understanding and fine-tuning of the creation occurred.

 Routing the Pathways:

Creating pathways from the schematic to the physical layout required careful work. KiCad's tools
ensured everything followed electrical design rules. Paying close attention to detail was crucial to
keep the signals working well. Each decision balanced signal efficiency with space constraints.
Documenting why certain choices were made helped explain the decisions. This methodical approach
led to a layout that worked well and was easy to understand.

Figure :5.0

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 Verification and Simulation:

Upon completion of the design layout and pathway establishment, delving into the realm of
validation and simulation commenced. Employing KiCad's tools, the circuitry was animated within the
digital domain.Through simulations, observation of current flow and voltage fluctuations was
conducted to ensure intended behavior of the design. With each iteration, refinement of
understanding and fine-tuning of the creation occurred. In the end, armed with certainty from
successful simulations, the transition from the virtual to the tangible realm was imminent.

 Fabrication:

With the design approved and simulations validated, the journey transitioned to the physical realm of
fabrication. Initiating the process with precision, the design was transferred onto the tangible canvas
of the PCB. Through meticulous etching, drilling, and soldering, the blueprint transformed into a
tangible manifestation of our electronic vision. Each step executed with care and precision, ensuring
the integrity and functionality of the final product.

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FIGURE:5.1 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD(PCB) OF A 5-V POWER SUPPLY

UNIT

 Testing and Validation:

As the PCB emerged, the cosmic dance of testing and validation commenced. With meticulous
scrutiny, each connection was examined, and every component assessed under the watchful eye of
the creators. With a decree, power surged through the circuit, akin to the divine command "let there
be light." And lo, as if in response to this celestial proclamation, the LED glowed with radiant
brilliance, illuminating the circuitry with its celestial glow.

Conclusion

In summary, the experiment with electrical design using KiCad has been successful. Managed to
create a 5V DC power voltage regulation PCB, which is pretty cool. This demonstrates that with some
creativity and attention to detail, impressive feats can be achieved in engineering.

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